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Running head: BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 1
Exposing the Broken Promises of Higher Education:
Methods to Better Help Students Succeed After High School
A Research Paper
Presented to
The Faculty of Adler Graduate School
___________________
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Master of Arts in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
___________________
By:
Lexy Spangrud
___________________
Chair: Amy Foell
Reader: Doug Pelcak
___________________
November 2016
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 2
Abstract
Although American culture places immense significance on students attending college, a high
percentage of students drop out of college after or during their first year. An increasing number
of students are finding themselves unsatisfied with their post-secondary college/career choices,
which leads to failure, discouragement, and lowered self-esteem. This rippling effect is a result
of society’s mistaken beliefs about college and the process by which students make their post-
high school decisions in their senior year. This paper intends to explore the reality of higher
education as well as multiple post high school readiness options to more effectively guide
students in setting their post-secondary goals and making post-secondary decisions that best
align with these goals. This will be accomplished through the examination of current high
school transition procedures and techniques and how they can be restructured to equally serve all
students as well as how to develop student support so they can be more successful after
graduating. As a result of these evolved transition techniques, the goal will be that students will
have a higher chance of success after high school by choosing a life path more suited to their
strengths and individuality.
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 3
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Choosing Higher Education ............................................................................................................ 5
The Expectation to Choose Higher Education ............................................................................ 6
The Benefits of a College Education .......................................................................................... 8
The Reality of Choosing Higher Education .................................................................................. 10
The Downfalls of Higher Education ......................................................................................... 11
Financial implications ........................................................................................................... 11
Student debt .......................................................................................................................... 13
Job placement........................................................................................................................ 14
Barriers to Student Success ....................................................................................................... 15
Underrepresented/Multicultural Students ................................................................................. 16
Post-secondary preparation ................................................................................................... 17
College attendance/completion ............................................................................................. 19
Hypothesis: Students Need to Be Better Prepared to Choose................................................... 21
The Postsecondary Choice Model ................................................................................................ 22
The Current Model in Schools: A School Counseling Perspective .......................................... 22
Significance of school counselors in postsecondary counseling .......................................... 23
The barriers for school counselors in postsecondary counseling.......................................... 24
Problems with the Current Model ............................................................................................. 27
Misconceptions about college ............................................................................................... 27
Failing to fully prepare students ........................................................................................... 29
Neglecting underrepresented minority students .................................................................... 31
Proposed Solutions for the Postsecondary Choice Model ............................................................ 33
Increased Preparation ................................................................................................................ 34
In-Depth Education of Postsecondary Options ......................................................................... 36
Assisting Underrepresented Students ....................................................................................... 39
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 43
References ..................................................................................................................................... 45
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 4
Exposing the Broken Promises of Higher Education:
Methods to Better Help Students Succeed After High School
Introduction
In almost every corner of America, the most valued, respected, and prominent life-path
for almost all high school seniors to pursue after they graduate is attaining a college degree. With
the American system of higher education comprising of the most prestigious universities, the
most intelligent and cultured professors, and the most ambitious students in the world, attaining a
college degree is synonymous with success and is therefore the automatic expectation for high
school seniors. Because of the widely known benefits, successes, and status that come with
higher education, it has turned higher education into the post-high school default activity for
students, a mistaken belief that is consistent throughout American society. This mentality has
created immense pressure for high school students to choose college as a life path. When looking
at the reality of what happens to students while they are in college, the validity of America’s
“college is for all” mindset comes into question. The problem with college becoming a the
default choice for most students is that it doesn’t take into account the negatives of attending
college and the substantial student failure that has significantly affected the lives of millions of
Americans. Trends and evidence of student dropout, debt, negative return on investment (ROI),
and unused potential demonstrates that there is something significantly wrong with the current
post-secondary process and the college choice model that is used in high schools to facilitate
students’ post-secondary decisions. This paper will look at the reasons behind student failure and
the broken promises of higher education, examine the current college choice model used in high
schools, and propose restructured transition planning techniques that will allow students to be
better informed about higher education and allow them to make a more informed decision
regarding their post-secondary options.
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 5
Choosing Higher Education
For many, going to college means higher-paying jobs, greater opportunities, respect from
family and friends, and a highly esteemed status in society. For those who go on to attend elite
universities, these outcomes are even more amplified. With the potential for these rewarding
outcomes and the widespread expectation to receive a college degree, it is no surprise that
millions of students in America decide to choose higher education after high school.
The high percentages of college attendance are not new to our country, as the rates of
college attendance and the establishment of new colleges has been booming ever since the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the 1600s through the 1800s, Colonial America birthed
nine colleges that remain some of the most prestigious universities in the world, including
Harvard University, the College of William & Mary, Yale University, Princeton University,
Colombia University, Dartmouth College, Rutgers University, and the University of
Pennsylvania (Thelin, 2004, p. 1). Since that time, the number of colleges in the U.S. has
increased ten-fold. According to the Department of Education, America went from having 241
accredited colleges and universities in 1860, to having 1,851 colleges and universities in 1950,
and as of 2013, there are more than 6,900 colleges and universities here in the U.S (Tomar,
2016). In 1949, only 2.7 million students were enrolled in a college or university, but by 2015,
over 20 million students were enrolled in higher education (ProcCon.org, 2016). As the number
of students enrolled in colleges have continued to increase, so have the number of bachelor’s
degrees attained: “The percentage of adults in the U.S. between the ages of 25 and 34 with a
four-year college degree grew from 6% in 1950 to 24% in 1980 and 1990.” This number then
grew to 34% by 2012 (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013, p. 6).
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 6
The Expectation to Choose Higher Education
As a result of the many advantages that come from going to college, the prestige of being
college educated, and the financial benefits that are involved in having a college degree, our
society has come to hold high school students up to a high standard and expects that they choose
higher education as a life path immediately following high school. In the words of Peter Thiel,
billionaire venture capitalist and educational trailblazer, college has become the “default
activity” for many students and their parents and students go to college because “their parents are
paying for it and college it what children of the social class are supposed to after they finish high
school” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 11). Studies conducted on the forces that drive students to
choose higher education have revealed that there are a percentage of students that decide to
attend college even though they know before they begin college that there is a strong likelihood
that they will not finish their degrees (Stinebrickner & Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 7). All of the
parties involved in shaping students over the course of their lives, including parents/guardians,
the school system, and school counselors have immense potential to influence that student’s
decision to attend college.
Dolinsky (2010) found that parents and other relatives were most frequently identified as
influencing the college choice decision. Parents can be an integral part of the post-secondary
choice process for their children when they get involved by working with their students’ school
counselors, learn more about the admission process and about specific schools, and help their
students do they research they need to make an informed college decision (Caribbean Business
Staff, 2011, p. S31). The pronounced influence of parents/guardians combined with a long-
standing expectation for their kids to attend college after graduation will ultimately lead to
immense pressure on students to choose higher education.
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 7
School systems, including administration, teachers, and school counselors, also have high
expectations for their high school seniors to choose higher education as a life path. Schools have
begun to educate younger students on college by exposing elementary and middle school
students to higher education. Robinson School, a private school, begins the post-secondary
readiness process early on. “Our students begin preparing for the college-application process in
seventh grade. By the time they are in 11th grade, they have done most of the work to prepare for
their senior year,” states Beatriz Guzman, Robinson School’s college counselor (Caribbean
Business Staff, 2011, p. S30). School districts are continuing to increase their educational
standards for students to be more college ready, including developing and implementing
competitive educational opportunities within the school system. Opportunities such as Post-
Secondary Enrollment Options (PSEO), Advanced Placement (AP) Programs, College in the
Schools (CIS) Programs, early-decision plans, and early action plans all convey the message of
the importance of higher education and the priority students should be putting on higher-
education readiness.
Even the highest authority has put great importance on higher education. In President
Barack Obama’s first State of the Union address in 2010, he asked every American to commit to
at least one year of higher education or career training. “This can be community college or a
four-year school; vocational training or an apprenticeship. But whatever the training may be,
every American will need to get more than a high school diploma” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p.
75). President Obama challenged the nation by setting an ambitious goal: The United States will
be the country with the highest proportion of adults with college degrees in the world by 2020,
making degree attainment “essential to American competitiveness” (Schneider & Yin, 2011).
The U.S. currently sits ninth in the world in percentage of the population with a postsecondary
education, and the President’s goal seeks to increase the United States’ rank by attempting to
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 8
increase the college degree attainment rate from 40% to 60% (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 75).
The government as a whole supports President Obama’s challenge to the country, as the U.S.
spends more on higher education than any other nation in the world. According to the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the U.S. spends about twice as much
per student than the United Kingdom, Germany, or Japan (Schneider, 2010, p. 2). It is clear that
American society has put immense pressure on students to choose higher education, but what is
the reasoning behind it? Assessing the benefits of college education can shed light on the drive
behind the United States’ expectation for students to go to college.
The Benefits of a College Education
As previously mentioned, there are many benefits to obtaining a college degree. Leaving
high school behind and having the opportunity to receive a fresh start and become independent
from parents and guardians are major reasons why high school grads decide to attend college.
College provides an “environment for young adults to explore interests and develop relationships
with like-minded individuals, largely free from the domestic and parental constraints that
previously governed their behavior” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 74). In June 2013, Franklyn
Casale, President of St. Thomas University, described to the Miami Herald why college is an
investment worth making:
In the years a student spends working to obtain a degree, he or she develops as a person
in ways that cannot be measured by the 'investment' of going to college…It is during
one’s college years that one develops a sense of self, a worldview, an appreciation for the
dignity of people, and an enthusiasm for the arts. Also, because of various internship and
volunteer opportunities during college, the college graduate has gained a deeper
understanding of the importance of civic engagement. (ProCon.org, 2016, Pro 2, para 3)
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 9
College exposes its students to differing opinions, ideas, and cultures, allowing them to broaden
their knowledge and redefine their perspective of the world. The culturally permissive
atmosphere of college has been a major attraction for students for as long as college has been the
most common path chosen after high school.
Students are also choosing to go to college because of the employment opportunities that
are linked with having a college degree. An increasing number of jobs are requiring college
degrees, therefore increasing the number of students wanting to attend college. Between
December of 2007 and January of 2010, (during the time of the recession) jobs that required a
college degree grew by 187,000, while jobs that required an associate’s fell by 1.75 million and
jobs only requiring a high school diploma or less fell by 5.6 million (Finio, Sabadish, &
Shierholz, 2013). In an economical study on job projections calculated by Georgetown
University, approximately 63% of jobs in the year 2018 will require some college education or
degree (ProCon.org, 2016). College grads also are less likely to be unemployed, as the
unemployment rate in 2011 for those with a college degree was 4.9%, compared to 9.4% for
those with no higher education (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 75). In addition to having access to
more qualified jobs and increasing the likelihood of getting a job, college grads are more likely
to have access to health insurance and retirement plans. According to the College Board, “In
2011, employers provided health insurance to 55% of full-time workers with high school
diplomas, 69% to bachelor’s degree, and 73% of those with advanced degrees” (Baum, Ma, &
Payea, 2013, p. 5).
College also allows students to refine their talents and abilities and discover what life
paths to take into adulthood. Through internships, career services offered, shadowing and
volunteer opportunities, and job fairs, students can more easily discover what career paths
interest them and will give them the opportunity to thrive. In a survey of 11,000 students
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 10
conducted by the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, participants ranked interpersonal
skills as the most important skill that they use in their daily lives and have learned from attending
college (ProCon.org, 2016). Interacting with peers and faculty, joining organizations and clubs of
interest, partaking in discussion and debates, and networking with others within a specific field
of study are all unique parts of the college experience that will be invaluable in the working
world.
Of all of these incredibly significant and valuable benefits of deciding to attend college,
possibly the biggest reason why students go is the potential to make more money than someone
who does not have a college degree. Evidence shows that individuals with higher levels of
education earn more than those with little or no higher education (Finio, Sabadish, & Shierholz,
2013). In 2011, the median salary of those with a bachelor’s degree was $56,500, while the
median salary of those with a high school diploma was about $35,400 (Baum, Ma, & Payea,
2013, p. 5). When it has been frequently estimated that the total lifetime difference in earning
between college grads and those with a high school diploma is about $1 million, it is no surprise
that money is one of the biggest reasons why people decided to attend college.
The Reality of Choosing Higher Education
Despite the high expectation for high school students to attend college and the evidence
to prove the value of a college education, there continues to be a debate about the value of a
college degree, especially since the labor market recovery from the Great Recession. In the film
Good Will Hunting, Will Hunting characterizes a major point of this debate through the
statement he made to a Harvard student: “In fifty years…you’re going to come up with the fact
that…you dropped one hundred and fifty grand on [an] education that you could have got for a
dollar fifty in late charges at the public library!” (Van Sant, Armstrong, & Gordon, 1997).
Although the movie was released in 1997, the concept of Will’s statement is still relevant today
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 11
and still brings up the same questions about higher education. Bennett and Wilezol, a former
United States secretary of Education and a liberal arts graduate, summarize these questions in
their book Is College Worth It? “Is college worth the high cost? Does it provide a degree of
economic security and personal happiness that cannot be found elsewhere? Taking into account
the high risk of debt and unemployment or underemployment, does the end justify the means?
Should everyone go to college?” (2013, p. 71).
While the evidence of the value of a college degree is widespread and well known
throughout American society, there are other trends and data that suggest that higher education is
not everything that it promises to be (Schneider &Yin, 2011). While there are those that do go on
to graduate college and reap all of the benefits that higher education offers, the previous research
does not take into account the students that drop-out of college, students that do not receive a
positive return on their post-secondary investment, the multicultural gap in higher education
attendance and completion, and the incredible student debt that has been accrued throughout the
nation (ProCon.org, 2016). Evaluating the current data on the economic return students receive
on investing in higher education and the effects that attending college has on students will shed
light on the dispute on whether or not college is worth the risks involved.
The Downfalls of Higher Education
Financial implications. While many jobs do require a college education and evidence
shows those that are college educated generally make more money than those that are non-
college educated, there are other factors that the aforementioned evidence doesn’t take into
account. One of the most observable disadvantages of choosing higher education is tuition costs
that have continued to rise every year. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the
annual prices for public university tuition, room, and board were estimated to be $13,297 and
$31,395 at private universities in 2010-11, a 42% increase for public and a 19% increase for
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 12
private institutions from the prior decade (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 13). In the 2010-11
academic year alone, tuition at public four-year universities increased by 8.3%, and public two-
year colleges tuition increased by 8.7% (Smith, 2014, p. 43). Since 1990, tuition prices of four-
year schools has exceeded 300%, and if trends continue, the average cost of attending a public
university will have more than doubled within a 15-year time period. In a specific example,
Alabama University, a well-known and renowned institution, charged students an in-state tuition
price of $3,014 in 2000. In 2012, however, tuition was $9,200, which translates into a 205.2%
increase (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 15). It is evident that tuition costs are rising rapidly, and
that trend will continue to do so. There was a time when public institutions were still considered
prestigious yet affordable, but as this trend continues tuition costs for public universities will
mirror the costs of private institutions, making it extremely difficult for students to afford higher
education.
In addition to the rising costs of tuition, students should take into account the wages lost
when attending college. When a student decides to attend college right after high school, they are
delaying their entry into the labor market and therefore forgoing wages they would make in the
years immediately following graduation (Schneider & Yin, 2011). Abel and Deitz (2014)
estimated that while a student would have paid about $26,000 in tuition and fees over the course
of four years to earn a bachelor’s degree, he or she would have forgone nearly $96,000 in wages
(p. 6). Furthermore, while students are paying more to go to school, they are continuing to earn
less after graduating. Current research has shown that average wages of workers has steadily
decreased over the past decade (Smith, 2014, p. 42). Between 2001 and 2013, the average wage
of high school graduates has dropped 7.6%, however; the average wage of workers with a
bachelor’s degree has dropped 10.3% and the average wage of those with an associate’s degree
has dropped 11.1% (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 4). In American society it is a widely circulated fact
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 13
that having a college degree instantly earns you more money, however; students need to be
educated on the wages that they might lose while in college and be prepared to not earn as much
money as expected to with a college degree.
Student debt. A natural consequence that arises from the rising costs of tuition is the
increase in loans students take out to pay for tuition, followed by an inconceivable amount of
debt that many students have a difficult time repaying. Most 17 and 18-year-olds fresh out of
high school have almost no means to pay for the ever increasing tuition costs of higher
education, which is why 53% of all full-time students took out student loans in 2007-8. Fewer
students are able to pay for college on their own, and some students do not make the effort to
even try to save money before starting college, which is why only 11% of all college costs are
being paid for by students’ own income and savings and federal loans have increased by 300%
since 1990 (Bennett &Wilezol, 2013, p. 3; 31).
What makes the problem even more significant is the amount of loans that are being
taken out, and how much of those loans are translating into debt. According to America’s Debt
Help Organization, the average student debt for a 2014 grad averages at $33,000, and $3,000
worth of student debt is accrued every second (Barr, 2016). Investigating further, “about one-
quarter of borrowers owe more than $28,000; about 10 percent of borrowers owe more than
$54,000. The proportion of borrowers who owe more than $100,000 is 3.1 percent, and
0.45 percent of borrowers, or 167,000 people, owe more than $200,000” (Brown, Haughwout,
Lee, & Mabutas, 2012, para. 7). A legitimate fear of many citizens of the U.S. is the bursting of
the student-loan economic bubble, which would crush middle-class and low-income students.
With the total student-loan debt in the U.S. surpassing $1 trillion and continuing to increase at a
rate of $2,853.88 per second, it is inevitable that this country’s issue of student debt will begin to
negatively affect the U.S.’s economy in a devastating way (Smith, 2014, p. 42).
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 14
Job placement. Receiving a college degree is usually synonymous with receiving a high-
paying job, which is why so many students decide to attend college. Unfortunately, research
shows that is not always the case. According to One Associated Press’ analysis of data, 54% of
students that graduated college in 2011 were unemployed (Bennett &Wilezol, 2013, p. 8). While
half of the students that graduated in 2011 did fulfill society’s expectation to get a job out of
college, the other half did not get jobs at all. When looking at the specific jobs that college grads
do land, even more can be observed about the broken promises of higher education. When those
who obtain a college degree are working in an occupation that does not typically require a
bachelor’s degree, they are considered underemployed (Finio, Sabadish, & Shierholz, 2013).
Researchers have found that about one-third of college grads spend much of their careers being
underemployed in jobs that do not even require a bachelor’s degree, such as service jobs
including bartending, waiting tables, or retail positions (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 8).
The downfalls of higher education can be perceived as a ripple effect. An incredible
amount of students are attending college, and while many of them graduate, they cannot find a
job because of the excess of grads and lack of qualified jobs. As a result of these occurrences, the
unemployment and underemployment phenomenon has swept the country, making it even more
difficult for students to pay off loans, purchase a house, get married, or start a family (Carnevale,
Smith, & Strohl, 2010, p. 16). Mark Cuban, entrepreneur and owner of the NBA’s Dallas
Mavericks, compared American society’s drive to become college educated with flipping houses:
Right now there is a never-ending supply of buyers. Students who can’t get jobs or who
think that by going to college they enhance their chances to get a job. It’s the collegiate
equivalent to flipping houses. You borrow as much money as you can for the best school
you can get into and afford then you “flip” that education for the great job you are going
to get when you graduate. Except those jobs aren’t always there. (Cuban, 2012, para. 10)
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 15
Barriers to Student Success
Another aspect of higher education that tends to be neglected by society is what happens
to the majority of students once they make it to college. High schools have a common goal of
high graduation rates and getting the greatest amount of students into the most prestigious or
affordable colleges possible, but once students are admitted and make it past graduation, the
reality of if they are succeeding and fulfilling their potential is rarely observed.
Across America, an average of about 80% of high school students aspire to earn
bachelor’s degrees, which aligns with society’s expectations for them to go to college. In 2010,
however, only 38% of 25- to 34-year olds possessed college degrees, which demonstrates a
“substantial gap between postsecondary aspirations and actual degree attainment” (Cox, 2016, p.
2). Of those who do end up being accepted into college and beginning their freshman year, a
significant amount do not remain in school or complete their degrees. The United States
currently has the highest rate of attrition in the industrialized world, with about 30-50% of
students dropping out of college within their freshman year, and over 50% for students who go to
school part time (O’Keeffe, 2013, pp. 605-606). In addition, about an average total of 58% of
undergraduate students in the U.S. complete their college degrees within a six-year timeframe
(Turner & Thompson, 2014, p. 94). These completion rates are alarming and ask the question as
to why students are failing to accomplish their aspirations, failing to stay in school, and/or not
being able to complete their degrees. If this trend continues, the United States will graduate only
8 million more college-degree and certificate holders between 2012 and 2025, which is an
estimated 12 million short (Smith, 2014, p. 45).
In addition to an astronomical number of students that are dropping out of college and/or
not completing their degrees, research shows that there is a high amount of students that are
unprepared for higher education (Armario, 2010). It is commonly thought that the main
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 16
reasoning for student dropout is an inability to commit financially, as the costs of higher
education, as previously mentioned, are continually rising. In actuality, however, studies have
shown that poor grade performance is most consistently related to student dropout (Stinebrickner
& Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 3). According to an ACT retention survey, the lack of academic
preparation and commitment to earning a degree were some of the top reasons for attrition.
“Leaving high school unprepared for college-level work (40 percent of college students need
remediation) puts students at a disadvantage,” states Steve Schneider, a school counselor at
Sheboygan South High School in Wisconsin. “It makes them more apt to leave campus before
they get a degree” (Adams, 2011, p. 16). After interviewing first-year alumni from University
Park Campus School, a small college preparatory school in Worcester, Massachusetts,
researchers Donna Rodrigues and Cecilia Le found that even students who have been poised to
enter college still struggle during their freshman years and beyond. Things like the structure and
freedoms of college, different grading systems, harsher professors, and the impersonal nature of
college shocked and challenged many of the alumni. Students would come back from college
and say, “College doesn’t love you” (2011, p. 80). All of these barriers make it more difficult for
students to finish their degree, or even choose higher education in the first place.
Underrepresented/Multicultural Students
An even larger area of concern that needs to be addressed in the reality of higher
education is how underrepresented students are affected in the post-secondary process. The
populations where the biggest gaps occur in both college enrollment and degree attainment are
between Caucasian students and underrepresented minority students, between those in high-
income families and those in low-income families, and between students whose parents have
completed college education and those whose parents did not (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 99). These
three groups of students all have similar challenges that make the post-secondary process even
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 17
more challenging than their counterparts, most of which become evident in the decision-making
process, in the process of getting into colleges, and students staying enrolled in college and
finishing their degrees (Cox, 2016, p. 2).
Post-secondary preparation. The difficulties that underrepresented minority students
face in the post-secondary process begin early on, before they even decide what they will do
after graduating high school (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 222). The method of students deciding
what they will do after high school graduation should begin with instruction for students on
higher education so they can accurately make a decision. Research has shown, however, that
underrepresented minority students are not being given enough or accurate education on college
and their post-secondary options, making it even more challenging for those students to decide
what they will do after high school (Cox, 2016, p. 2). According to a study conducted in 2013, a
large number of low socioeconomic status (SES) students have received insufficient and/or
inaccurate information about higher education, specifically college admissions and financial aid.
It was also found that “low-SES students are more likely to overestimate college costs,
underestimate the availability of financial aid, and exhibit poor knowledge about the academic
prerequisites to college attendance” (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Savitz-Romer (2012) states that
there are serious inequities in today’s educational systems college readiness counseling that “too
often result in some students having differential access to academically rigorous courses, high
educational aspirations and expectations, and possession of what is commonly referred to as
‘college knowledge’” (p. 99).
Belasco also found that the availability of information about college is closely tied to
socioeconomic environment, and low-SES students have a limited amount of individuals in their
communities and where they live that can educate them on college and support students to make
the right post-secondary decision:
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 18
More often than not, [underrepresented minority students] live in homes, reside in
communities, and attend schools where college-going is not the norm and where few
adults, let alone adult educators, understand the prerequisites to, and benefits of, a post-
secondary education. Consequently, many academically capable, yet disadvantages
students continue to bypass college… (2013, p. 797)
The lack of individuals and communities that can help underrepresented minority students in
their post-secondary journey is largely due to the fact that many students’ parents or guardians
are not college educated themselves. Cates and Schaefle (2011) found that 32.4% of Latina/o
students reported their parents having less than a high school diploma, compared to 4% of white
students. This data is directly affects underrepresented students and their post-secondary choices
and success. Belasco (2013) found that students with at least one college-educated parent enroll
in college are two times more likely to enroll in college than those whose parents have not
completed a college degree (p. 781).
Because of the lack of accurate information about their post-secondary options and the
shortage of support underrepresented minority students are receiving, they are becoming more
apathetic about the post-secondary planning process, less likely to make an informed decision,
and less likely to even consider attending an institution of higher education. According to data
retrieved by the College Board, many students are enrolling in less selective and less challenging
colleges than those to which they would probably have been admitted based on their academic
qualifications, which in turn significantly decreases their probability of graduating (Baum, Ma,
& Payea, 2013, p. 9). Underrepresented students also have the challenge of teachers and their
peers having lower expectations of them despite academic ability. Many students often report
feeling as though their teachers and peers don’t expect them to get into college or even apply in
the first place (Cerezo & McWhirter, 2012, p. 867). The information given to students in high
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 19
school about their post-secondary options and how they are supported and advised makes an
incredible difference in how probable an underrepresented minority student will be successful in
a higher education institution (Complete College America, 2012, p. 3).
College attendance/completion. Because college attendance rates are rising, it is easy to
assume that underrepresented students are also being accepted and attend college at a higher rate
than in the past. Unfortunately, there are still discrepancies in college attendance for low-income
students, students of different ethnic backgrounds, and students whose parents did not attend
college (Cox, 2016, p. 2). Cates and Schaefle (2011) conducted a study to examine the trends of
post-secondary decisions for underrepresented groups and found that the group suffering the
most in relation to higher education attendance is Latina/o students. Latina/o students are less
likely to enroll in college than both Caucasian and African American students, as only 24% of
Latinas/os aged 18-24 were enrolled in college compared to 41% of Caucasians and 33% of
African Americans. Latina/o students are even more likely to come from families with lower
incomes, making attending college even more difficult (p. 321).
Lack of financial resources and academic preparation are among the biggest reasons as to
why underrepresented minority students have difficulty gaining college access. Low-income
students attend college at lower rates than their more well off counterparts, and those students
continue to have financial difficulty throughout college. Chen and DesJardins (2010) found
“over 56% of African American and 58% of Hispanic dependent students had unmet need after
all aid was considered” compared to their White counterparts who had only 40% of unmet need
(p. 180). The post-secondary data involving underrepresented students includes even the most
qualified and intelligent students that would likely thrive in college under different
circumstances. For instance, high-income students with the lowest standardized test scores still
enroll in college more frequently than low-income students with the highest standardized test
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 20
scores (Belasco, 2013, p. 781). Students with low-SES backgrounds that were academically
qualified to attend college still applied to 4-year colleges at a 17% lower rate than the national
average for similarly qualified students (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 321). This gap is significant
because these students should have just as much access to higher education, yet their
circumstances prevent them from gaining access to college.
If underrepresented minority students decide to attend college and are accepted, the
struggle to succeed in college remains for many of those students. Racial and ethnic differences
in the total percentage of students who complete a bachelor’s degree have widened over time.
Although there has been an increase in the total number of underrepresented students that hold
bachelor’s degrees, researchers have found that minority students continue to fall behind their
White peers in degree completion (Complete College America, 2012, p. 6). Referring back to the
study conducted on Latino/a students, Cates and Schaefle (2011) found that the Latino/a
population continues to have the most difficulty in degree-attainment out of any other minority
group within the United States, as only 11% of Latinos have a bachelor’s degree (p. 867). The
disparity in degree completion also persists for low SES students. While 63% of high school
graduates coming from the lowest socioeconomic category enroll in college, only 27% earn a
college degree within six years (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p. 80). When comparing this percentage
to the overall degree completion rate of 58%, it is clear that low-income students are at a
significantly higher disadvantage than their more well off counterparts. All of these factors make
college acceptance and degree attainment all the more difficult for underrepresented students,
making it evident that “significant inequity of opportunity across racial/ethnic groups continues
to plague the American higher education system” (Chen & DesJardins, p. 180).
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 21
Hypothesis: Students Need to Be Better Prepared to Choose
Evaluating the research of student failure, the lack of representation for underrepresented
students, and the barriers to student success sheds light on the inconsistent and broken system of
how students are choosing their post-secondary path. While the problem might not always be
higher education itself, the current data and statistics leads to the natural question of whether
college is the correct choice for everyone. Former United States Secretary of Education, William
J. Bennett, firmly believes that higher education should not be the collective choice for high
school seniors:
College, as currently appraised, should not be a universal commodity. As the K-12
experience concludes, each young man or woman should do a serious self-evaluation
with the help of others and then chart an appropriate post-secondary course. Doing this is
wiser than blindly presupposing that college is a necessary good. (Bennett & Wilezol,
2013, p.xiii)
Other educationalists such as Peter Thiel agree, stating that there are too any Americans
that are enrolling in college without exploring their reasons behind why they are deciding to do
so (Schaefer Riley, 2011). School counselors around the nation, some of the main guiding voices
behind students’ postsecondary decisions, also recognize the faults in the current model. Randy
McPherson, a school counselor at the Trezevant Career and Technical School in Memphis,
Tennessee, states, “We’ve done an injustice in this country with selling college as the answer to
success” (Zehr, 2011, Reasons Are Hazy, para. 1). When asking high school seniors about their
plans for after high school, McPherson says most students respond by saying that they’ll be
attending college. But when they are asked why, a great deal of them do not have an answer for
why they are choosing higher education (Zehr, 2011). If there is a possibility then that not
everyone should go to college and our nation is altogether wrongly pressuring students to choose
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 22
higher education, our K-12 system, especially high schools, may be playing a large part in the
broken system of higher education by neglecting to fully educate students on higher education
and misguiding students in their post-secondary decisions (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Evaluating the
current college choice model used in high schools as well as exploring the current universal role
of the school counselor in the post-secondary search process will display the inconsistencies that
have plagued the decisions of our high school seniors.
The Postsecondary Choice Model
The Current Model in Schools: A School Counseling Perspective
Before analyzing the current postsecondary choice model and the common methods and
that are used in schools throughout the U.S., it is important to note the definition of post-
secondary counseling and all that it is meant to entail for students. According to the American
Counseling Association, post-secondary readiness counseling is a “developmental process that
engages young people in developing postsecondary aspirations and expectations, gaining
awareness to one’s interest and abilities, and receiving support and information for college
access and success” (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 98). This process has been referred to in many
different terms, including college counseling, college readiness counseling, and college
admissions counseling. In most high schools, school counselors, student support specialists, and
academic deans fulfill the role of postsecondary counselor (Chata & Loesch, 2007).
Although high schools throughout the U.S. have their own methods for post-secondary
counseling, the foundation of all counseling methods remain consistent (Belasco, 2013, p. 782).
One of the most widely cited models of the post-secondary search process is composed of three
stages: the predisposition stage, the search stage, and the choice stage. In the predisposition
stage, students first decide if higher education is right for them and if they want to pursue a
college education. They then go on to explore their options in the search stage, followed by the
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 23
decision stage, where students decide on a postsecondary path best suited for them individually
(Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 323). This model used throughout schools all over the U.S. would
not be effective if not for the school-counseling professionals that carry it out successfully,
which is why it’s important to focus on the role of school counselors in the postsecondary
counseling process.
Significance of school counselors in postsecondary counseling. Research has
demonstrated the significance of certain aspects of high school that considerably affect college
attendance, including a college preparation curriculum, a college-going culture, and resources
allocated for college counseling. The most influential piece of postsecondary counseling,
however, is the professionals who deliver the counseling and educate students on their options
(Lautz, Hawkins, & Pérez, 2012, p. 108). School counselors have many roles, such as educators,
academic advisors, and social/emotional counselors, but helping students discover what they will
do after high school is one of the biggest portions of the job. According to Belasco, they are
“uniquely situated to guide students though an increasingly complex college application” and
“must be able to effectively and sufficiently engage in postsecondary planning” (2013, p. 798).
They assist in multiple areas of postsecondary counseling, including educating students on the
multiple options beyond a high school education, reinforcing the steps that are necessary in order
to prepare students for life after high school, and having access to and providing resources that
assist students with various topics such as financial aid, scholarships, and test preparation
(American School Counselor Association, 2016b).
Research shows that the more involved and effective school counselors are within a
school, not only will those students perform better in school, but there will also be a greater
percentage of students will attend some sort of higher education institution. According to
Belasco (2013) students who attend high schools with fully implemented guidance programs
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 24
earn higher grades and receive more information about college (p. 785). In addition, Engberg and
Gilbert (2014) found that schools that devoted more time on postsecondary counseling are
associated with higher college going rates, which “emphasizes the importance of having a
dedicated college counseling staff” (p. 237). When school counselors utilize the other
professionals within a school building, such as teachers, they prove to have an even greater effect
on students’ postsecondary decisions (Lautz, Hawkins, & Pérez, 2012, p. 109). Despite the
impact that school counselors have on students’ postsecondary decisions within schools,
counselors face many barriers that make it difficult for them to successfully give postsecondary
counsel to all of their students.
The barriers for school counselors in postsecondary counseling. Unfortunately, many
groups of people involved in the school setting have incorrect or negative perceptions of school
counselor roles and consider school counselors to have a more ambiguous purpose than almost
all other school professionals (Belasco, 2013, p. 782). Engberg and Gilbert (2014) state that
many students mainly view high school counselors as schedulers rather than postsecondary
advocates, and “counselor’s goals and student perceptions of counselor’s usefulness are
incongruent” (p. 223). The less accurate students’ views are of school counselors, the less likely
they will approach a counselor for postsecondary help.
Teacher and administrative support of school counselors is vital to the success of a
counseling program within a school. In a study conducted to examine teacher perceptions of
school counselors, Reiner, Colbert, and Pérusse (2009) found that teachers appreciate the role of
school counselors, but believed services delivered needed to be improved. In addition, the study
found that teachers lack an awareness of what tasks counselors are actually engaged in, and
fewer than half of teachers believed individual and/or group counseling conducted by school
counselors to be unimportant (Reiner, Colbert, & Pérusse, 2009). Principals also have a unique
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 25
and important relationship with counselors, as they determine the roles the counselors will
perform within a school. Unfortunately, school counselors are often given tasks that are outside
of the American School Counselor Associations’ (ASCA) advisement. For example, 80% of
principals identified test administration (cognitive, aptitude, and achievement tests) as a main
role for school counselors, a task that ASCA deems inappropriate and impedes upon the school
counselor’s ability to manage direct and indirect services of the counseling program (Chata &
Loesch, 2007; American School Counselor Association, 2016a). Further research has
demonstrated that most school principals do not understand appropriate school counselor
functioning, making it difficult for school counselors to be fully effective in their postsecondary
counseling role (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Because of these misconceptions students, parents,
teachers, and administrators neglect to fully utilize and support school counselors and
underestimate their ability to positively assist students in their postsecondary search process.
Another barrier that has proved problematic for many counselors is the generally high
number of students on school counselors’ caseloads across the country. According to the ASCA,
the average caseload for school counselors should be about 250 students to every one counselor.
In reality, the national average is almost twice the amount that ASCA recommends: 460 students
to every one counselor (American School Counselor Association, 2016a). Minnesota specifically
is in an even worse state, as MN currently holds the 3rd worst/highest ratio in the country: 792
students to every school counselor (Hinrichs, 2016). Governor Mark Dayton has recognized the
negative affects MN’s counselor-student ratio has had on its students, and in 2014 he called to
lower the ratio. “Our schools need more guidance counselors, who are specially trained in career
guidance, to help junior high and high school students better understand what their opportunities
are and how to prepare for them” (Stellar, 2014, para. 5). Research has shown that the higher
counselor-student ratio that exists, the less number of students that go on to college,
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 26
demonstrating the great need for more counselors and lower caseloads throughout the U.S.
(Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 221).
Because of the inappropriate or unrelated tasks often given to school counselors and the
overwhelming number of students on each counselor’s case load, not having enough time to
adequately counsel students on their postsecondary options is another barrier that many school
counselors face. Not only do students receive minimal postsecondary counseling, but the little
time counselors are able to spend with each student also results in “less trusting and effective
relationships” (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 220). Belasco (2013) found that public school
counselors only devote 23% of their time on postsecondary counseling, which is “far less than
the amount of time required to provide sufficient and adequate college guidance” (p. 782). In a
study conducted by Engberg and Gilbert (2014), school counselors who spend 20% or less of
their time on postsecondary counseling were associated with lower college-going rates (around
eight percentage points) when compared with counselors who spend over 50% of their time
postsecondary counseling (p. 232). Lautz, Hawkins, and Pérez (2012) proved that time spent on
unrelated duties negatively affects college-going rates, as each additional 10% of counselor time
that is spent on test proctoring, a common task given to counselors, is associated with a six
percent decrease of students choosing higher education (p. 112).
These barriers have proven to be in existence in high schools throughout the United
States, making it difficult for an innumerable amount of school counselors able to do their job
efficiently and effectively (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Because of this, students are suffering and
ultimately making postsecondary decisions that may not be best suited for them (Bennett &
Wilezol, 2013, p. 11). This ripple effect often results in counselors defaulting to the “college for
all” mentality and utilizing a flawed postsecondary choice model, which is a traditional strategy
“characterized by limited resource capacity and a limited organizational commitment to
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 27
facilitating access to available resources among students and their families” (Engberg & Gilbert,
2014, p. 220). In order to discuss how the current model used in ineffectively schools, it is
important to note the major discrepancies that occur within the model and why it needs to be
adjusted to better serve students.
Problems with the Current Model
Misconceptions about college. One of the main downfalls of postsecondary counseling
today is that the foundation of the widely used postsecondary choice model has shifted to
automatically expect students to choose higher education. Although there are obvious downfalls
of higher education (especially those mentioned previously, such as increased tuition, large
amounts of student debt and many students not completing their degrees) students and their
parents and/or guardians continue to believe that higher education is the best option (Dolinsky,
2010). What many do not know, however, is that some of the main ideas believed about college
and why many believe higher education is worth the risk need to be given a closer look.
While the aforementioned data is clear that student debt is no insignificant matter, there
are those that would argue that higher education is worth the risk of taking out student loans and
the inevitable debt, because those with a college education will eventually earn that money back
through a position that requires a college diploma and therefore pays more (Abel & Deitz, 2014,
p. 1). The return on investment of a college, or ROI, compares how much is spent on tuition
and/or loans with the money that is made over a certain span of time with that college degree
(Baum, Ma, Payea, 2013, p. 7). Analyzing the ROI amounts for specific institutions allows for
greater insight on the value of choosing higher education. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) turned to
PayScale.com, an online resource for salary and benefits information for specific higher
education institutions, to examine specific colleges and their ROIs to decide if college is worth
the investment. After analyzing a list of 1,248 schools in the U.S. and calculating their 30-year
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 28
net ROIs, they found that over 200 schools have a negative thirty-year net ROI, meaning
students who attend these colleges are losing money in the long run (pp. 103-105).
Researchers have also found that the average wages of college graduates are steadily
declining rather than increasing, as many have thought (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 2). Not only are
the higher educated making less than previous years, but a percentage are even struggling to
make ends meet. In 2010, out of the 22 million Americans with master’s degrees, over 360,000
of them were receiving a form of public assistance, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (Patton,
2012). Before automatically assuming that going to college will guarantee you more money in
the long run, students should do more research on the specific schools they are looking at
attending to see if there is a probability that that will actually be the case.
Another factor that students choosing higher education need to consider is what they
major in, as there is consistent evidence that shows that some degrees are much more valuable
than others. Students that have majored in engineering, math, and computer sciences have earned
the highest return, while liberal arts, agriculture and natural resources, leisure and hospitality,
and education majors all have below-average returns (Abel & Deitz, 2014, p. 7). According to
data compiled by PayScale.com and Georgetown University’s Center on Education and the
Workforce, the top worst majors for a successful career include culinary arts, fine arts, radio and
television, and child and family studies. For instance, the median income for all graduates with a
bachelor’s degree is about $55,000, while the median income for a recent child and family
studies major is about $31,000. For those looking to major in radio and television, there is only a
projected 10-year growth of -.02%, with only about 1,651 job postings every year, nationwide
(Rapacon, 2015, p. 9). On the other side of the spectrum, PayScale found that six out of the top
ten majors with the highest earnings were engineering degrees, with all top ten majors being
STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) disciplines (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 98).
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 29
Before deciding a major, it is important to conduct the proper research behind each major, as not
all majors and/or degrees automatically lead to job security or a decent salary.
Failing to fully prepare students. Another downfall of the current postsecondary choice
model within schools is that an increasing amount of students are not being prepared enough for
higher education. This may be attributed to high counselor caseloads, a shortage of school
counselors within schools, or the “college for all” mentality. Regardless of the cause, there is
evidence that shows students are not fully prepared for life after high school (Stinebrickner &
Stinebrickner, 2014, p. 28). Students are unprepared for the makeup of college itself, as many
students have found the structure and the freedoms of college to be overwhelming and
challenging (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p. 80).
In addition, studies show that many students do not fully comprehend the relevance of
academic preparation while still in high school, and because of a faulty K-12 system, many
students are academically behind at the beginning of college (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 236).
Bennett and Wilezol explain this phenomenon and its effects:
Too often today college freshman and sophomores spend valuable time in remediation for
subjects that they should have learned and mastered in high school. We need to do more
to boost student achievement, especially in the fields of math, science, and writing, where
standards have slipped tremendously in the last few decades. By doing so, we can remove
the stigma holding back workers without a college degree and help obviate the need for
superfluous college education as a minimum requirement for a job interview in a
competitive field. (2013, p. 92)
Professors around the U.S. are beginning to seriously question the K-12 system. At Broward
College in Florida, over 67% of its students needed remedial classes in 2008. Derron Bowen, a
math professor at Broward, often wonders how students are even allowed to get to high school
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 30
graduation let alone into college, and attributes the failures in his classes to the current K-12
system (Armario, 2010). Ken O’Donnell, senior director of student engagement and academic
initiatives for the California State University System, where only half of the students graduate
within six years, stated that, “More than half our students aren’t ready for college” (Gearon,
2014, para. 6). Data has demonstrated the academic unpreparedness of students, as researchers
found that in 2009, 52% of all students enrolled in a 2-year college and 20% of freshmen at four-
year colleges needed to take and were enrolled in at least one remedial education course
(Complete College America, 2012, p. 6). According to the ACT National Curriculum of college
professors, 65% stated that their students were poorly prepared by their states for college-level
coursework (Armario, 2010).
Professors are not the only ones who have begun to notice the severe repercussions of the
faulty K-12 system and underprepared students. Data indicates that employers are discovering
that their graduate hires have accomplished little academically that would signify they are fully
prepared for the workplace. In 2011, the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and
Schools surveyed one thousand hiring managers and found that many employers were
dissatisfied with the lack of quality applicants within today’s generation. Only 16% of hiring
managers found applicants were “very prepared” for the tasks given to them in their new jobs. In
addition, over half of employers (54%) reported it difficult to find applicants that are fully
prepared with the necessary skill and knowledge set to be successful in the workplace (Bennett
& Wilezol, 2013, p. 146). Microsoft founder Bill Gates has also commented on the subject,
stating that there are many unemployed workers, yet employers have a difficult time finding
qualified workers. Gates attributes the high unemployment rate to the deficiencies in the
education system rather than the absence of jobs. “Many people want jobs, and there are a lot of
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 31
open jobs,” states Gates. “It is up to the education system to equilibrate that” (Tonyan, 2012,
para. 8).
Gates is not the only successful and established professional that has noticed the trend of
unprepared applicants. Mark Cuban also described how badly employers were looking for
qualified applicants, including himself: “I could care less if the source of their education was
accredited by a bunch of old men and women who think they know what is best for the world. I
want people who can do the job. I want the best and the brightest. Not a piece of paper” (Cuban,
2012, para. 14). Tom Carroll, president of the National Commission on Teaching and America’s
Future, also described to US Weekly in November of 2011 how the K-12 system fails to prepare
high school students for their postsecondary options:
The current reality is that a high school education leaves many young Americans
unemployable and unprepared to meet future challenges. Students graduate without the
communication, collaboration, and analysis skills that will help them be successful…All
too often, college is the first time that students have the opportunity to learn in this way.
(ProCon.org, 2016, Pro 6, para. 3)
All of these deficiencies in the K-12 system and the many misconceptions about higher
education are in congruence with the flawed postsecondary choice structure and will
dramatically affect the level to which students succeed after high school (Bennett & Wilezol,
2013, p. 141). Perhaps one of the biggest problems with the current postsecondary counseling
model, however, are the students that fall through the cracks and hardly receive any
postsecondary counseling at all.
Neglecting underrepresented minority students. As a result of the gap in education
preparation among students of different ethnic backgrounds, there are many minority students
that are poorly prepared for higher education (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 136). As previously
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 32
discussed, there are many barriers for underrepresented minority students in postsecondary
planning. According to Savitz-Romer (2012), some of the main difficulties for these students
include the lack of college knowledge, low aspirations due to perceived academic or financial
barriers, and a lack of support to assist with their planning (p. 98). In an article in the Journal of
Higher Education, Professor Rebecca Cox researched the obstacles for underrepresented
students. “Although a major focus of current research and policy-making efforts involved
understanding and minimizing the barriers to postsecondary access (and completion),” stated
Cox, “conventional reform strategies do not appear to be effecting substantial change in the
college-going opportunities for students from low-income and underrepresented racial/ethnic
groups” (2016, p. 2)
Although schools have put increased efforts into assisting underrepresented students, the
process of helping those students with their postsecondary planning is still flawed. Studies have
found that students with higher socioeconomic statuses are more likely to be guided towards
four-year colleges than students from middle or low socioeconomic statuses, and students from
lower-income families are more likely to be recommended to community colleges (Engberg &
Gilbert, 2014, p. 222; Zehr, 2011, p. 17). In addition, underrepresented students are less likely to
be enrolled in advanced science and math courses and more likely to be enrolled in “less than
standard” education curriculum (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 322). Schools within lower-income
settings also suffer as a whole in the area of postsecondary counseling. Research has shown that
lower income schools spend less time on college counseling activities than higher income
schools (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 221). Lautz, Hawkins, and Perez (2012) found that “there
is a well-documented need for college counseling staff and resources, particularly in lower-
income settings” (p. 109).
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 33
There are many barriers that exist for minority students, and postsecondary planning is no
exception. Without efficient and extensive postsecondary counseling and preparation for life
after high school, underrepresented students easily fall through the cracks. Many of those that do
make it into some form of higher education continue to struggle. According to Complete College
America, 39% of African-American students and 21% of Hispanic students in 4-year colleges in
2012 needed remediation, compared to the 13% of their white counterparts (Complete College
America, 2012, p. 6). This data demonstrates the need for more support for underrepresented
students, especially in the area of postsecondary counseling. It is clear that all students, both
underrepresented and privileged students alike, need more informative, thorough, and efficient
postsecondary counseling. Although there seem to be many flaws in the current postsecondary
search process in schools, there are a few solutions that could help solve the gap that is evident in
postsecondary counseling (Belasco, 2013, p. 782).
Proposed Solutions for the Postsecondary Choice Model
Despite the conflicting opinions of American society, parents, students, administrators,
and teachers on the value of higher education, it is clear that the postsecondary counseling and
search process is invaluable and needs to be carried out carefully and consistently by school
counselors. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) propose an initial general solution of having students be
more self-reflective before they decide higher education is automatically the right decision:
Each young man or woman should so a serious elf-evaluation with the help of others and
then chart an appropriate postsecondary course. Doing this is wiser than blindly
presupposing that college is a necessary good…Rather than simply swallowing the
conventional wisdom and following the conventional path, more students need to make
realistic assessments of their abilities and finances and then decide the best path for their
lives. (p. xiii)
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 34
While some increased self-reflection would most likely benefit an innumerable amount of
students, there are many that would highly benefit from restructured postsecondary planning
techniques, such as increased preparation for postsecondary decisions and life after high school,
in-depth education on postsecondary options, and giving specialized assistance to
underrepresented students (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p.80-81).
Increased Preparation
Students are being required to begin postsecondary planning even earlier than high
school, a strategy that allows school counselors to begin to expose, educate, and guide students at
younger ages. Most states now encourage or require middle school students to prepare for long-
term career or education plans and prepare them for future careers by guiding them to take
specific classes (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 137). In Utah, state law requires every 8th grader to
create a four-year “student education/occupational plan” with the help of their parents and
guidance counselors (Zehr, 2011, Making A Plan, para. 2). Some schools have their students
begin the college application process as early as seventh grade, so by their junior year, most of
the work is done to prepare for their senior year (Caribbean Business Staff, 2011, p. 30). Some
specific strategies within the framework of early postsecondary planning that have proven to be
successful include goal setting, increased college knowledge, and improving academic behaviors
(Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 137). Allowing students to start thinking about their postsecondary
decisions earlier would allow students to be better prepared to make those decisions when they
get to their senior year.
Another new initiative to assist students to be prepared for higher education includes
courses implemented into schools that model the essence of a college course. University Park
Campus School in Massachusetts tested this theory by creating a college-success course that
meets twice a week in the second half of senior year to help hone students’ skills needed to
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 35
succeed. The course incorporates syllabi, pedagogy, and assessments that all mimic the reality of
a college course, including online discussions and late-work policies (Rodrigues & Le, 2011, p.
79). As a result of the course implementation, University Park saw significant improvement in its
alumni’s college graduation rates. In 2003, before the implementation of the new course, only
50% of the school’s graduates were on track to graduate within six years. After the course
implementation, 93% of the 2007 graduating class were on track, reporting that the newly
designed senior year at University Park had better prepared them for college (p. 83). Studies
show that first generation students, students with disabilities, and underrepresented students
benefit even more from learning about higher education before they graduate and better ensures
that they “are able to remain in their program beyond their first year” (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 611).
Another technique that has proven to help students more equipped to make their
postsecondary decisions is vocational exposure and training in high school. As discussed
previously, there are many students going to college without knowing what they want to do or
even if they know if higher education is the best track for them. Steve Schneider, a school
counselor at Sheboygan South High School in Wisconsin, stated, “This is really about preparing
kids for careers,” states Schneider, “A highly intelligent kid who goes off to college just because
they think that’s what they are supposed to do…if they don’t have a sense of what they are
preparing for, then they don’t stay” (Adams, 2011, p. 16). By allowing students to learn trades
alongside traditional academic subjects, they can better decide what postsecondary track would
be best suited for them (Zehr, 2011). Apprenticeships, shadowing opportunities, and vocational
classes within high schools are all strategies that have proven to be successful to expose students
to different occupations (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 330). Economist Alex Tabarrok of George
Mason University has strongly supported apprenticeships programs in high schools, stating,
“Apprenticeship programs introduce teenagers to the adult world and the skills, attitudes, and
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 36
practices that make for a successful career” (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 89). In 2011 Harvard
University published a report called “Pathways to Prosperity”, a report that focuses on the Unites
States’ essential need to develop significant career training as part of a comprehensive school
reform. Within the report, the authors discussed Mayor Michael Bloomberg of NYC’s dedication
to implementing vocational education within schools. “College isn’t for everyone, but education
is...” stated Bloomberg, “A narrowly defined ‘college for all’ mentality does not include a much
stronger focus on career-oriented programs that lead to occupational credentials – seems doomed
to fail” (Symonds, Schwartz & Ferguson, 2011, p. 7).
When students have a more concrete idea of what they want to do after high school, the
more likely they are to complete the training needed for that career. The Community College
Research center at Columbia University found that when students go into a specific academic or
vocational program, they are more likely to complete their degree or credentials than those who
enter college without choosing a specific path (Adams, 2011, p. 16). It is the school counselor’s
job to help students discover their strengths and where they would best succeed, and exposure is
one way to do that. The more students are exposed to different vocations, the more likely
students will discover their best postsecondary options, which is turn will give them a greater
chance of finishing their training and making it to that specific career.
In-Depth Education of Postsecondary Options
One of the most important things school counselors can do to better help their students
succeed after high school is to give students more information about all of their postsecondary
options in general. Unfortunately, previous research has found that few school counselors urge
students to examine alternative routes to higher education, which is a disservice to the students
(Zehr, 2011). Rather than directing students only to higher education, school counselors should
be giving students all the options they have available to them. “The K-12 education system
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 37
should focus on guiding high school seniors into the postsecondary educational choices best
suited for their individual talents and inclinations…” argues Bennett and Wilezol (2013), “we
must equip them to make the right decisions in regard to the level and type of education
appropriate for them” (p. 88). Many states and school districts have been paying more attention
to students that prefer to take an alternative postsecondary route. As a result, there have been
increased efforts to educate school counselors about a wider range of postsecondary options so
students can be educated on options in addition to higher education (Zehr, 2011). One specific
area that needs to be redefined to students is trade and vocational jobs.
While the “college for all” mentality that exists in American society has been recognized
throughout the country, there is another faulty social stigma that exists on the other end of the
spectrum, one that students need to be educated about. Bennett and Wilezol (2013) described this
phenomenon in their argument against the “college for all” mentality:
A popular perception has taken root that jobs not requiring a college degree (skilled,
hands-on professions like plumber, welder, auto mechanic, and so on) are somehow
inferior to more academic, white-collar vocations. Society has wrongly swallowed the
notion that these hands-on jobs lack the perceived intellectual or creative cachet of a
profession like being a professor, journalist, lawyer, or photographer, and so should be
shunned. (p. 73)
Current research shows, however, that the reality is actually the opposite of society’s mistaken
belief. Students need to be educated on the incredible amount of job opportunities available that
often have better than average pay and doesn’t require a four-year degree (p. 80). First, there is a
great need for skilled workers, and that need will only continue to increase. By 2018, nearly
fourteen millions jobs will require more than a high school diploma, but less than a bachelors’
degree, a prediction calculated by Georgetown University (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010, p.
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 38
32). Not only are these jobs available, but employers are in desperate need of skilled workers.
The Deloitte and the Manufacturing Institute found that 67% of US manufacturing employers are
facing a moderate to severe shortage of workers, nearly 600,000 (Manufacturing Institute, 2016).
A survey conducted in 2012 predicted that by 2020, there would be a minimum of eighty-five
million unfilled skilled labor jobs worldwide (Woellert, 2012). Second, trade jobs, vocational
training, joining the military, or starting your own business can bring the same or greater ROI
than higher education (Bennett & Wilezol, 2013, p. 165). In 2012, the Bureau of Labor Statistics
found twenty jobs that required less than a bachelor’s degree that had a median annual wage of
$50,000 or more (far above the median wage of all professions: $34,000). Among these jobs
included air traffic controllers, dental hygienists, and petroleum technicians (Torpey, 2012, p.
28).
Another method that school counselors can use to better help students succeed is to make
them aware of the resources they have available to them. Currently, most schools do not have a
systematic means of distributing information related to college, and even fewer students
understand the importance of being academically prepared for college (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014,
p. 236). Consistently providing those resources to students could make all the difference in their
future success. School counselors could help students discover is the assets available on their
choice of college campus that can support them while they are there. For instance, helping
students get familiar with the counseling services on campus could be extremely beneficial to
their health and well-being (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 609). Many college campuses also have first-year
experience groups or living-learning communities that foster relationships between likeminded
students. The University of Maryland, for example, offers multiple residential options that have
different themes, ranging from women in the technology industry to globalization to social
change; about 50% of the incoming freshmen each year join one (Gearon, 2014). Increasing
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 39
students’ awareness of postsecondary resources has great potential to heighten a students’
success after high school.
Researchers have begun to see the negative trends of the college-for-all mentality and the
effect is has had on society (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 239). Not only should students be
educated on all postsecondary options equally and postsecondary resources, but in addition,
students should be informed on all that choosing higher education entails, such as debt, job
placement outcomes, validity of certain schools, and other factors that were aforementioned.
Only then will students be able to make completely informed postsecondary decisions. If all high
school students were given all of this information, perhaps more would make the decision to
pursue a career that would cost way less, take less time to pursue, and be better suited to their
individual strengths.
Assisting Underrepresented Students
As previously stated, one major discrepancy of the current postsecondary counseling
model is the lack of comprehensive support for underrepresented students, making it clear that
the gap relating to higher education for those students needs to be addressed (Cerezo &
McWhirter, 2012, p. 867). Belasco (2013) found that disadvantaged populations learn most about
their postsecondary options from their school counselors (p. 782). Because urban students have
limited access to postsecondary knowledge, they rely heavily on their school counselors for
support, making school counselors an integral part of those students’ future goals and
postsecondary decisions (Savitz-Romer, 2012, p. 98). The problem is that current strategies seem
to be making little progress, which is why this issue needs to be further researched and addressed
(Cox, 2016, p. 2).
Another issue that has been deemed a barrier for students is the hesitancy students feel
about going to their school counselors for help. Engberg and Gilbert (2014) found that many
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 40
underrepresented students are restrained about reaching out to their school counselors for fear of
being misunderstood. “Additionally,” reports Engberg and Gilbert, “undocumented students
rarely turn to counselors as the primary source of college information due to experiences of
discrimination and prejudice” (p. 223). Because of this, one of the first things that school
counselors can do to better assist underrepresented students is promoting equity among all
students and making every student feel as though their future matters. According to a study
conducted by Savitz-Romer (2012), counselor education programs that promote equity and
opportunity of college readiness, enrollment, and degree attainment have proven to be effective,
especially with underrepresented students. Unfortunately, many academically capable students
are steered away from higher education by high school counselors, a gross disservice to those
students (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 223). Promoting equity also means exposing all students to
every postsecondary options available, not just the options that the school counselor, parent,
teachers, or even the student believes he or she is minimally capable of. The first and perhaps the
most important step is to believe in students and help them develop higher expectations for
themselves, despite the low expectations others have for them (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 323).
Another way underrepresented students can be better assisted is through counselors
taking the extra step to help students get continued support after high school. Mentoring and
peer-support have both been found to be extremely beneficial to underrepresented students after
graduation (Radcliffe & Bos, 2013, p. 139). Some proven benefits of these methods include
increased knowledge of higher education resources, enhanced adjustment, emotional support,
and increased self-esteem (Cerezo & McWhirter, 2012, p. 868). Encouraging students to get
involved in activities on their college campuses also produce greater chances of success.
According to Turner and Thompson (2014), the more students are involved in campus activities,
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 41
such as learning communities, freshmen orientations, community engagements projects, etc., the
greater the chances of persistence (p. 100).
There are also many intervention programs and/or support staff that are offered to
underrepresented students to help with the transition into higher education. Admission officers
and college counselors can assist students with specific details about college campuses and
processes to aid in their postsecondary decisions and their transitions into higher education
(Lautz, Hawkins, & Perez, 2012, p. 114). The LUCERO program, an intervention program
specifically geared towards Latinos, has improved Latino retention through focusing on building
Latino communities on college campuses, enhancing students’ technological abilities, and
increasing academic success through tutoring, advising, and mentoring (Cerezo & McWhirter,
2012, p. 868). The GEAR UP program (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for
Undergraduate Programs), a nation-wide, federally funded initiative currently being
implemented in the Minneapolis Public Schools district, follows sixth graders through their
senior year (Minneapolis Public Schools, n.d.). The program encourages college attendance,
increases academic preparedness, and provides social and cultural capital to help minimize
barriers to college attendance. GEAR UP has been proven to increase the percentage of
underrepresented-student higher education attendance (Cates & Schaefle, 2011, p. 324).
Not only are school counselors a key source of postsecondary information for
underrepresented students, but also counselors have the ability to influence students’ academic
achievement, college aspirations, and postsecondary readiness (Belasco, 2013, p. 784).
Unfortunately, the reality is that the goals of the school counselors and the student perceptions of
the counselor’s usefulness are often incongruent, which often translates into students feeling like
counselors have low expectations of them (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014, p. 224). The first step in
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 42
changing these perceptions is making school counselors aware of these facts and promoting more
equal and consistent postsecondary counseling.
Adlerian Application
Alfred Adler, a well-known psychotherapist from the early 1900s, established
revolutionary theories surrounding ideas such as inferiority, insecurity, self-enhancement, and
community (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964, p. xv). He also worked with several adolescents and
children and was an expert on the behaviors of children. Many of his theories still contribute to
what is known about how to approach the upbringing and teaching of adolescents and children
(Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990, p. ix). Adler had a few thoughts on postsecondary counseling, most of
which included supporting adolescents in any way possible (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964, p.
431). Other Adlerian concepts, such as encouragement, sense of belonging, and striving for
superiority also shed light on the effects of postsecondary decision-making.
According to Turner and Thompson (2014), one of the biggest problems that millennial
students face is their lack of confidence, which ultimately leads to failure in multiple areas of
their lives. “[They] possess an impractical confidence about their academic skills that often make
students unaware of their true academic capabilities” (p.94). One of Adler’s biggest contributions
was his idea that encouragement is the most important aspect of child raising (Dreikurs & Soltz,
1990, p. 36). Adlerian encouragement can be defined as “both a condition and a process, and it
applies to both the child who becomes courageous and to the process that facilitates the
outcome” (Carns & Carns, 1998, p. 72). Making the decision about what you want to do with
your life as a young and inexperienced high school senior comes with an incredible amount of
stress and pressure. Unfortunately, our society has become one that doubts the capabilities of our
students. “Instead of allowing our children to test their strengths…” states Dreikurs, “we
confront them constantly with our prejudice – our doubt in their ability” (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990,
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 43
p. 37). School counselors have the unique opportunity to evaluate students’ strengths and
encourage them to pursue postsecondary avenues in which they will strive. Because students’
lack of confidence, it is more important than ever that school counselors incorporate
encouragement into postsecondary counseling.
Another key concept of Adler’s’ was his focus on the importance of having a sense of
belonging. Dreikurs stated that, “Since the child is a social being, his strongest motivation is the
desire to belong. His security or lack of it depends upon his feeling of belonging” (Dreikurs &
Soltz, 1990, p. 14). When helping a high school student decide on what postsecondary decision
to make, it is important to help him/her find somewhere where they can truly belong and
contribute. “Developing a sense of belonging is critical to the success of college students,” states
researcher O’Keeffe (2013), “particularly for the retention of students who are considered to be
at risk of non-completion” (p. 607). Alexander McCormick, education professor and director of
the National Survey of Student Engagement at Indiana University, has found that creating bonds
in college, both academically and socially, is key to success in college (Gearon, 2014). This
sense of connection can emerge through just one positive student-faculty and/or staff
relationship, and that relationship “can significantly impact upon a students’ decision to remain
in college” (O’Keeffe, 2013, p. 607). Applying these Adlerian concepts could greatly benefit
school counselors as they assist students in their post-secondary choice journey.
Conclusion
Although higher education currently remains highly thought of as the golden ticket to
success in American society and the obvious first choice for most high school seniors, it is clear
that post-secondary education may not be the best option for every individual. The college-for-all
mentality that currently sweeps the nation overlooks the immediate vocational needs of many
students and does a disservice to an abundance of students by not allowing full access to
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 44
postsecondary counseling options (Engberg and Gilbert, 2014, p. 239). Unfortunately, a
significant amount of the population believes that the end goal of high school counseling is to
facilitate students’ transition into college (Lautz, Hawkins, & Perez, 2012, p. 114). School
counselors have the potential, however, to have an incredible impact on students’ postsecondary
decisions rather than simply filtering the masses straight to college. It is imperative that school
counselors examine all available options, increase student preparation, and assist students to find
what life-path would help them be most successful. Because the college-for-all mentality that
extends throughout the nation could be hindering many students from truly succeeding, school
counselors have the indispensable duty to transform the current system of postsecondary
counseling so that all students are given equal postsecondary options and the chance to find a
life-path most suited to their individual strengths and talents.
BROKEN PROMISES OF HIGHER EDUCATION 45
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