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Production and Operations Management Unit 2
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 24
Unit 2 Operations Management
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Operations Management and Strategy
Strategic management process
Strategic decision making
Differentiation strategies
2.3 Tools for Implementation of Operations
Implementation of operations
Tools for implementation
2.4 Industry Best Practices
Pragmatic benchmarking
2.5 Summary
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Terminal Questions
2.8 Answers
2.9 Case Study
2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we dealt with integrated production management,
system productivity, capital productivity, labour productivity, personnel
productivity, and training. In this unit, we will deal with operations strategy,
tools for implementation of operations, and industry best practices.
Operation management is the systematic design, direction, and control of
the processes that transform inputs into services and products for the
customers. It goes from one side with suppliers and ends with customers. It
covers the entire value chain. It encompasses all management activities
using resources such as:
Plants The factory and the location where all the activities take place.
It includes machinery and heavy equipments
People Direct or indirect workforce
Parts The components, sub-assemblies, or even products
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Competitiveness is at the core of all strategies. Even among them, priorities
tend to bring the organisations focus on the areas to be dealt with in termsof allocation of resources people, money, and time. This means that
different functional areas with their own capabilities and constraints have to
be integrated for the overall corporate strategy. Flexible strategies and an
adaptive production process help to achieve high productivity and also to
satisfy the needs of customers, thereby improving the deliverables.
Innovation should occur at all stages. For example, one-hour paper printing
and one-hour screen printing services on the cover and same-day flex
printing and binding services.
Corporate strategy, functional area strategies, market analysis, competitive
priorities, competitive capabilities, and new service/product design are themain operations strategies in any organisation. Operations strategy is
formulated to leverage the advantages, absorb the consequences of the
variable nature of various functions, and provide a dependable
implementation programme. Effective and timely communication is a vital
factor to involve and coordinate people at various stages and monitor the
progress. Figure 2.1 depicts the links between the factors of operations
management.
Formulation of a strategy depends on the following:
Assessment of strengths
Understanding of the weaknesses
Nature of external environment
Resilience of the internal environment
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1Fig. 2.1: Links between the Factors of Operations Management
The policies derived from the operations strategy should be amenable to go
along with the other functions. Organisation strategy should be such that the
strategies of different functions are designed to lend support to one another.Culture of the organisation should be established and nurtured in such a
way that conflicts are resolved with the overall organisation strategy in view.
1Operations Management, Krajewski and Ritzman Prentice Hall India (7th Edition, 2004)
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Operations strategy takes under its umbrella the quality, time, and flexibility.
Figure 2.2 depicts the phases of operations strategy.
Fig. 2.2: Phases of Operations Strategy
Quality Quality is the driving factor for any organisation. When buying
a product, a customer will always think about the value of the money he
or she is investing. Even if the price of the product is high, the quality of
the product will provoke the customer to buy it. Typical examples of
companies focusing on quality are Amway, Coco-Cola, Pepsi,
Tupperware, Sony, BMW, etc. Many Indian companies coming under
Tata group and automotive products manufacturers like Maruti Suzuki,
Rane (Madras) have won awards for providing high quality products.
Quality also includes cost competitiveness by various methods like Just-
In-Time (JIT), lean manufacturing, TQM, and TPM. Quality enables thefirm to be competitive, but more importantly, helps the company to
remain stable.
Time Time aspect considers that deliveries are made on time to meet
the customers expectations. Time taken to develop and market new
products is becoming very critical in the global environment. To seek
more business, organisations should reduce the time taken for each
factor during operations. The organisations mainly focus on reducing the
time for the elements. Time is also interpreted as speed of response to
any call from the customer, be it for post-sales service or new product
development or maintenance. Figure 2.3 depicts the factors to be
reduced during operations.
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Fig. 2.3: Factors to be Reduced during Operations
Flexibility Flexibility enables a firm to meet the changing demands of
the customers in order to develop new processes and materials and to
make the organisation more agile in its manufacture. For example,
Photon, Inc, a European computer component manufacturer, produces
components which are not fixed to particular configurations. This
enables production lines to be reconfigured within hours or days to make
new and different products. This flexibility has allowed Photon to expand
from manufacturing a few products for a single customer to making
hundreds of products for over 50 different companies. Flexibility can be
under different categories like operational flexibility, storage flexibility,
transportation flexibility, and material flexibility.
Remember
Operations strategy takes under its umbrella the quality of the product or
service, time taken to deliver the product, and flexibility to meet the
changing demands of the customers.
2.2.1 Strategic management process
Strategy formulation and development has been historically analysed and
debated in different fields of study. While strategy formulation is largely
influenced by the situational forces, the core practices like value addition,
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customer focus, total quality, and concern for environment will always be
followed. A business strategy is the result of a decision taken at the highestlevel. This outlines how the resources are deployed to achieve the goals in
an environment. A general framework to guide and activate the think-tanks
in the organisation is to come up with proposals. Action plans with time
frames, authority hierarchies, and feed-back mechanisms are formulated
and designed. At this stage, detailed scenarios as to the likely
consequences are considered and contingency plans are worked out for
implementation, if situations call for the same. Being in readiness with
alternatives is a good way of assuring the success of any plan.
For example, the production of a model of motor cycle is to be increased by
25% and the price is to be reduced by 10%. This decision would have beentaken as a strategy to meet the increasing demands which are real in order
to fulfil the following:
Enter a niche market of the competitor
Augment marketing departments claim after a vigorous sales campaign
Any other reason
The strategy for the marketing function would be many like promising
freebies, making the commission attractive for the dealer, or opening more
service outlets. The objective of an operations strategy is to achieve the
long-term goals established by the business strategy. The operations
strategy would consider the following constraints:
Subcontracting or including additional machinery
Improving productivity using different methods
Revamping assembly lines
Motivating the employees
Promoting existing employees or hiring new ones
Identifying and developing new suppliers
Looking for opportunities to reduce costs as scaling up provides scope
The above measures will be under consideration at all times. When a
change is considered, identification of areas of cooperation andcollaboration becomes easy. Opportunities arise for understanding and
resolution of problems. Setting up visible targets to meet the deadlines
encourages application of constancy of purpose as per Deming. This in
itself would be a strategy for improving quality and productivity. In addition, it
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is relevant to note the current trends and changes and switch over to
appropriate actions.2.2.2 Strategic decision making
Decision making is the most crucial management function. Decisions
commit the organisation and its members to activities which have financial
repercussions and affect the functioning of other departments or divisions.
Therefore, decisions are taken after lots of deliberations which involve steps
like data gathering, analysis, and predicting outcomes. Figure 2.4 depicts
planning and decision making.
Accuracy of data and their relevance for the matter under consideration are
the factors which affect the quality of decisions. In addition, the following
factors also form the basis of decision making:
Fig. 2.4: Planning and Decision Making
Environmental scanning The business environment of any
organisation includes the industry, marketplace, governmental agencies,
society, ecology, technology, and others. Organisations should be aware
of the business environment in which the firm exists, and have to
compete continually by exhibiting potential for opportunities and threats.
Being aware of those, and their impact on the firm by a process of
analysis, is called environmental scanning. Let us now consider the
potential exhibited by business environment:
o Competitors may be gaining an edge by diversification, making
forays into the firms niche market by making new and better
products
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o Suppliers could be forming cartels and preparing to drive hard
bargainso Government could be passing laws and issuing orders which could
affect the supply of materials or restrictions on import and export or
even employment conditions
Adaptation to these dynamic factors by environment scanning and basic
strategic decisions is vital.
Typically it used to be SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats) analysis. Now there is also PESTLE analysis which stands
for analysis of Political, Environmental, Social, Technological, Legal and
Economic environments. These analyses help in shaping the operations
strategies.
Core competencies Each organisation is started by an entrepreneur
or a small group of entrepreneurs. The objective is to use their unique
strengths to create and develop an organisation. These unique strengths
are the core-competencies of the organisation. For example, IKEA, the
Swedish furniture maker has the core competency in design. IBMs core
competency lies in research. Apple is known for innovation. Reliance
groups core competency is handling mega projects. However, many-a-
time, it becomes necessary to augment the existing business with some
additional strengths or competencies. Such developments andimprovements in core competencies provide an edge over the
competitors who would have to grapple with these competencies. These
build ups are usually through collaborations and acquisitions or joint
ventures.
Core processes of an organisation are determined by the core
competencies. Four main core processes are mentioned below. Figure
2.5 depicts the core competency process.
o Customer relationship
o New product/service development
o Supplier relationshipo Order fulfilment
The emphasis on these processes depends on:
o The type of industry
o The length of its existence
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o The consequent strengths built up in certain areas
o
The way earlier successes have been achievedo The reinforcement they have given to the organisation
One should remember that the environment is always dynamic and the
strategy formulation needs to be constantly updated for making effective
implementation. Ultimately, every organisation depends on the core
competencies which give it an advantage over the competitors.
Fig. 2.5: Core Competency Processes
2.2.3 Differentiation strategies
Differentiation is a process by which a company distinguishes itself from its
competitors and their offerings. The process includes adding a set of
differentiators, which are meaningful, and adds value for the customer. The
differences should be perceived by the customer as important, distinctive,
superior, and affordable. Further, the differentiators have to make the
companys offerings (the products and services) profitable.
To derive a competitive advantage, the study of the processes is important.
Here, we are not considering the situation of an entirely new product but
those which are already contributing to the company revenues.
Companies have different potential in terms of manoeuvrability along with
target market, place (channels), promotion, and price. These are affected by
the companys position in the market, and the industry structure.According to Miland Lele, (Miland M.Lele, Creating Strategic Leverage:
New York, John Wiley 1992)
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Boston Consulting Group (BCG) has classified four types of industries and
the approaches available. Figure 2.6 depicts the classification of industriesaccording to BCG.
Fig. 2.6: BCGs Classification
Another useful framework to identify the product portfolio is the BCG matrix
that classifies the product offerings along a two dimensional matrix in terms
of growth and market share. This analysis enables a company to prioritise
its product mix to ensure growth and revenue. (Source: QuickMBA.com)
Size of advantage vs. number of approaches to achieve advantage
When the volume of the industry is large, the advantage for a firm is high,
but the number of approaches is small. On the other hand, if it is
fragmented, the size of the advantage is small, and the approaches are
many. The options available and the quantum of advantage are the
considerations for any strategy. For products differentiation, we consider
form, features, and the quality of performance. By form, we mean the
shapes, dimensions, and aesthetics which determine the physical aspects of
the product.
The components and parts that are integral to the product may not be visible
but will have suitable and easy forms for assembly, identification, extraction,
insertion, and inspection. This is necessary for making a product serviceable
and repairable to meet the customers needs. The dimensions are optimised
for safe use, safety, and durability.
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Aesthetics is the ultimate differentiator to attract the customer and make him
comfortable using it. Features contribute for differentiation to a large extent.It addresses the requirements of the customer in such a way as to make the
products meet them in a way that the competitors do not. Again,
performance is looked at from the point of view of reliability, durability, and
reparability.
Any organisation in the manufacturing or the service sector has to develop a
strategy and ensure sustainability through competitive environment.
Strategy is not static but varies with time and changes in environment.
Particularly when changes are occurring rapidly, strategy needs to be
frequently revised and modified. This further demands innovative abilities
and persistence.
Self Assessment Questions
1. ____________ is the systematic design, direction, and control of the
processes that transform inputs into services and products for the
customers.
2. A business strategy is the result of a decision taken at the highest level
which outlines how the resources are deployed to achieve the goals.
(True / False)
2.3 Tools for Implementation of Operations
All functions in the organisation including administration, finance, materials,
purchase, marketing, production, logistics, communication, and others can
be considered as operations. The reason is that all of them use some inputs
like materials or information either on a person-to-person basis or through a
flow line. They are required to use some process and convert them into
outputs usable in the next stage of the value chain. For example, when an
invoice is received for payment, it contains information about the following:
Material or a service
Person who needed the invoice
Price to be paid Supplier
Transportation
Insurance
Quantity
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Tax to be paid
Others
The bills payable section will have to verify the data regarding the above
and seek the inspection reports from the quality control department/user.
Before the actual payment is made, verifications such as the terms of
payment and availability of funds are done. Verification will help you to
notice the following:
Information is sought or given
Materials received and transferred
Papers/instructions are received/issued for initiating activities
All these are also operations. However, for our study, we will limit our focusto operations involving manufacturing. We identify a set of specialised
techniques. We call them tools which can be standardised for ease of
implementation and control. In the recent times, operations are considered
from end to end of value chain which means the operations that start from
sourcing of materials and other inputs to successful delivery of products to
customers or end users.
2.3.1 Implementation of operations
Implementation is the process of executing the planned operations. When
planning and controlling functions are put together, we call it as
Implementation of Operations.
The planning is the process of estimating, routing, and scheduling. The
controlling functions are conducted while the manufacturing is going on, like
dispatching and expediting. Figure 2.7 depicts the implementation of
operations.
Fig. 2.7: Implementation of Operations
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Estimating Estimating gives the quantities to be made at each
workstation depending on the sales forecast, provision for buffer stock,quantities bought out, services outsourced, likely shortfalls, and others.
It is made on the basis of capacity.
Routing Routing determines the sequence of operations and the
machines that do them, so that work flow, as determined by the
processes, is smooth resulting in minimum inventory.
Scheduling Scheduling is mainly concerned with allocating time slots
for different jobs. It specifies as to when the jobs start and end at
particular workstations. The purpose is to prevent the imbalances
among work centres and to utilise the labour hours in such a way that
established lead times are maintained. Dispatching Dispatching is concerned with moving of the materials
with tools, jigs, and fixtures to specific machines along with the drawings
and ensuring inspections at specific nodes, so that the materials move in
the supply chain.
Expediting Expediting ensures that all the above are being done
properly. Reports are generated and any bottleneck that gets created is
removed.
2.3.2 Tools for implementation
Gantt charts developed by Henry Gantt long back for the purpose of
visualising the work assignments and sequence and timings are used to
record progress comparing the actual against the planned activities and to
keep track of the flow of the material. In its simplest form, a Gantt chart
consists of horizontal bar graphs on time scales.
Line balancing and line of balance are two more tools to ensure that
machining centres are loaded as uniformly as possible to prevent build up
stocks at intermediate stages.
Simulation models are used to predict utilisation of machines and production
levels. Various inventory models help us to determine when to order and
how many to order. It also gives us an insight to the risks and opportunitiesthat come up for our consideration.
Proper maintenance and analysis of records help us to see the gaps that
have crept into the operations system. Checking across functions will make
the tools being used to be modified realistically and increase efficiency. ERP
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software, especially SAP, have many modules that store, sort, and analyse
data and make them available to the staff across the globe in many plants,enabling managers to streamline their operations. Software specific to
functions, applications, or organisation can be obtained. Microsoft
Operations Manager 2005 is a useful tool in this regard. Figure 2.8 depicts
Microsoft Operations Manager 2005.
Fig. 2.8: Microsoft Operations Manager 2005
Case-let 1
MakTel is a national telecom provider. The customer utilisation of ISDN
was less; therefore, the company faced poor sales of ISDN services for
several years. Also, the quality of service delivery was low. The company
applied Pareto analysis to extract the reasons for the failures in service
delivery. The analysis showed that the problem is poor quality of networkterminals and unqualified technicians for provisioning of the ISDN
service. MAkTel rectified the problems and energised the company sales.
Case-let 2
In the recent times, technology is intensively used to track the processes
that are part of the value chain. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
helps in tracking and monitoring the flow of goods as they travel through
the entire line. Gillete company uses RFID exclusively for razor blade
movement in cases and pallets from manufacturing centres to customers
place through distribution centres. The company claims an operational
savings of more than 20%. As stated in infoworld.com, dated 15-08-2005,
Gillette, RFID has improved order processing, streamlined inventory
management systems, and increased shipment accuracy, according to
Dick Cantwell, the company's vice president of global value chain.
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Self Assessment Questions
3. ______ is mainly concerned with allocating time slots for different jobs.4. ___________ is a process by which a company distinguishes itself
from its competitors and their offerings.
5. _________ determines the sequence of operations and the machines
that do them, so that work flow is smooth.
6. __________ is used for the purpose of visualising the work
assignments and to know the progress of work by comparing the actual
against the planned activities
7. Dispatching is concerned with moving of the materials with tools, jigs,
and fixtures to specific machines along with the drawings.
(True / False)
2.4 Industry Best Practices
Each industry would have progressed over the years or decades improving
their processes and products. During this development, the materials would
have changed and processes would have changed. As all products or
services are meant to serve the needs of the customers, they undergo
continuous changes both in configuration and features.
Materials and methods go on improving incessantly because of the research
that is conducted. The companies that were at the front innovate to stay in
business as new entrants would be adopting the latest techniques that the
pioneers had taken decades to establish. Various firms in any industry
would end up adopting almost similar methods of getting an output as
required, but only a few among them would reach great heights because of
different practices that lead to superb performance. Such practices would
get refined to a great extent giving rise to what we call industry best
practices. These tend to get stabilised or changed owing to the development
of new equipments which are designed. A very commonly quoted example
is the Toyota Production System (TPS) adopted by various companies world
over in the pursuit of excellence.
A manufacturer, with an eye on growing markets, demands higher quality
and reduced prices. Industry best practices open up the field for
benchmarking by companies which need to improve their performance.
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2.4.1 Pragmatic benchmarking
Pragmatic benchmarkingis a method of measuring a companys processes,methods, and procedures in a way that all functions in great detail.
Benchmarking, in its simplest form, is understood as a process of
comparison with a superior performer anywhere in the world to improve
quality and is used to understand how these practices can be brought into
the system and what circumstances brought them about. It is a learning
process with a view to find out whether some of the reasons have changed
and to bring in new processes for improvement. The metrics that could be
used are the:
Number of pieces per hour
Cost per unit Number of breakdowns per week
Customer alienation during a week
Return on investment
Number of returns from customers in a month
Inventory turnover
Many others
The figures obtained from the above determine the efficiency of the
organisation. To keep focused, many organisations, especially the large
ones, select a few processes for purposes of benchmarking. This helps in
ensuring constant and deep attention to those aspects which are to be dealt
with. The following are the types of benchmarking considered by various
firms:
Process benchmarking business process
Financial benchmarking
Performance benchmarking
Product benchmarking
Strategic benchmarking
Functional benchmarking
Benchmarking is usually classified into two groups namely internal and
external benchmarking. Internal benchmarking refers to comparison within
the organisation or industry and external benchmarking refers to comparison
with outsiders. Any measurable parameter or entity can be benchmarked.
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Steps in benchmarking
Planning, analysis, integration, and action are the four steps recognised inthe process of benchmarking. The select criteria are compared with the
performance parameters of the company which is considered the best in the
industry. Targets are set and activities are conducted to reach them. Let us
discuss in detail about the steps which are necessary for conducting a
benchmarking operation.
Planning Planning determines the process, service, or the product to
be benchmarked on which metrics are assigned for collection of data.
Analysis Analysed data gives inputs for comparison with the target
companys performance on the parameter benchmark on which data
was collected. Measuring gaps helps in identifying the process whichshould be improved for reaching the benchmark.
Integration Resources are required across all functions to achieve the
target needs. Integration involves putting together resources like people,
equipments, and communication, so that, progress is unhindered and all
activities reach their logical conclusions without loss of initiative or time.
Action When changes are needed, actions have to be planned
according to the steps earlier stated. The teams are provided with
necessary leadership, authority, and supporting facilities to enable them
to complete all activities within the time frame set for the purpose. Since
benchmarking is done in specific areas, it is necessary to maintain the
focus and implement actions without losing initiative, so that, results
become demonstrable.
It is necessary to set achievable targets keeping in view the availability of
resources, technology, and to spread awareness about the importance of
what is attempted and how success improves the image of the company.
This approach is recommended by the Total Quality Management (TQM)
guru Edwards Deming.
This approach can be called pragmatic because building up knowledge-
based analysis of data and achieving the targets set the tone of continuous
improvement and move the organisation towards excellence which was the
reason we started benchmarking. Many times, benchmarking is done
internally. When an enterprise has a number of plants and some of them
adopt similar processes, it is likely that one group may have developed
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techniques and methodologies of doing them better than others. Internal
benchmarking is resorted to as a measure of identifying the strengths in theorganisation. By internal benchmarking, knowledge, and skills are shared
and complemented taking the organisation to a leadership position. The
most important point for the successful adoption of benchmarking is a
willingness to learn from someone better and the ability to translate such
learning into improvement initiatives.
Remember
Pragmatic benchmarking is a method of measuring a companys
processes, methods, and procedures in a way that all functions in great
detail.
Self Assessment Questions
8. ___________ is resorted to as a measure of identifying the strengths in
the organisation.
9. Pragmatic benchmarking is a method of measuring a companys
processes, methods, and procedures in a way that all functions in great
detail. (True / False)
2.5 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:
Operation management is the systematic design, direction, and control
of the processes that transform inputs into services and products for the
customers.
Optimisation of operations is vital to enable the firm to be competitive.
Operations function should be guided by strategies which are consistent
with the organisation strategy.
Strategy is very important for the operations because it guides the
managers in implementing policies which have long-term implications for
productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction. It is imperative that we measure up to the best in the industry by
benchmarking and being competitive.
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2.6 Glossary
Strategy: plan for achieving the goals and objectives in best possible
way
Environmental scanning: monitoring of organisations internal and
external environment for detecting opportunities and threats
Core competencies: unique ability that the organisation acquires that
cannot be easily imitated
2.7 Terminal Questions
1. What is operations management?
2. What do you mean by operations strategy? Explain in brief.
3. Explain the importance of decision making in organisation. What are the
factors affecting decision making?
4. What is meant by differentiation? Explain.
5. Write a brief note on implementation of operations.
6. What do you understand by industry best practice?
2.8 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Operation management
2. True
3. Scheduling
4. Differentiation
5. Routing
6. Gantt charts
7. True
8. Internal benchmarking
9. True
Terminal Questions
1. Refer 2.1 and 2.2
2. Refer 2.2 and 2.2.1
3. Refer 2.2.2
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4. Refer 2.2.3
5. Refer 2.3 and 2.3.16. Refer 2.4
2.9 Case Study
Competition Strategies From Collaboration to Acquisition
The Indian tractor market has seen tremendous growth during the last two
decades and currently the battle for supremacy in the market is between two
companies, John Deere and Mahindra and Mahindra.
The manufacturing of tractors started in India in the post-independence era
in 1960s. For a long time, Punjab Tractors was the leading manufacturerand their brand Swaraj was very popular in the northern part of India.
Down south, Tractors and Farm Equipment (TAFE) happen to be the
leading manufacturer of tractors. Mahindra and Mahindra stood at number
three.
In the year 2001, Mahindra and Mahindra decided to improve their position
and become the market leader. The company benchmarked its productivity
and financials against the best in the class namely Punjab Tractors Limited
which used to take money in advance and deliver the tractors later.
However, Punjab Tractors market share slumped from 18.6% in 1999-2000
to 8.1% in 2006-2007. At that time, Mahindra and Mahindra decided to goafter the company and acquired Punjab Tractors. After about three years,
the turnaround happened and the company was able to post healthy figures.
According to Pawan Goenka (President, Automotive and Farm Sector,
M & M), Punjab Tractors had done better than expected. The target of
doubling the turnover and tripling the profit has been achieved and the
merger has proved highly beneficial to Mahindra and Mahindra.
The strategy of acquiring and merging Punjab Tractors has proved to be
successful to Mahindra and Mahindra. They also used the customer
feedback effectively in improving the tractor design and looks.
Mahindra Tractors is now the world's largest tractor company by volume.
For over two decades, the company has been the leader in the Indian
tractor market, which is also the largest tractor market in the world.
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However the competitors are not quietly watching. The second biggest
tractor manufacturer, TAFE group, had a decent growth of 17%, led by itsmost famous brand Massey Ferguson (also the name of its partner). This
brand enjoys very good brand equity among tractor buyers. TAFEs
acquisition of Eichers Tractor Division (way back in 2005) has also helped it
to grow both in terms of volumes and technology.
(Sources:
http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/607322/tractor_market_in_india_
an_analysis
http://www.mahindratractorworld.com/
Bhandar, Bhupesh (2010), Collaborative Competition, The Strategist, Business
Standard, 27 December 2010.)
Discussion Questions:
1. What are the objectives that Mahindra and Mahindra had in mind when
they noticed their position in the tractors market?
2. What strategies are followed by Mahindra and Mahindra in reaping
success in the tractors market?
3. What other strategies might have been followed by Mahindra and
Mahindra to accomplish their objectives?
4. Is merger and acquisition a good strategy? Under what
circumstances? Discuss with relevance to operations management.
Reference:
Krajewski and Ritzman, (2004) Operations Management, 7th Edition,
Prentice Hall India.
Operations Management, Krajewski and Ritzman Prentice Hall India
(7th Edition, 2004)
Miland M.Lele, Creating Strategic Leverage: New York, John Wiley
1992)
E-Reference:
QuickMBA.com
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