research philosophy
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Research philosophy
Session outline Why ‘philosophy’ ?
Overview of research philosophies
Some more common philosophical approaches
How to determine your own research philosophy
Let’s philosophise
Why philosophy ?
All research is based on assumptions
about how the world is perceived
about how we can best come to understand it.
Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world
Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years,
For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to knowledge?
Epistemology vs Methodology Epistemology is ‘how we come to know’
Methodology is ‘how we come to know’
Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge
Methodology is the practical ways, the methods used to gain knowledge
Inextricably linked of course
One philosophical view - positivism the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena
that we experience
study what we can observe and measure
Impossible to know about anything else
deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test
empiricism -- the idea that observation and measurement is the core of the scientific endeavour
Main method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation
What makes this view of the world attractive?
Why have many researchers moved away from this approach?
The enlightenment? Post-positivism Rejection of positivist ideas has lead to an array of
alternative approaches
One end of post-positivism
critical realism - there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. Recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable
The other post-positivist extreme
Subjectivism - there is no external reality . It’s all in our heads!
Post-positivism generally Multiple measures and observations, each of which may
possess different types of error, triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try
to understand better what's happening in reality. all observations are theory-laden All researchers are inherently biased by their cultural
experiences, world views etc Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that
we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it
objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives. Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon
Objectivity without positivism? “ The best way for us to improve the objectivity of what we do
is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have 'survival value' and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality”
William Trochim, (2002) Research Methods Knowledgebase
Phenomenology Phenomenology is sometimes considered a
philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.
Key Features of Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms
Phenomenological paradigm Positivist paradigm
Basic beliefs:
Science is driven by human interest Observer is independent
The world is socially constructed and subjective Science is value-free
Observer is part of what is observed The world is external and objective
Researchers should:
Try to understand what is happening Focus on facts
Develop ideas through induction from evidence Formulate and test hypotheses
Focus on meanings Look for causality and fundamental laws
Look at totality of each situation Reduce phenomena to simplest elements
Preferred methods:
Small samples investigated in depth or over time Take large samples
Use multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena Operationalise concept so they can be measured
Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 1994 pp. 27
Positivist paradigm
Phenomenological paradigm
Basic
beliefs:
The world is external and objective
Observer is independent
Science is value-free
The world is socially
constructed and subjective
Observer is part of what
observed
Science is driven by human
interests
Researcher
should:
focus on facts
look for causality and fundamental laws
reduce phenomena to simplest events
formulate hypotheses and then test
them
focus on meanings
try to understand what is
happening
look at the totality of each
situation
develop ideas through induction
form data
Preferred
methods
include:
operationalising concepts so that they
can be measured
taking large samples
using multiple methods to
establish different views of
phenomena
small samples investigated in
depth or over time
Considerations for successful research
Validity
Does an instrument measure
what it is supposed to measure?
Has the researcher gained full
access to the knowledge and
meanings of informants?
Reliability
Will the measure yield the same
results on different occasions
(assuming no real change in
what is to be measured)?
Will similar observations be
made by different researchers
on different occasions?
Generalisability
What is the probability that
patterns observed in a sample
will also be present in the wider
population from which the
sample is drawn?
How likely is it that ideas and
theories generated in one
setting will also apply in other
settings?
Positivist viewpoint
Phenomenological viewpoint
Deductive vs Inductive reasoning
Circular model of research process Inductive: begin at A
(observation/description), proceed to B (analysis), arrive at C (explanation)
Deductive: begin at C (hypothesis), proceed to A (gathering data to test hyp), proceed to B to test hyp against data
A: observation/ description
B: Analysis
C: Explanation/ Hypotheses/ Theory
How to determine your own research philosophy Consider your own research background/experience Consider your topic (theoretical basis, research subjects,
desired knowledge etc) Read widely on research philosophy – there are many often
contrasting and contradictory views Many more specific views eg relativism, subjectivism,
hermeneutics, deconstructivism, constructivism, feminism etc.
Engage in philosophical debate with peers, supervisors, yourself
Show this in your thesis, building a case for your own philosophical stance
Let this then lead your methodology
Conclusions There is no right or wrong research philosophy, but a
well argued case for the one you prefer showing understanding of alternatives
Your research philosophy will guide your methodology and your overall approach to your PhD
It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative philosophies will make you a much better researcher.
Further reading Many books and articles on this
Look for ones in your area of research as well as general social science/business research
Use seminal texts as well as up to date books/articles –the debate continues.
Look at the approaches of other researchers in your field of study
Review exercises
1. Read the short article ‘Toward a research philosophy’ and critique the author’s approach to research methodology
2. You are interested in examining management stress in particular kinds of organisations. You want to find out as much as you can about how it manifests itself in particular workplaces. In pairs debate whether this should be approached from a positivist or post-positivist/phenomenological perspective (one to play role of positivist other critical realist or phenomenologist)
3. Repeat the above for your own PhD topics. 4. Read ‘All research is interpretive’ and consider the
implications of this philosophical view (homework).
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