new york tribune (new york, ny) 1901-01-06 [p...

XEW-YORK irJAILY Trtlßt XE. SUNDAY. JANUARY 6, 1901.

It will ever prove a practical process. Edisoncave the finishing Impulse to the century's de-velopment of photography by devising an In-strument for t iking a series of pictures on acontinuous fllm. In rapid succession, so thatthey could he made to show the motions ofpersons, animal? and objects with startlingrealism.

WAR MATERIALS.

MANY WORLD-COMPELLTNr; IDEAS WERE EVOLVED FROM

GREAT BRAINS IN THE LAST ONE HUNDRED YEARS,

AERONAUTICS.EVOLUTION.

CYCLE'S MUSICIANS.Balloons have been used afl tin > ;gh the cen-

tury for ascertaining the humidity and temper-

ature of the upper air. Accompanied by pas-sengers who remained conscious, they hay.

reached a height of 30,000 feet. Other bal-loons, equipped with self-registering instru-

ments but unaccompanied, have ascended 13%miles. In 1859 Wise drifted from St. Louis to

Jefferson County, New- York, a distance of1.180miles. This record was beaten in 1900 by flfty

mlles by the Count de la Vaulx In Europe.

Balloons were used for observation in military

campaigns In1849 by the Austrians before Ven-ice, and several times afterward elsewhere.Andree's ill-fated attempt In 1897 Is probably

the only one where the balloon was employed

for geographical exploration.During the last twenty years many endeavors

have been made to devise an airship whichcould be propelled. Two plans have been fol-

lowed In order to sustain the craft in the air.One employs the gas bag *hn; i afel I BajM

or sweet potato, and the other relies on out-

stretched wings, or aeroplanes. Tissandier triedthe former method and obtained his power froma storage battery and electric motor. Krebsand Renard did the same, and developed a speedof from twelve to fifteen miles an hour for shortdistances. Gasolene engines ofremarkable, light-ness are used in place of electric motors, how-ever, by the most modern experimenters alongthis line. Langley and Maxim are the chiefrepresentatives of the aeroplane system, al-though Lilienthal and Chanute have tried itwithout any propelling mechanism for shortflights from house tops or cliffs. At present.however, little is being done to develop aerialnavigation by this method.

MINING AXh METALLURGY.

Cannon have grown wonderfully in.both 'sizeand efficiency during th- last hundred years,

but the limit in the former respect seems, to

have been nearly reached. England tried a 16-irch gun on her warships a few years ago. buthas abandoned 'all Idea of using more there.'

The biggest guns for naval service now have acalibre of only twelve and thirteen inches.-They weigh from fifty.'to sixty-rive tons, and.are from forty to fifty feet in length. Th- v

throw projectiles weighing from SoO to 1,250pounds. For coast defence, however, heavierordnanco is possible. Th- great 16-lnch gun be-ing completed for the United States at Water-vliet will weigh 126 tons, and Is expected tohurl a 2,370-pound projectile twenty miles. Thispiece is nearly fifty feet long and measuressix feet across the breech.

The three great improvements in heavy ord-nance are the riflingof the barrel, loading atthe breech Instead of the muzzle, and the use of"fixed ammunition"— that is,cartridges Inwhichthe powder and ball are combined in one pack-age. Owing to the greater facility with whichguns utilizing this last principle can be worked,they are called "rapid fire" or "quick fire" guns.

A new type of ordnance, the machine gun.originated less than half a century ago. For along time this employed only the calibre andammunition of infantry rifles. Gatllng buncheda dozen barrels together, made them rotate onan axis, and loaded and fired them In rapidsuccession by turning a crank. Accles improvedthe feed mechanism of the Gatling gun. whileIlotchklss. Nordenfeldt. Driggs, Schroeder andothers devised machine guns working on differ-ent principles. Maxim. Colt and others haveutilised the force of the recoil to reload andfire, thus making a gun automatic. In theSouth African War 1-pounder Maxims, capableof firing o(K) shots a minute, were used withterrible effect.

The serviceability of small anas has been im-proved through rifling, the adoption of thebreechloading system, and the addition of acartridge shell extractor and a magazine forfresh ammunition.

New explosives have still further revolution-ized warfare. Submarine torpedoes contain gun-cotton and dynamite. Inventors have tried tofind a way to hurl a shell containing such ma-terials from a cannon without bursting the lat-ter. To accomplish this object compressed air.combinations of compressed air and powder,and powder of a particularly slow burningcharacter, have been tried, with more or leassuccess. In South Africa recently the Britishmanaged to fire shells containing lyddite, a car-bolic acid derivative, from their guns withoutwrecking then. Powders In which guncottoa.nitro-glycerlne or a combination of the two isthe chief ingredient have been made lately forboth small arms and heavy ordnance. Thesehave the merit of producing no smoke, and de-velop two or three times as much energy as theold kind of powder.

UQIID ATE.

ithas a population of 30,000.000. The effect ofthe geographic evolution of Africa upon Europemay If estimated by the statements that Bel-gium, in its relations to the Congo. State, dealswitha country whose area is one hundred timesItsown, and that of the 11.500,000 square milesof ,Africa all - hut 500,000 are European de-pendencies.

OCEANOGRAPHY A NEW ART.

As to oceanography, a development of the

nineteenth century, space only permits allusion

to the work of Blgsbee. in the Gulf of Mexico;

Carpenter, Thomson and Norwegian savans In

the North Atlantic, and Nares and Murray inthe Challenger expedition. The latter work un-der*Murray's exposition has outlined the oceanicwoLd for the twentieth century to explore andchfift..'X to the twentieth century, it should benoted that pioneer discoveries are yielding stead-ilyto scientific explorations. Future work willtrend toward the outlining of existent and pos-sible relations between man and his geographicenvironment. In this sense there remain nu-merous geographic problems whose satisfactory

solution will tax many generations of scientificexplorers. Such, for instance, are current in-vestigations as to the acclimatization of Euro-peans In Africa, and the distribution of under-ground streams in the arid regions of Aus-tralia and the United States.

Reverting to pioneer discoveries, the twenti-eth century, "despite unceasing efforts of thisage. Inherits an extensive legacy of unknownlands. Exploration for exploration's sake willfor many years find ample scope in untraversedpolar regions, arctic and antarctic, where theattainment of the poles will continue to belargely the end in view.

Of unexplored areas West Australia now pre-sents the most extensive, its vast desert havingbeen examined only here and there by routeshundreds of miles apart.

While North America has large vaguely knowndistricts only in Mexico and Central America,yet South America presents many fields of greatpromise to adventurous men. This is especiallytrue of the eastern slopes of the Andes, inEcuador, Colombia and Brazil. In the westernhalf of the drainage basin of the Amazon ex-ploration has touched only the banks of naviga-ble streams. Our knowledge is largely con-jectural as to the extent and distribution of Itsforests and upland, and of the existent condi-tions of its fauna, flora and inhabitants.

VIRGIN FIELDS REMAINING.Even In Africa, which for a quarter of a

century has engrossed the zeal and energy ofexplorers, there is much yet to be made knownand charted. Not only Is there great work to bedone In the Libyan Desert and the CentralSahara, but even the country of the Taurlgs. inWestern Sahara, needs thorough exploration.South of Abyssinia .and northwest of Lake Ru-dolph is almost virgin ground. The most in-teresting areas are the- primeval forests in thebasins of the Übangi and Aruwimi. Theseregions invite naturalists and ethnologists toreveal to the world their fauna, flora and eth-nology, and especially to correlate informationon the pygmies of Dv Challu, Stanley andSehweinfurth.

The' new year presents such political compli-cations as insure tremendous changes in East-ern Asia during.the twentieth century. As re-habilitated China concedes extended spheres offoreign influence, geographical knowledge willgrow apace. Gradually the great blanks inManchuria, Mongolia, Thibet and Indo-Chinawillbe filled on maps of Asia.

Like advances may be expected as to Arabia,Sumatra. Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and es-pecially in the Philippine Archipelago. In thelast named region the almost untraversed Isl-ands of Mindanao. Mindoro and Palawan willsoon yield to the energetic and intelligent ex-plorer the long hidden secrets of nature as totheir fauna, flora and capabilities of service tomankind in general and to the United States inparticular. . A. W. GREELT.

No scientific idea devoid of industrial valuehas produced so profound an Impression on thethought of the century as that of which CharlesDarwin was the great expositor, namely, thatthe many animal and vegetable species whichhave existed on the earth for the last few thou-sand years are derived by a process of evolu-tion from much older and less perfectly organ-ised types; that this law also applies to thoseextinct forms of which fossil remains have beenfound in the rocks, and to others which haveleft no. trace whatever, and that genealogicallines extend backward many millions of years,and converge and merge, so that there wereoriginally only a very few, perhaps not half adozen, primitive types, and these of the lowestImaginable organization.

The geologists had prepared the way for thisidea during the first half of the century bypointing out what an immense period was re-quired for the formation of the various strata.Lamarck noted, too. that the fossils were notdistributed at random through the rocks, butshowed something like order and progress. Dar-win presented much more convincing evidenceof a systematic development. Moreover, he de-clared that, a superabundance of life havingprevailed, a struggle for existence ensued, inwhich nature favored some individuals andspecies at the expense ofothers, and thus select-ed those which should continue. The rest wereexterminated.

He did not explain the differentiation whichhad occurred among animate and plant forms,simultaneously with the appearance of morecomplicated structures; but. this variation hav-ing developed, a weeding out process followed.Herbert Spencer, who did much to elucidate andcommend the theory, coined the phrase "sur-vival of the fittest" to describe the method andresults of the operation. Alfred Russet Wal-lace, a contemporary of Darwin, discovered thislaw independently at about the same ..time.Huxley, too. bore an important part in the dls~-cussion which Darwin's writings provoked. The"Origin of Species" appeared in 1859. and the"Descent of Man" in 1871.

The scientific world adopted Darwin's con-clusions promptly, and with delight and grati-tude. These have been wonderfully corrobo-rated In the last thirtyor forty years by the dis-covery of fossils unknown to Darwin, amongthem the "missing link" between man and theape. and also by the new science of embryology.The doctrine of evolution brought order out ofa sad chaos of observed facts, and threw a floodof lighton what had seemed Insoluble problemsin zoology and botany. Biology, geology, pale-ontology and other sciences received from it atremendous stimulus.

Darwin's theories were at first construed ashostile to Christian theology, and were vigor-ously opposed for a long time on that account.Eventually, however* progressive theologiansdiscovered that there is no real antagonism be-tween Darwinism and Christianity. So thatamong the non-scientific as well as the scientificclasne£ of humanity the battle for evolution hasnow practically been won.

ASTRONOMY,

The use of compressed air to operate rockdrills In the construction of the Mont Cenlstunnel in 1881 led to its employment for otherclasses of mining. The same agent was soonafterward employed to apply railway brakesand set railway signals. Within the last fewyears Ithas been tried successfully in tractionwork. In the mean time Cailletet. Pictet. Ol-rewaki. Dewar and other chemists were tryingto liquefy the so called permanent gases, oxy-gen, nitrogen and hydrogen. They succeeded Indoing so. hut then* methods were elaborate ajpjexceedingly expensive. But three or four yearsago. almost simultaneously, Trlpler. Hampsonand TJnde found a much simpler and more eco-nomical way to accomplish the object. Trlplernow believes that he can liquefy air at a cost ofbetween two and five cents a gallon ifopera-tions are conducted on a large scale. Liquidair has been used to propel an andfor refrigeration and blasting, other applica-tions have also been contemplated. Thus far.however, none of these have yet been developedto a stage that Insures a commercial demandfor tb« product, and the problem of storing Itwithout evaporation is not yet fullysolved.

JAMES P. HAUL

RAILROAD CAR LICMTIXG.

The most sensational and important eventin the history of mining In this country, per-haps, was the discovery of gold in CaliforniaIn IS4S. This was followed a few years laterby similar developments in South Africa andAustralia. Just prior to the middle of the cen-tury the world's production of this metal wasonly $30,000,000. In 1853 it was flfio.OoO.Ooo.Of this amount California contributed 160.000.-000. In1890 the United States and South Africaeach produced between $70,000,000 and |H000.000, and Australia's yield was aboutJ78.000.00iX

One striking feature of many of these depos-

its was that the metal occurred In the gravellybeds of existing or ancient rivers, and could beseparated by the simple act of washing the dirt.No crushing of rock with costly machinery wasnecessary- A shovel, a pan and a stream ofwater constituted the "plant" of many miners.Powerful Jets of water for eating away gravelbanks, huge dredges for scooping up river bot-toms and elaborate sluices for catching theprecious metal are only later developments ofthat primitive system. Less remarkable, yetnoteworthy, are the Introduction of the chlo-rlnatlon process tor treating sulphurets. and theu»*of cyanide f>tJjQtgs?tum to extract gold fromlow grade ores and "tailings."

Scarcely |c** wonderful has been the productionof silver, which ducing. the last twenty or thirtyyears 'has becorngfmsabundant as to upset theold ratio between Its value and that of gold.Silver Is sometimes found In this country un-atiaodated with other metals, but a good dealof It Is mixed with gold or lead. The famousmines of the Comstock Lode produced bullionamounting to *3-H).00u.oO0 between 18flO andISHQ. although the output was merely nominalduring the last dosea years of that period. Overhalf of th" yield «ln value) was silver.

Two other startling discoveries were those ofpetroleum In the United States Just before theCivil War. and of diamonds in South Africa.The value of the former product Is now about$«j5.000,000 annually, or close to that of theAmerican gold mines. Klmberley has for thirtyyears supplied fully08 per cent of all the newdiamonds nf commerce.

By far the most valuable achievement In thefield of metallurgy In"the last hundred years lathe Invention by Bessemer of a new process ofmaking steel. Under the. Influence of the greatlylessened cost the production of steel rails, ma-terial for bridges, ships, machinery, cutlery andhardware was Immensely enlarged. Indeed, sofar reaching are the benefits of this inventionthat it must rank among the first half dosen ofthe. century. Still, there are now signs thatthe so-called open hearth system of makingBt*el may ere long eclipse It Inpopularity. Thebasic process, which makes It possible to useiron ores containing phosphorus (and hence un-sutted to treatment by the Bessemer process)is another of the century's advances in metal-lurgy.

'TILTZATIOX OF WASTE HEAT EFFECTSGREAT BCOSOMY IX FFEL.

Sixty years ago people had not begun to look forthe refinements and smaller economies In steampower plants tbat are considered so essential to-day; nevertheless It was as early s« 1X45 that thefirst Mr. Edward Green made his early experimentswith the workingof a fuel economizer, which Is nowregarded as the most indispensable adjunct of asteam power plant, by witose aid the surplus heat•scaping from the boilers Is arrested and utilised.There is probably no adjunct In connection withthe working of stationary steam boilers whoseeconomical value is more generally recognised atthe present day than that known as Green 1s Econ-omizer, or Flue F"eed Water Heater.It is this fundamental principle nf heating the

feed water In « separate vessel quite apart fromthe boiler, aad thereby utilizing rtie wasre gasespassing to the chimney.- which constitutes the dis-tinctive feature of the first of Mr. Oreen's Inven-tions, an Invention which Inits influence op boilereconomy and design is analogous In raan^Tespectsto Watt's application of the separate condenser tothe steam engine.

For a number of years engineers were very slowto take up this principle, hut during the last fif-teen or twenty years they have In the UnitedStates begun to realize the advantages of saving

all the waste heat possible In order to design themost economical plants, and Green's EconomizerIs now being universally adopted In all modern andup to date plants. The Pennsylvania Steel Com-pany. Steelton. Perm.. Is also using this device forutilizingthe waste gases from its blast furnaces.and the Rome Brass and Copper Company. Rome.N. T., from Its copper reheating furnaces.

Th« use and reputation of this particular appli-ance are not confined to the United States and GreatBritain, for ItIs Inoperation all over the Continentof Europe. It Is used in the textile factories ofIndia. Japan and China, and In the gold mines ofSouth Africa. .. .

The Economizer is manufactured at Mstteawan,In this Btate, by the Oreen Fuel Economlser Com-pany who at the present time are engaged In man-ufacturing them for the use of the Manhattan Ele-vated and Third Avenue Railroad plants of 100.000horsepower each.

The flret Economizer Installed In this country wasInlaw. for Thomas Baunders. of Providence. R. I.This was followed by It*adoption by the late Mr.Theodore Havemeyer for his sugar reflnery InBrooklyn, the other sugar refineries quickly follow-ing bis lead. The first Economizer erected for elec-trical railroad work was for the West Knd StreetRailway, of Boston, and was quickly followed byorders from the Union Railroad Company, of Prov-idence; Brooklyn City Railroad and most of th©other large roads Inthe country Inquick succession. riinrrn:r;.\niY.

Not only te astronomy the oldest of all thesciences, but it is also the one which gives manhis fullest sense of the Infinities of time andspace. The most Important addition to theequipment of the*-4evotees of stellar science in

the last hundred years Is probably the spectro-scope. The "diffraction grating," which Row-

land has 4nlae much to perfect, and the newtype of Instrument devised by Mlchelsop havea special value for certain rlas»«a of workwhere a high dispersion can be had. but theprism of Fraunhnfer

—greatly improved, of

course—

Is still the chief reliance of the, astro-nomical spent roscoplst. This Instrument revealssomething of the composition and temperature

of the stars, does the same f«r the sun. andanalyzes the atmospheres of the planets. Thediscovery that no celestial, object which mancan see contains other elements than those ofthe earth is a singularly Impressive hint of theunity of creation. The spectroscope, too. indi-cates motions toward or away from the ob-server, tells the velocities with which the starssweep through space, and betrays the doublecharacter of many of these bodies whose com-ponent parts cannot be separated by the mostpowerful telescope.

Another important aid to stellar science isphotography, which records the solar corona,sun spots, comets, star spectra, lunar scenery

and other objects and phenomena far more ac-curately and speedily than the hand can de-lineate them, and registers them for futurestudy and comparison. The sensitive plate hasalso led to the discovery of stars and nebulaepreviously unknown. Improved methods ofmanufacturing optical glass have made it pos-sible to develop the refracting telescope froman aperture of four or five Inches to forty orfifty,and this form of instrument is now pre-ferred to the reflector except for special kindsof work.

One of the most striking triumphs of the cen-tury its the measurement of the parallax ofstars,by means of which their distances are deter-mined and the. first definite conception of theextent of the universe obtained. Bessel andBtruve were the pioneers In this work. Othernotable achievements are the detection of thesun's way through space, the exploration of theInvisible part of the spectrum, the demonstra-tion of the harmlessness of comets, the findingof Neptune and the ring of asteroids, and thediscovery of several planetary satellites andthe canal-like markings on Mars.

A SCOTTISH^ NEWSPAPER'S CESTEXARY.Ten days hence. January 16. "The Dundee Ad-

vertiser" willenter upon the second century of Its

existence. One hundred years ago the paper wasstarted as a weekly of eight pages, measuring 13%Inches by 10 Inches, three columns to the page.

After some months the form was altered to fourpages, measuring IIInches by UK Inches, four

columns to th« page. The price, was sixpence (12cents). It was still a weekly when, away back In

1852. a young man named John Leng obtained an

Interest in the concern. Under Mr. Lens's man-agement the paper made rapid progress, and inMay. 1861. he began publishing It as a daily. Mr.Leng was knighted several years ago by QueenVictoria, and he has been for years a Member ofParliament for Dundee. He Is now at the neaa orone of the largest publishing establishments InScotland. Besides "The Advertiser," he has anevening paper and three weekly periodicals, whichcirculate allover Scotland and in nearly every partof the globe where Scotsmen are to be found.One notable thin* about "The Advertiser is thatfrom Its foundation Ithas always been an exponentof advanced Liberalism.

MEDICINE AND SURGERY.

ELECTRO CHEMISTRY l\/< PHYSICS.Carl Herlng.in The Electrical World and Engineer.

Products which not many years ago were rarespecimens preserved jn form of small fragments Insealed vials and kept only in laboratories and mu-seums as rare curiosities are now made electro-cbemically by the ton. Others, which were noteven known before. like carborundum, are nowalso made by the ton. A long series of new com-pounds, chiefly the carbides, have been discoveredand studied electrically. Materials Ilka graphiteand the diamond, formerly found only in nature.are now made artificially, the former by the ton inthe largest electrical furnaces in th" world. Realdiamonds are made, though at present only inmicroscopic specimens of no Intrinsic value. Realrubies are made -and small .natural ones can bemelted into large ones.

-There is still another possibility of the future

¦which mnrrit be mentioned here, although It be-longs more strictly to electro-physics than to- elec-tro-chemistry. It would be even more revolutionaryin character than any of th* others. A carefulstudy of the electric phenomena in vacuum tubeshas led certain prominent English physicists to theliner.-.-tinK conclusion '!..! atoms, which heretoforewere the smallest particles known, were capable ofsub-division. This Infers a recompoalflon of thesesmaller particles Into different atoms, or in popu-lar language, th<? possibility of the transformationof one metal Into another. Coming from such highauthorities, the Ftatemenf that atoms can Uo -i—¦composod,- startling; as it if, can be criticised onlyby their seen Let M wait developments; the. newcentury willbring them. ¦¦--.-¦:-¦

the Interior of the "Dark Continent" only themost succinct account is possible. For clear-ness of statement explorations are treated underfive general heads: First. Transsaharan, fromthe Mediterranean; second, the Niger regions;third, the lake regions near the Upper WhiteKile; fourth, the Zambesian region, and fifth,the Congo Basin.

According to different definitions of a desert,the Sahara varies in area from 2.500.000 to3,500.000 square miles, of which the easternthird Is generally known as the Lybian Desert.Hitherto this desert area, with scant water. in-tense heat and whirlingduststorms, Interposedan inaccessible barrier between the Hamiticnations of the Mediterranean coast and thevegro tribes of the Soudan.

SAHARA'S BARRIERS OVERCOME.Explorations of the Sahara were fruitless

Until Oudney, Denhani and Clapperion crossed<1822-*24> from Tripoli to Lake Chad Inthe Soudan. Lalng, following, crossed fromTripoli via Ghadames and Tuat to Timbuc-too. the mysterious city of strangely ex-aggerated importance from previous centuries.Panet. Vincent. Duveyrter and L.enz exploredthe desert between Senegal and SoutheasternAlgeria.Itwas Barth who gave the first definite ac-

count of the Saharan region by a journey of¦Ma* extent and importance. Starting fromTripoli, be crossed the Sahara to Lake Chad,passed Xorthern Hausaland to the Niger at Say

and thence reached Timbuctoo. Returning

northeast through Sokoto to Kukawa. he ex-plored Baenu. Barth's journeys Here of great

value, for he not only made known to the•world the existence and accessibility of hun-dreds of thousands of square miles of fertileterritory, but he also gave in rive volumes anenormous amount of geographical information,in which he treated quite thoroughly the eth-nology of the various tribes of the Central Sou-'dan. His successor. Rohlfs, after exploring

Southern Morocco, penetrated the Sahara to theoases of Tuat and Ghadames. and those of thedistricts of Feszen and Tibest i. He then crossedfrom the Mediterranean to the Guinea coast viaBasnu and Lagos on the Niger, the first Euro-pean to make the journey. Later <1873- #78) he

\ explored the oases in the Lybian Desert.\ "

The first Europeans to cross Africa from eastto west north of the equator were Matteucd andMassari. who travelled from Suakim via Kordo-tan, Wadal and Kano to the Niger. Nachtlgal

<IS6O- f7O) made a journey from Tripolivia Fez-zen to the.Lybian Desert, where he exploredthe remarkable mountainous region of

explored

remarkable mountainous region of Tibesti.Examining the Lake Chad district, he reachedEgypt via Wadai and Durfur.

The Sahara. Instead of being a low desert ofmarine origin, is an elevated plateau, whichhas been enormously denudated by the disin-tegration of its rocks through temperaturechanges and the distribution of its dust by high¦winds. It Is not entirely rainless, has many

(fertileoases and only needs abundant water to

produce luxuriant vegetation.

!NIGER AND NILE AN OPEN BOOK.• Th» mystery of the Niger, long erroneously

supposed to flow through the Soudan to thewest, was partly solved by Mungo Park. who.etarting from Gambia. In his first Journey

reached Bella on the »s]£;?£•¦., Ms secend expedi-

tion (1S03) ended In'^iuije/,' Clajiperton. re-

r^wtof the survey, perished, but his faithfulassistant, Richard Lander, definitely solved<IS3Q) the mystery of the Niger by descending

-from Bussa to the mouth of the stream.—

. French energy has explored Senegal and Gam-

Via by Hubault, Molllen. De Beauford andespecially Caiii*. elaaoq 9ta. The great mystery «f»trieaNlle sources, aftertwenty centuries of sppcula*loi. has been solvedby the labors of various explorers, most largelyby Baker. Speke and Stanley. Its largest lakesource. Victoria Nyanza. was discovered bySpeke. who missed Albert Nyanza. Baker dis-covered the source of the Blue (Abysslrjlan)Nile and the Albert Nyanza of the main, or"White, Nil*. To Stanley belongs the honor ofthe discovery of the remotest source. • AlbertEdward Nyanza, which feeds the Albert Nyanzathrough the Semliki River.'

The fabled Mountains of the Moon have givenplace in Eastern Africa to a most remarkable

!lacustrine system. The vast equatorial lakescover extensive regions, feed some of the larg-est rivers of.the world, and by their transporta-tion facilities favor commerce. Their centralSituation between the Cape and Cairo, con-venient to the Indian Ocean and on the confinesof the Congo Basin, caused them to be recog-BfjM as the central key to African dominationby Germany and Great Britain, who now con-"tr£l the region.*

Th» largest lake. Tanganyika, was discovereday Burton, while Livingstone contributedXyai-a. Mwero. Bangweolo and others. JosephThomson, exploring south from Tanganyika,discovered Lake Rukwa and also traversed un-known Masailand.

LIVINGSTONE'S GREAT WORK.

The fflacovery of the equatorial lakes was ofinordinate import to that of the Congo Basin.

.which grew out of missionary labors in Southi .Africa. .To the genius and energy of two men.

Da\'ld Livingstone end Henry M. Stanley, areprimarily due the exploration and utilization of:he vast unexplored regions between the Sou-dan and the Orange River. •

Unquestionably the missionary Livingstone,

who settled in Bechuanaland in 1841, was oneof the greatest of African explore! First dis-covering Lake Nygama. he turned his attentionto the Zambesi Valley, and practically covered¦this basin In1851-*56. and later, in ISSS-'G4. ex-plored Lake Nyasa and the adjacent country.

Most Important results flowed directly and In-directly from the last Journeys ofhis life.in 1866-

• '73. when, crossing the watershed to the very

sources of the Congo, he discovered Lakesv.yen and Bangweolo. the Luapula and Lua-

3a ha rivers, now recognized branches of theCongo.

Stanley, who found the long lost Livingstone,(completed the exploration of the main Congo

basin la a Journey (1875-78) which in it*discov-eries and results is unequalled in African ex-ploration. His circumnavigation of the great

UMM Victoria Nyanza. and Tanganyika, wasimportant, but the crossing to the watershed ofthe i-ualaba. which be proved to be the Congol.y following It to the Atlantic Ocean, was ajourney of unsurpassed courage, persistency andresourcefulness. His return to found the Congo

State v.'as followed by extensive discoveries.BsjsJi as Lakes Leopold and Mantumba. theÜbangi, Ka^ai and other affluents of the mightyriver. Stanley's laurels were increase^ by hissearch for Emln Pacha, when be crossed Africa

*¦ from th- junction of the Congo and the Aruwinl-over th- Bantu borderland. He discovered notonly an extensive and almost Impassable forest,

but also the animate lake source of the hueNile. Albert Edward Nyai ¦;.:-'.;

HIGH PRAISE for STANLEY.

XStanley's exploration- of the Congo basin was

a potential force, second only to that or Co-iumbus's. '.very of America. Each exploreropened up a. new continent, and gave rise to

.'scientific and philanthropic schemes which af-fected ihe progress of the world.¦ Kurope avvak-n-i I. ':.• importar.co of theCongo 1.a.-.: with Its preat lakes. Its i.n th-.u-

"Band mlles'of navigable rivers, which leave nopart of th* b.'ifin on. hundred miles distant; Us

¦fertile valley?, its animal life .i.id v -tal !-• re-eour-^f- and its millions of ¦ Inhabitants. Africaepe^.ny hf-ramc ih. contra of commercial ex-ploitation, which was not confined to privateenterprise. MOKt fortunately, by act of inter-

,national' .onf^t.nc th- < .n^"Free State, withan area of nearly a million -F.quar« miles, i.-cam.-Jn«epf-r:df-rit PresontluK th- greatest naturalpossibilities, ii practically bcarp, in interest andImportance, the same relation to Africa as dr.**

-watershed -f ti" Mississippi and its irll.u-taries to th.*, Unite! Htales. ¦ ' ¦

;-By rail and steamboat one row travols from

the Wett C-.a.-t. Jl,r..ui:h In- Conpo State, morethan half way .zcrvz-s Africa, Its revenue if«counted by t<?ti« of millions of francs, it« exportsS.n-1 ports in. re.,.«. •...).!.. and. apart, from

'the lli.wy.'JOO Inhabitants of the French Conso.

¦ r\n:Ki<A\-

GLASS EXPORTS. .<

Prom Thr American Kxporter. . „<-"<,,Tho great, bulk of our ware, export consists

of pressed crystal tableware, while there is consid-erable! ,-.;,.:...-. .i cathedral and opalpscont she»tBrings exported. Germany heir* the largest buyer Ofthis clhsk of our products. In '1..- connection a¦ftatemont of the' e.xportfi of-American glass andGlassware inns the rerrnt p*M willprove Inter-

I«04 lO'i.VJOiIWS ". fI.I3S.SSO«S :::::::::v.v.: «Si« n-:::::":-flMS85? :::::::::::::: 1,273,0151 1

-«*-

Medical practice has been marked by a dimin-ished use of drugs for remedial purposes. Somephysicians discard them altogether. Ilahne-mann. though more especially identified withthe theory that "like cures like," was. perhaps,

partially Instrumental in producing this result.The profession now relies largely on properfood, suitable dress, fresh air, exercise andsleep to restore health. But the prevention ofdisease, rather than its cure, is the prime aimof medical science to-day. And measures hav-ing that object In view are based mainly on thodiscovery by Pasteur and his disciples thatmany maladies have a bacterial origin. A sec-ond development from that revelation, jointly

with Jenner's system of protection againstsmallpox. Is the attempt to fightother diseaseswith Inoculation. The most conspicuous tri-umph with antitoxins has been won In dealingwith diphtheria, but more or less promising re-sults have also been attained with tuberculo-sis, pneumonia, bubonic plague, tetanus andrabies. .... Partly, with a,view to detecting baleful bacilliand partly on account of Schwann's discoverythat exceedingly minute cells are the seat of all.vital activities, the microscope Is now,largely-xised for purposes of diagnosis. The. stetho-scope is another modern instrument for findingmorbid conditions. : -•¦'A.:..In surgery the two most important- advances

are Lister's antiseptic system of dressingwounds and the use of anaesthetics. Wells andMorton introduced ether to the profusion in1M» and Simpson did the same for chloroformin IS17. With these two resources at his com-mand, the surgeon is now able to open the ab-domen, examine and remove any organ there,and perform other operations from which for-merly h« would have shrunk In dismay, j Skingrafting, nerve ."plicing and the subjugation of''

•••is. ijoints are among 'the other notable ad-vances in the art of healing

.For photography, one of the most valuable¦artistic and Industrial developments of thecentury, the world is Indebted to a number ofpersons. Daguerre deserves the credit of hav-ing first put it Into successful practice, but he

originated only a small part of th* process. Ason of the great potter. Wedgwood, found thatlight would impress Images on surfaces thathad been made sensitive with chemicals. Davydiscovered the superiority of nitrate of silverfor this purpose. The elder Nlepce used thefirst rutre camera, besides making suggestions

of less Importance. The special features ofDaguerre's procedure were the use of lodinevapor to sensitize his silver plat*,and mercuryvapor to develop the Image- after exposure. Buthe had no great success in fixing the picture

until he used hypoeulphate of soda In183!> andthis followed Sir John Herschel's description ofthe properties of that salt.

The old daguerreotype could not be reproduced.Fox Talbot was the first to make prints fromhis original picture, although his negatives weremade of transparent paper, not glass. In 1851Scott Archer hit upon the idea of coating aplate of the latter material with collodion, whichwas made the vehicle for his chemicals. Thiswas the old-fashioned "wet plate." whichformed the basis of all photographic work forthirty years, and which Is even now used to alimited extent. But when, In about 1880. a waywas found to put the sensitizing materials Intoa gelatine emulsion and let this dry on theplate before putting it into the camera, thepossibilities of photography were wonderfullyenlarged. Not only could the professional art-ist get pictures at a distance from his labora-tory, but countless amateurs were tempted topractise the art. too.. This was now turned toaccount for a host of business purposes as wellas for pleasure. Of late years there have beenmarked improvements in the papers used forphotographic printing, the effect foeirur to sim-plify and hasten the process, and ntAx> Krunotime give greater permanence and TTeauty tothe picture.

Among the modern applications of photogra-phy are Its combination with lithography andetching. 0:1 metal plates for the illustration ofbooks, 'magazines and newspapers. What Isknown as. the vhalf tone" process" reproduces aphotograph with such fidelity that wood en-graving has become almost a lost art.

¦Many attempts have been made to copy colorsphotographically, but none of thorn have re-sulted in an altogether satisfactory way. I,!pp-mann secured absolutely faithful reproductionof tint, but his pictures cannot be. multipliedand need to be examined, under certain specialconditions to show what they are. Th.» plan ofusing three different color screens, both in ob-taining.negatives and exhibiting print.", lias at-tained greater popularity end admits of dupli-cation, but it will not automatically give per-fect imitations of the original hues. ProfessorR. W. Wood, of Madison,' Wis;, has trl^d an en-tirely new principle, that of the diffraction*ratinir. but it is impossible to say, yet whether

AN H.L.T MINANT RIV.%IX.INO ELECTHICITT IX

BRILLIANrT ANI> EX^EBDINO All*

OTHERS t*t SAFKTT.

Purlnit the century Just closed th*steam railroadwas Invented, carried Into successful operation andextended until ltd Importance has dwarfed almostall other human enterprise. Beginning with a fewmiles of road, a single engine, two or three freak-ish looking carriages, th* whole financed by a fewindividuals, who looked upon themselves as en-thusiasts rather than Investors, and who were re-garded by an Incredulous public more as lunaticsthan either, the mechanical difficulties melted awayone by one, the number of passengers Increased,

mile after mile of new. metal shod roads were laid,capital took kindly to Its now convlnefhg merits,speed was Increased to th* extreme limits ofsafety—and perhaps a trifle beyond— and. last but notleast, the comfort of passengers began to be moreconsidered.

Night travel was. of course, a prime necessity inthis great, overgrown country of ours, and to thegently nurtured woman, even to the more hardyman of those times, a night spent in uncomforta-ble, seats In stuffy cars, alternately overheated orfreezing, joltingover illlaid roadbeds, perhaps withth* accompaniment of sick and fretful children.was certainly no delectable experience either tolook forward to or to look back upon.

Not the least of the Inconveniences to which trav-ellers were subjected was the absence or extremeinsufficiency of the light afforded In those terriblenight journey*, Lamps, fed with whale oil andtended by a brnkernnn. were the first Illuminatingappliances adopted for.cars, and how any one lampcould possibly smell as did every one »f these can-not be explained When they went out the brake-man came in;when he went out they did likewise—but under any and all circumstances they smelledwith a fat. unctuous, stomach disturbing odor thatwill never fade from the memories of those whoseevil fate took them Upon the rail at night,even solately as twenty-rive years ago

randies were occasionally substituted for thesemalodorous lamps, and at the prevailing rate oftwo for *a~h Coach, one at each end. they fulledtv?i"L.*? m ke ?n?nrkness visible. Kerosene washall«d for a brief time as the lone sought for Illu-rnlnant for railways. Itcertainly had some merits.Tho chandeliers fitted with two kerosene lampseach, and lavishly supplied, three to a car. aKorti-«* *hftter light tban either oil or candles-

hJ^^Sh* 1118 !SSi2 **•¥'b! but> that would notdown-when accidents happened, when collisionsoccurred, or cars were overturned, or a train left'm V..I1"' *1T,a »«*»«•»»»*• down? TtbTlamp,did the awful rest. Every train carrying kerosenelamp* that met with serious accident after daFkwas promptly and efficiently set on tiro by itslamps, and those of Its passengers who could notflames

escape met agonising death from the. After electricity had established it claim to samnencu as a means of lllumiruitlon. it w is ,iuv ni-signed to do duty in car BmaS hut tlie ex-pense of installation, the heavy cost of maintainingtho light and Ua uncertainty unricr tho ordlaarvfor such uSel travel soon proved its unnvailabilitylor sucn uses. jj*^ *.

Just' at this time, about fifteen years »-„ thprewas introduced Into this country a Gcrnmn methodor system of apparently well adapted tothe desired ...I It was k . .wii as tho 1-iiVi:.WKht. andlwas developed and patented by JuliusPlntsch. of Berlin. As used in this country. ItIsshown to even better advantage than in thr^Vuro-petm i-ou.ilri. The rapUiity with which tr-oViii-road managers of the Unite 1 St.it,.- adopted in¦method of cur UklUlok- shows tetter than uinr othrrone thing the Inherent merit- which tb* svternpossesses. Since its introduction, whlch.-ns beforepaid, w-na about fltt^nyears n?n,. th.ir^ have b.-anlri <- cars (including: about L'.vm I'ullman cars'*l.:; ,¦ 1 with the I'iius.h System of IJKhtin? and11 •" aro now fifty-liveI'int^ch Kas manuaicuirincplnnt3 in operation in th,- United Statr* ami Can-

ada About all th.;principal railroads of th- b'nite.-iStates now u?o this system, tind th« ruh work^arlifo distributed ov-r the roiti\ti->- that a car may berun all ovi»r this Kreat territory, and still secure asupply Of gas at alt needed points.

The -IMntsch Lisht Is al^o used by the "Unlt^lStates Government for lighted buoy? and beaconsand Itlias also been ndniitod and i>ut. In service, ,hvall the Kurnpean Governments.

Throughout the world there are now i..in hUOysnnd beacons of th»» IMntsoJi type -in service andthere arf> Sv* rintsoli gas mfinuf.icturinx ¦ works4.0: ilocomotives equipped with tho I'lntach lightoystom (mostly in I^iropean co\antrlf3>. and 10"> o>X>rallrond cars which arc now equipped with thissystem. •. ¦ . •

The Plntseh is an especially made o*fro™coatured from crude petroleum, instead o£ from ooal orwater, a-. in ordinary rlty gns. It.ha. a very, highilluminating- rower, ..bout five times that of cliy

as. and as a result It can he compressed .whichpermits of Its 1,i,, carried in a small' space underthe coaohe?, and also 'furnishes an excellent Illu-mination with a very small consumption.. Th*two salient features,, .when, taken.in .conjunctionwith the safety,- economy- and satisfaction that re-Fult from it« use,, are the reasons given for Itsmarvellous success.

-• ¦

•

THEIR PRODUGTIOXS \f\lM.YlS\STRUMBNTAL A\l> SECULAR.''?

As distinguished from the art of the thre»centuries ¦which immediately preceded It. th»music of, the nineteenth century was Dredomun.intlyinstrumental end secular. The influen Ml•¦which made Itso were at work several decadesbefore the eighteenth century came to a ctos-.but of tlie three masters who exercised it?most puissant force upon the new art twa w*-«

alive when the nineteenth century came st ¦]¦¦¦The apostolic succession passed from Haydn teMozart; from Mozart to Beethoven. Mozart tad .'been dead ten years wh*n Haydn, at the as*of sixty-nine, produced his "Seasons." in ISBtHaydn had rounded out the instrumental terras

1 which Beethoven was destines greatly to widen.and he liv^tosee that impetuous heaven- storm* •

strike out paths that neither he nor Meanthad ever dreamed of. Beethoven's first sym-phony appeared in 1800; his second in 1802. Is.these be trod reverently in the footsteps a?his great predecessors. In1803-'O4 he wrote tat'

Eroica." and In 1807 the C minor, and a assjworld of expression wa.3 open to music. , Now /the vessel had to be changed to enable it :o

Icontain the new contents. So the illustrativeiportion of- the symphony, the "free fantasia,"

was greatly extended, as was also the coaelnd-ing portion, the coda, and out of the minu«tgrew the Scherzo, which, instead of.reaafc&jjfthe playful thing implied by Its name. *sj

made the vehicle of the sasat varied sentimentand feelings. With the "Pastoral" symphonycame a highly idealized form of descriptiveor programme music, which, with a loss ¦LiIdeality, gave the impulse to the movement thathas culminated in the mad extravagances orRichard Strauss "HeMenleben." BerUes,Spohr. Raff and Liszt were the chief promote

of this tendency, one result of which was thecreation of the symphonic poem based upon theprinciple- of thematic variation enunciated hiBeethoven's fifth symphony, and the ¦bonUsaof the cyclical form. The introduction of voicesaccomplished by Beethoven la his last sym-phony has. also been Imitated and varied (Bar*lioz. "Romeo and Juliet"; Mendelssohn. "Hycm;of Praise"; Mahler's symphony, with alto seta.Nlcod*. "Das Most." etc*.

STEPS TOWARD ROMANTICISM.All these things are but successive stages at

phases of that striving for deflniteness of a*pression which la called Romanticism. The;'earlier followers of Beethoven— Schubert. Men-:delssohn. Schumann

—as the later Brahms, did

less violence to the established forms than theradicals of the Berlioz-Liszt school, an interest-Ing offshoot of which is the your- ,Russiancoterie. Rimsky-Korsakow. Cui. Borodin.. .Glaz-ounow, Tgchaiaowakj and others. The. works ofthese men are also continuing the nationalmovement based on the use of folksong idiomsintroduced Into the symphony by G^de and cul-tivated by- sue*, orchestral composers -a" Grieg,Svendsen. Sinking. Smetana and Dvorak.France has made an honorable record in theinstrumental Held with such men a* -Berlioz.Saint-Sai-na. Massenet. Cesar Franck* -d'lndv.Godard and Bizet, though the chief important*of the last is operatic. Italy ran Rajntf'toi buton* symphonist. Bgambatl. and Great Britainto but few. those meat frequently named beingCowen and Villiers Stanford. Worthy nameselsewhere have been and are Rubinstein. Klug-hardt. Rhetnberger. Wemjrartner. Gernsheira.Bruckner. Volkroann and Draeseke.

Composition for the pianoforte has reflectedmost of the influences illustrated in orchestral:and chamber imsic. plus those which went oat

jfrom the development of the instrument Itselfand the» growth •of virtuosity. The pianoforteis practically a product of the nineteenth cen-tury, and America's record in connection withits improvement is» the brightest page which.she has In the account of the century's music.' To Chopin and Liszt is duo the creation of a

jdistinctive style of composition, one which is;idiomatic of the instrument, in the first place.and the product of the perfecting of its manipu-lation In the second. The cultivation of the .smaller forms, best Illustrated In the music ofChopin, may be said to have begun with Schu-bert, though there was a hint in the bagatellesof Beethoven. Schumann and Mendelssohnmade the Instrument a vehicle for soulful poet*Ising. and were followed by Rubinstein, who.however, was a greater performer than com-poser. The century's list of great players be-gins with Clement I—the brightest names beingCzerny. Hummel, Dussek. Her* Cramer. Field.Thalberg. Taustg. .Liszt. Ilenselt. Rubinstein.Heller. Yon Billow, d*Albert. Rosenthal andPaderewski.. MEN WHO DOMINATED OPERA.• In the first decade of the nineteenth century

the dominant Influence hi opera in France aadGermany was Mosart. In the former country

there were Gretry. Lesueor. Isouard. MehuUBoleldleu. cultivating th© serious and comic ¦

forms, combining melodic purity with correctdeclamation. Cherubinl. Spontlni. Auber andRossini (In "William Tell**> continued the move-ment, which was checked and turned into astriving for sensationalism and garishness syMeyerbeer. Foreigners had controlling voicesin the French school from the establishment ofthe Academy down to the latter end of the nine*teenth century: but the new century opens withFrenchmen regnant. la Halevy. Gounod. Ant*bruise Thomas. Delibwv-Blast. Massenet aadSalnt-Saens France has a brilliant roster,though all were eclectics. The young school ofto-day, led by Bruneau and Charpentler. 13 rad-ical and firing new paths under the inspira-tion of Wagner, but not in Imitation of him-This reformer Is;the crowning operatic figureof the century

—whose influence has gone

out like galvanic currents in every direction.through all lands and Into every department efthe musical art. He has had imitators but cosuccessors, though he was himself an evolutionof Cluck, Beethoven and Yon "Weber. The pro-duction of "Tannhauser" (IMS). -Lohengrin"OaiT). Tristan und Isolde.'* "Die Meiaterstng-er." the establishment of the. Bayreuth festivalfor the production of "Der Bins dea NibeluagesTin ISTti, and the creation of "Parsifal." havebeyond question been the most significant occur-rences in the century* operatic history. Yon.Weber, Spohr anil Marschner paved the way forWagner with" .their romantic works, while theMozart spirit. informing the "Srngspiel" of theel.nhte-! -. century was perpetuated in :h» tuae-ful works of Kreutaer. Lortsmg. Nicola 1 &-

Flotow. Rubinstein. Goldmark. Goetx. BruU.Cornelius, Schillings. Bungert and Humperdmekhave been amon^:the leader? of the t^'o scoreor mor« of opera writers who h;ive kept th* ¦

German *\.\£t supplied with. ¦vs'Qrk?* wituO'-itpointing in- way to now-worlds. . ~~t\^'.

.WAGNER'S one worthy rival.•

Singular as .the juxtaposition 'may -¦••:-!.1 t"»

cureless .-a: Wagner has- had but- ens i•>*'•

worthy of the sjßjp Vcrdl embodies la hhastlfevery phase of devfloprrlent'that opera has gonsthrough In his native Italy since Rossis*, i"

18n. the "year of.Verdi's -birth', 'chancred^taetastes that h*.l been formed on Ficclnl. t'lma-rosa and Paislello. • His Ideals In IS3O, when be ¦

brought out -his "Oberto." ¦ rtiflfr^ in notMaCfrom those of Bellini and Donizetti, and fromthat opera to"Fal3taff' (1593) ,U a* wide anilin Its way aa significant a atep as the stridefrom Wagner's "Rlenzl" to his "Parsifal." AT.the end of the 'century • Verdi, in his e!«hty-

'eighth year, -is-still an influence for progressalong.healthy;line*, while. the "verltlam" of theyounger men who are perverting the. principlesof 'PonchlelU— Mascagnl.' Leoncavallo, • Puccini.Giordano and their fallows

—¦••mi already to ba

at th. end of its tether. ¦ H. B. KBSHBX£I*

¦>.«