ppt theories human development

Chapter 4 Theories of human Chapter 4 Theories of human developmentdevelopment

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation

Lecture OverviewLecture OverviewNature of Human DevelopmentMajor Developmental Stages in the

LifespanPhysical DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentSocio-emotional DevelopmentMoral Development

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental PsychologyThe focus of developmental psychology

is on age-related changes in behaviors throughout the life span

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Theoretical IssuesTheoretical Issues

Key development issues include:◦Nature versus nurture

To what extent are behaviors the result of experience or the result of biological processes such as maturation?

◦Critical and sensitive periods. Are some experiences especially important at particular

ages?◦Stability versus change

To what extent are behaviors constant over the life span?◦Continuity versus stages

Continuity view suggests that change is uniform and gradual

Stage theory suggests that change can be rapid with qualitatively different stages evident across the life span

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Life Span DevelopmentLife Span Development

Stage Approximate AgePrenatal Conception to birthInfancy (infant) Birth to 18 monthsEarly childhood (toddler, preschool) 18 mo. to 6 yearsMiddle childhood (school-age) 6-12 yearsAdolescence (adolescent) 12-20 yearsYoung adulthood (adult) 20-45 yearsMiddle adulthood 45-60 yearsLater adulthood (senescent, old-age) 60 years to death

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentPrenatal development

occurs in 3 stages:◦Germinal period (ovulation

to implantation), zygote: first 2 weeks, the ovum travels down the fallopian tube, is fertilized by a sperm, and is then implanted within the wall of the uterus

◦Embryonic period, embryo: implantation to 8 weeks

◦Fetal period, fetus: 8 weeks to birth

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

TeratogensTeratogensTeratogens are environmental substances

that can cause birth defects in the developing fetus◦Maternal alcohol use leads to fetal alcohol

syndrome (facial defects, low IQ, neurobehavioral defects)

◦Nicotine exposure leads to premature births, low birth weights, fetal deaths, cognitive problems, behavioral abnormalities

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Prenatal HazardsPrenatal Hazards

Poor maternal nutrition can impair fetal development

Drug use by father can damage sperm:◦Alcohol, opiates, cocaine, lead, and various

gases are known to damage sperm

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Body Proportions Change over Body Proportions Change over the Life Spanthe Life Span

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biological principles of physical Biological principles of physical and motor developmentand motor development

Cephalocaudal principle: development proceeds in a head-to-foot direction

Proximodistal principle: development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Motor MilestonesMotor Milestones

Early motor actions of the infant are limited to reflexes

Myelination and further brain development allow for crawling and then walking

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Motor MilestonesMotor Milestones© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Perceptual Abilities at BirthPerceptual Abilities at BirthInfant vision is poor at birth (equivalent

to 20/200 to 20/600)Functionality of other sensory systems:

◦Hearing is functional prior to birth◦Smell is functional at birth◦Touch and pain are functional at birth

Infant perception can be inferred by changes in heart rate upon stimulus exposure or by changes in sucking rate

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

AdolescenceAdolescence

Puberty- biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity◦growth spurt◦menarche: onset of menstruation◦spermarche: first ejaculation◦secondary sex characteristics

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

AdolescenceAdolescence© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Middle AgeMiddle Age

Menopause- the cessation of the menstrual cycle

Male climacteric- decline in production of sperm and testosterone

After middle age, most physical changes are gradual and occur in the heart, arteries, brain, and sensory receptors

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

AgingAging

Ageism- prejudice or discrimination against an individual based on physical age

Primary aging- gradual, inevitable age-related changes in physical and mental processes◦Programmed theory◦Damage theory

Secondary aging- changes resulting from disease, disuse or neglect

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Piaget Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Jean Piaget believed infants begin at a cognitively “primitive” level and progress in distinct stages.

Piaget’s schemas are the most basic unit of intellect, which act as patterns that organize interactions with the environment.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive adaptation reflects the actions of two complementary processes:◦Assimilation: absorbing new information into

existing schemas◦Accommodation: adjusting old schemas or

developing new ones to better fit with the new information

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive Development—Cognitive Development—Piaget’s Four StagesPiaget’s Four Stages

Sensorimotor: birth to 2 yearsPreoperational: 2 to 7 yearsConcrete Operational: 7 to 11 yearsFormal Operational: 11 years and up

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© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Social-Emotional DevelopmentSocial-Emotional Development

Attachment is defined as an active, intense, emotional relationship between two people that endures over time

Attachment as an innate process:◦Bowlby argued that infants have verbal (cooing)

and nonverbal (smiling, following) responses that elicit nurturance

Attachment as “contact comfort”:◦Harlow found that infant monkeys preferred

contact with terry cloth surface over access to food

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Attachment and Harlow’s work with monkeys--feeding or contact comfort?

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Types of AttachmentTypes of Attachment

Ainsworth found 3 distinct categories of attachment evident in children in a strange situation:◦Secure attachment: infant stays close to mother,

shows moderate distress when separated, and is happy when mother returns

◦Avoidant: infant does not seek contact with mother and does not cry when she leaves

◦Anxious/Ambivalent: infant is upset when mother leaves and angry when she returns

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Social-Emotional Development—Social-Emotional Development—Romantic Love and Infant Romantic Love and Infant AttachmentAttachment

Research suggests that early infant to caregiver attachment patterns may carry over into adult romantic relationships.

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Social-Emotional Development—Social-Emotional Development—Baumrind’s Three Parenting StylesBaumrind’s Three Parenting Styles

1. Permissivea. Permissive

indifferent parents set few limits and give little attention or support.

b. Permissive indulgent parents are highly involved but set few demands or controls.

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Social-Emotional Development—Social-Emotional Development—Baumrind’s Three Parenting Baumrind’s Three Parenting StylesStyles

2. Authoritarian parents are rigid and punitive.

3. Authoritative parents are tender and caring.

Study Tip: To avoid confusion, note:

Two “Rs” in AuthoRitaRian = “Rigid Ruler!”

Two “Ts” in AuThoriTarian = “Tender Teacher!”

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Parenting Styles Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience. They combine high control with little warmth. The rules are not explained. They expect the child to obey when the authority figure is near.

Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. They combine high control with high warmth. They explain the reasons & encourage discussion. They tend to have competitive children

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Parenting Styles Parenting Styles

Permissive offer warmth but little control. Parents submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use little punishment. Children may develop specific competencies, not many.

Neglectful parents provide neither warmth

nor control. They may meet basic physical needs but minimize the amount of time they spend with their children and avoid becoming emotionally involved with them. They produce the least competent children.

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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Personality Development: Personality Development: Erikson’s Eight Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Psychosocial StagesStages• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year)• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)• Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) • Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)• Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)• Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle

adulthood)• Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development

Kohlberg developed a model of moral development (right and wrong) based on responses to moral dilemmas.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Moral Development: Kohlberg’s 3 Levels and 6 Stages3 Levels and 6 StagesPRECONVENTIONAL LEVELStage 1: punishment-obedience orientationStage 2: instrumental-exchange orientationCONVENTIONAL LEVELStage 3: good child orientationStage 4: law-and-order orientationPOSTCONVENTIONAL LEVELStage 5: social-contract orientationStage 6: universal ethics orientation

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Meeting the Challenges of Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood—The Socioemotional Adulthood—The Socioemotional Selectivity TheorySelectivity Theory

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Grief and DeathGrief and Death

Cultures interpret and respond to death differently.

Different ages also interpret and respond to death according to:

• Permanence• Universality• Nonfunctionality

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Grief and DeathGrief and DeathKübler-Ross developed a five

stage theory of the psychological processes surrounding death:

• Denial (“It can’t be true!”)• Anger (“Why me? It’s not fair!”) • Bargaining (“I’ll change everything!”)• Depression (“I’ve lost everything.”)• Acceptance (“I know my time is near.”)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Grief and DeathGrief and Death

Grief is a natural reaction to loss. Four major stages of grief:1. Numbness2. Yearning3. Disorganization/Despair4. Resolution

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