historical methods of english language...
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Historical Methods of English Language Teaching Lynn Grantz, MATESOL Lumenus ESL Director, Valparaiso University Lynn.grantz@valpo.edu
Approaches to Teaching Language: An Overview
www.autolife.umd.umich.edu/Labor/L_Overview/FordEnglishSchool.htm
Why? • Prior LL experience for
your students (or you) • Pick and choose in a
communicative approach, depending on your situation
• Understand influences on our teaching styles
Pre- 20th century
� 2 types of FL teaching: ◦ Getting learners to use a language ◦ Getting students to analyze a language
� Classical Greek and Medieval Latin: languages were used for communication so the emphasis was on teaching people to use the languages
� The elite were fluent speakers, readers and writers
• Pre-1600’s • 1638 – first printing press
in the US • Grammar becoming
standardized • Language study as part of
a classical education
Grammar Translation
Grammar Translation � Why learn Latin and Greek? � To read classical literature � Learning a FL is good
mental exercise � To be considered an
educated person � Knowing a language
means knowing grammar rules and vocabulary
Grammar Translation Method � What happens in the classroom?
� Read Classical texts � Students translate from L2 –L1, or vice
versa � Students memorize the L1 meaning of
L2 vocabulary � Teacher as authority, source of
knowledge � Grammar is taught deductively
• Given rule • Memorize rule • Asked to apply rule to other examples
– What areas of language are emphasized? What skills are emphasized?
• Vocabulary and grammar • Reading and writing • Little attention to speaking and listening • Almost no pronunciation work
– What is the role of students’ native language?
• The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating into the students’ L1
• The language of explanations is L1
GT Method
� How does the instructor assess student learning? � Written tests based on translation � Grammar tests: repeat, apply rules
� How does the teacher respond to student errors? � The correct answer is of utmost
importance � If student doesn’t know an answer or
makes an error, the teacher supplies the correct form
GT Techniques – may or may not be useful � Translation of a literary passage
� Reading comprehension questions
� Antonyms/synonyms
� Memorizing vocabulary and grammar rules
� Deductive application of rule � Fill in the Blank exercises
The Direct Method
The Direct Method • One of several ‘natural
methods’ (including the Berlitz Method) to develop in the late 1800’s
• Based on trying to model L1 Acquisition
• How do people acquire their L1?
The Direct Method
• Interaction • One basic rule: No
Translation! – Direct: meaning is to be
conveyed directly in the target language
– How? – Showing the students – Model L1 learning
Instructions on how to teach using the Direct Method
• Teach the spoken language first
• Relate the new words directly to their referents in the outside world;
• Practice; • Work as hard as possible to
gain and keep the learner’s interest. Howatt and Widdowson, A History of English Language Teaching
The Direct Method
• The goal of the teacher – To get the students to
communicate and think in the target language
• The role of the teacher – To direct class activities; – The student is less passive than
in GT and the teacher-student relationship is more like a partnership
Characteristics of the learning process in the Direct Method � Teachers want students to “associate
meaning in the target language” ◦ Important to demonstrate meaning
through realia, demonstrations or pictures ◦ The students are given the new word,
and never the L1 equivalent – why? ◦ Students speak in the target language
a great deal and communicate about real-life situations ◦ Grammar is taught inductively/explicit
grammar rule may never be given – why?
Direct Method
• Areas of language emphasized: – Vocabulary over grammar – Oral communication given priority – Reading and writing based on
topics from oral practice – How does teacher respond to
errors? • By trying to get students to self-
correct whenever possible
Some DM Techniques � Reading aloud ◦ Students take turns reading dialogues,
passages, plays, etc. out loud. ◦ At the end of each turn, the teacher
uses gestures, pictures, etc. to get meaning across
� Question and answer practice (in full sentences) ◦ Only in L1 ◦ They get practice in initiating
communication
• Conversation Practice – Asking students about themselves in a
way to get them to use new grammar structure or vocabulary
• Dictation – Teacher reads passage once at
normal speed – Reads second passage again, slowing
down so students can copy – Reads again so students can check
work
Problem with Direct Method? • L2 learners are not the
same as L1 learners
Audio Lingual Method
Audio-Lingual Method • 1940’s
– WWII and need to turn out FL speakers
– Behavioralism/Skinner • Looks at language learning from
a behavioral view: – Language is learned as a habit – Focuses on oral communication – Students are drilled in phrases and
grammatical sentence patterns
Principles of Audio-Lingual Method � Goal of teacher: ◦ Enable students to use the target
language communicatively; ◦ Students have to overlearn the
language to use it automatically without stopping to think.
� The role of the teacher: ◦ Orchestra leader: directing and
controlling the language behavior of the students ◦ Good language model for the students
to imitate
� Some characteristics of the AL method: ◦ New vocabulary and structural patterns
presented through dialogues ◦ Dialogues are memorized and repeated ◦ Drills are conducted based on patterns in
the dialogue ◦ Grammar is induced from examples; explicit
grammar rules not provided ◦ Cultural information contextualized in
dialogues ◦ Perfect pronunciation is the goal
Audio-lingual Method � Role of the students’ native
language? ◦ Forbidden ◦ Translating slows down the learning
and use of the target language � Teacher’s response to errors? ◦ Errors are to be avoided at all costs
� A-L Techniques ◦ Dialogue memorization ◦ Drills: Chain, repetition, single-slot or
substitution
“DESIGNER METHODS” OF THE 1970’S The Silent Way Suggestopedia Total Physical Response (TPR)
THE SILENT WAY
Learning Lakota using the Silent Way 1 Learning Lakota the Silent Way 2
The Silent Way
• What did you notice? • Why is it called the Silent
Way? • What role does the
teacher play?
The Silent Way
• The role of the teacher: – Facilitator; only the student can do
the learning – Teacher silent but busy – Teacher listens – Teacher prompts non-verbally – gives what each student needs in
order to learn – Teacher cares about students’
feelings – affect becoming important
Suggestopedia • Lozanov • Students can learn a language at a
faster rate than usual; � the reason they don’t – affective
factors – Desuggesting limitations on
learning by focusing on students’ feelings
– Try to get them to rid themselves of feelings of failure
– Give students the impression that language learning will be fun and easy
Ways to “desuggest” failure � Cheerful environment � Students choose new names and identities � Music is played during class to create a calm
state � Students play rhythmic instruments while
singing a song to “free speech muscles” and evoke positive emotions
� Meaning is made clear through translation � Teacher presents and explains grammar but
doesn’t dwell on it � The teacher gives hats to wear for the different
characters in the dialogue � Teacher corrects errors in a soft voice
Things to Try in Your Classroom � Bright and cheerful setting � Peripheral learning: posters on the walls
containing grammatical information � Positive suggestion: directly and indirectly � Creating a new identity � Role play in which students make up their own
lines � Primary activation: students read dialogue but
in different ways: angry, sad, excited, etc. � Creative adaptation: Students engage in
various activities to help them learn the material: singing, dancing, dramatization, games
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)
TPR Spanish class
• What did you notice? • What is the role of the
teacher? • What is the nature of
language learning?
Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR)
� Also called “the Comprehension Approach” - listening important
� If first there is comprehension, then production will spontaneously appear
� Fun, less stressful � No L1 � Positives? Drawbacks?
Sample
• Teacher models an imperative: Stand up!
• Teacher gestures others; practice • Teacher says “Stand up!” Ss
respond • Teacher says “Turn around” and
models • Repeats, gestures for others • Gestures towards individuals • Can introduce grammar
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
CLT
• Began in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s
• The focus is on preparing students to communicate
• What is communication?
Communication and Communicative Activities
• Communication: the expression, interpretation and negotiation of meaning
• True communication is purposeful • It fulfills a function • There is an information gap • Participants communicate in order to
bridge the information gap
CLT teaches Communicative Competence
• Linguistic Competence – What you know about a language
• Communicative Competence Knowledge that enables a person to communicate: – functionally – Interactively – appropriately
Characteristics of the teaching/learning process in CLT • The goal is use of the target
language, so almost everything in the classroom is geared towards this
• Authentic materials are used • Real world contexts are sought,
because students will have to use the language in the real world
• Language production is meaningful, purposeful
• All skills areas can be taught communicatively, and students start working on all 4 skills from the beginning
Other Characteristics of a CLT Approach • Learner-centered, cooperative,
collaborative learning is emphasized • Small group work important to maximize
the amount of student talk time (STT) • A balance between fluency and
accuracy is important • Pronunciation doesn’t have to be
perfect: the goal is to be understood • Errors are part of the learning process • Activities are designed to elicit real,
meaningful communication – Communicative Activities
Communicative Activities • Characteristics of activities that
are truly communicative: – There exists an information gap:
one person has information that the other doesn’t. This gap creates a need to communicate
– Students are allowed some freedom in how they will respond
– The communication is meaningful – The communication is purposeful;
students are communicating in order to do something – why?
How to make activities meaningful and communicative 1. Students must be given a reason to listen,
to read, to write and to speak – For example: students should read a
short text – Grammar Drills? 2. Interaction should be as realistic as
possible 3. Activities should have an information gap
built in – if you know, why should I tell you?
4. Examples - writing a letter - asking and answering questions
Communicative Language Teaching Approach • What is the goal?
– The goal is to get students communicating
– Language is a tool for communication
– Develop students’ Communicative Competence
• Characteristics: – Students are speaking, listening,
reading and writing for a reason – The students are communicating
meaning – The students are using authentic
language – Students are interacting in pairs and
small groups – why? – Students are negotiating meaning – Teaching of functions as well as forms
Other Concepts related to CLT 1. Learner-Centered Instruction
– Choice – Interests – Let them initiate
2. Cooperative and Collaborative Learning - why? – Negotiating meaning leads to
language acquisition – Real communication takes
place
3. Meaningful activities 1. Students must be given a reason
to listen, to read, to write and to speak – Students are asked to read a text? – Students listen to a recording of a
conversation?
2. Interaction should be realistic
3. Activities should have an information gap built in – if you know, why should I tell you?
Example: Tell your partners 3 things you can see in your group’s photo has no information gap – how would you change this?
4. Information Gap – types of activities • Guessing games • Interviews • Find the difference • Jigsaw activities
5. Comprehensible Input • Modified L2 being taken in by the
students • CI is an important aspect of Steven
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis • Comprehensible input is “the only
true cause of second language acquisition” Krashen 1984
• For optimal acquisition, students should be exposed to i+1
• How to make yourself more comprehensible?
Making input comprehensible • Modify your speech:
– Slow down – but how much? – Shorter sentences – Be aware of the grammar you are
using • Be aware of the level of vocabulary
you are using • TTT
– Teacher Talk Time – keep to a minimum
– Increase STT
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