gender issues in_ricefarming_crri
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Gender issues in rice based farming
systems
Krishna Srinath Director*
Directorate of Research on Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar
(Retired in 2013)*
Dedicated to The Memory Of
Dr Gopinath Sahu
Dr. Gopinath Sahu Memorial Lecture
Rice – A Women’s Crop
Rice was traditionally considered as a female crop taken care of by women individually or in groups
Rice was considered as a ‘girl child’ because of its delicacy and fragility, hence must be handled by women in its early stages
Rice farming scenario is usually represented by women performing transplanting which signifies their participation
Female slaves smuggled the seed grains of rice in their hair
They gained knowledge through close observation of plant growth cycle, growth habit, yield and cooking quality. They had good knowledge of land races
Separation of grains from the husk and bran is a highly skilled technique in which women had expertise
A Senegal women was buried with the mortar and pestle in honour of her labour
Rice – A Women’s Crop
Women and food security
The key to food security is in the hands of women
Physically, Annapurna is described as holding a golden ladle adorned with various kinds of jewels in her right hand and a vessel full of delicious porridge in her left
She who is full, complete and perfect with food and grains
She who gives nourishment At the household level, which is the
fundamental unit of civilization; women holds the key to the food security
Women and food security
In ancient Roman religion Ceres was a goddess of agriculture, grain crops and motherly relationships
Ceres was credited with the discovery of spelt wheat (far), the yoking of oxen and ploughing, the sowing, protection and nourishing of the young seed, and the gift of agriculture to human
Rural women are the main producers of the world’s staple crops – rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and millets – which provide up to 90 percent of the rural poor’s food intake
In Southeast Asia, women provide up to 90 per cent of labour for rice cultivation
In sub-Saharan Africa, women produce up to 80 per cent of basic foodstuffs both for household consumption and for sale
Women and food : Some facts and figures
Women perform from 25 to 45 per cent of agricultural field tasks in Colombia and Peru
Women constitute 53 per cent of the agricultural labour in Egypt
Fewer than 10 per cent of women farmers in India, Nepal and Thailand own land
An analysis of credit schemes in five African countries found that women received less than 10 per cent of the credit awarded to male smallholders
Only 15 per cent of the world’s agricultural extension agents are women
Source : www.fao.org/gender/en/agrib4-e.htm.
Women and food : Some facts and figures
Rice and nutritional security
Grown in 155 million hectare and supplies 1/5 of the global calorie
Enables producers to procure other food stuff by selling the commodity
The byproducts including hey, husk and bran support the livestock production in the villages
Intercropping and integrated cropping systems help to produce different crops which adds variety to the diet and contributes to other nutritional requirements in the rural areas
The Indian Scenario Rice is key to food security in India Rice covers about 42 million hectares of
the gross cropped area Grown in most diverse agro ecological and
geographical situations that encompasses wide socio economic and cultural diversity
Rice, both raw and cooked forms have religious and cultural significance
Rice based cropping systems in India
Cropping of single variety Mixed varietal cropping Intercropping with other crops Relay cropping Sequential cropping Integrated farming system
Changes in rice farming systems
Many changes have been witnessed in rice farming in the past years:
• Structural changes • Technological changes• Changes in socio economic dimensions
Structural changes
The changes lead to variety of consequences to the rural communities which to some extent affect their food security
Eg. When rice farming in ‘pokkali’ fields of Kerala were converted for shrimp production women lost employment opportunities, locally produced rice and its byproducts which in turn affected the livestock production in the village and also release of free human resource
World wide women play a very important role in crop, livestock and fish production
The nature and extent of participation varies with the agro production systems
Their role varies from mangers to landless labourers
In overall farm production their contribution is estimated at 55-60 per cent of the total labour, much higher in certain regions
Men’s participation remained constant around 52 per cent whereas that of women increased from 19 per cent to 26 per cent in 2001
Role of Women
The share of women among total agricultural labourers increased from 36.74 per cent in 1981 to 46.62 per cent in 2001
Among cultivators women’s share increased from 25 per cent to 32 per cent
According to FAO in Himalayas a pair of bullocks works 1064 hours, a man 1212 hours and a woman 3485 hours in a one hectare farm
About 20 crore people are estimated to be employed in the unorganized sector including women
Role of Women
Key gender statistics on work participation in India
Key Gender statistics on Work Participation in IndiaS. no
Parameters %
1 Overall work participation in India 39.252 Work Participation Rate amongst women 25.63 Work participation Rate amongst men 51.94 Cultivators to total workers 31.75 Agricultural Labourers to total workers 26.76 Women cultivators amongst total cultivators 32.367 Women amongst total Agricultural Labourers 46.628 (Men) Cultivators amongst total men workers 31.349 (Women) cultivators amongst women workers 32.5110 (Men) Agricultural Labourers amongst total men
workers20.82
11 (Women) Agricultural Labourers amongst women workers
39.43Source: Census 2001
States/UTs with distinction in Gender work participation
Sl. No.
Parameters State/ UT %
1 Highest Overall Work Participation Rate Mizoram 52.72 Highest men Work Participation Rate D &D 65.53 Highest women Work Participation Rate Mizoram 47.64 Highest % of cultivators amongst workers Himachal
Pradesh65.5
5 Highest % of AL amongst workers Bihar 48.06 Highest % of men cultivators amongst men
workersNagaland 55.6
87 Highest % of women cultivators amongst
women workersHimachal
Pradesh86.2
8 Highest % of Ag. Laborers amongst workers Bihar 48.29 Highest % of women AL amongst women
workersBihar 63.2
10 Highest % of Ag. Laborers amongst men workers
Bihar 42.7
11 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst workers Bihar 77.412 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst men Workers Bihar 74.313 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst women
WorkersHimachal
Pradesh89.0
C = Cultivators AL = Agricultural LabourersSource: Census 2001
Labor inputs in rainfed rice production (days/ ha)
Country Villages Total
Male Female
Indonesia Jakenan, Central Java Sumber Central Java
161178
5459
4641
Thailand Ban Sai Khram, South Ban Don Paw Daeng
104102
4546
5554
Philippine
Carosucan, Sta. Barbara Tampac, Nueva Ecija
133188
7368
2732
Cambodia
Kandal and Takeo 167 54 46
Vietnam He Thu District 105 45 55Laos Khok Nghai, Xaythani
Ak-sang, Phonethong110117
2438
7662
India
Four locations in Faizabad district 187132211210
16334524
84675576
Nepal
Naldung, NagarkotMohana, RantnagarBaghmara, Rantnagar
26910195
425045
585055
Thelma R. Paris, Sept 23, 2009. Gender considerations in Partnership design and management Strengthening Partnerships and Networks ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P. India
S. no
Activity Participation in %Male Female
1. Land preparation 100 Nil2. Seed preparation for sowing 8 823. Raising nursery and transplanting 25 754. Direct sowing 92 85. Irrigation 83 176. Applying FYM 75 257. Fertilizer application 83 178. Weeding 17 839. Plant protection 83 17
10. Harvesting 42 5811. Threshing 58 4212. Bagging/ storing of grain 17 8313. Marketing of produce 92 814. Storing dry fodder 66 34
Over all 60 40
Gender analysis of crop farming systems
Farm related activities include
Role and responsibility
- Land preparation- Seed selection- Seed treatment- Nursery raising- Plant protection - Transplanting- Irrigation
-Application of manure/ fertilizer -Harvesting-Labour management -Management of produce -Financial management
About 65 per cent women participate in farm related activities whereas men’s participation is about 72 per cent, typology being individual and joint participation
Gender issues in rice production
o Access to and control over resourceso Knowledge differences o Access to information, technology, extension and
marketo Technology bypass womeno Drudgery in agricultural operations o Inadequate and inequitable access to credit and
financial services o Low skills and poor access to skill training o Lack of market information and marketing channelso Inadequate holding premiseso Lack of business advice and guidanceo Migration
Gender differences in landholding
For developing countries for which data are available, between 10 percent and 20 percent of all land holders are women
The developing countries having both the lowest and highest shares of female land holders are in Africa
Among smallholders, farms operated by female-headed households are smaller in almost all countries for which data are available
Source : FAO, 2011
Share of male and female agricultural holders in main developing regions
Issues of Women Agricultural Labourers
Burden of feeding and
nurturing the children
Less time for child care
Health hazards
Less rest during prenatal and
post natal period
Exploitation by land owners
Physical drudgery
Insecurity at work place
Travel to distant
places for work
Limited right over family resources
Malnutrition or under nutrition
Low wage rate than male
Deprivation from health
servicesDeprivation from
education
Access to and control over resources
The access to and control over resources varies from region to region and for different assets.
Men have greater access to land, farm implements and marketing
In post harvest management women have more responsibility and better access
Access to information, technology, extension and market
Women’s access to information, technology and market is less than that of men
Women’s participation in knowledge gathering is marginal
Technology development in agriculture is mostly focused on mechanization and gender issues overlooked
Poverty, low level of literacy and remoteness of villages hinder access to information, technology and market
Technology types in rice farming
Production enhancing : Directly contribute to the output (seed, soil, fertilizer, pesticide etc)
Production supporting : Tools and equipments which provide a supporting role (power tiller, tractor, thresher, sprayer, harvester etc)
Post production : Processing and value addition (graders, parboiling units, dryers, grinders etc)
Drudgery in agricultural operations
Almost all farmwomen suffer from physical drudgery in various agricultural operations
Transplanting rice in mud in bending position for a long time in rains and scorching sun
Weeding by hand in sun, rain and cold for long hours, drying of produce, standing in scorching sun
Harvesting in bending position with traditional sickle
Winnowing in dust and sun for a long time Parboiling of rice by traditional arduous
methods Dehusking/shelling, pounding and grinding
by hand as well as hand operated chakki
Drudgery in agricultural operations
Drudgery level of agricultural activities as perceived by the agrarian women in paddy/jhum
cultivation
Activities Overall drudgery status
Reasons
Transplanting/ Planting
Heavy a. Bending postureb. Long hour of standing in deep puddled
soilc. Discomfort on moving forward and
backward in wet field. Care and skill required for uniformity in transplanting/planting
Threshing Heavy a. Bending postureb. High energy required for threshing
Weeding Moderately heavy
a. Long hours of sitting in wet fieldsb. Requiring difficult posture in handling
traditional implementsc. Selection of weed plants from
cultivated rice varietyd. Use of blunt and old implements
Activities Overall drudgery status
Reasons
Cutting Moderately heavy
a. Bending or sitting on toesb. High energy required for cuttingc. Injuries while cutting by
traditional sickled. Setting the lodged plants
Carrying the harvested produce
Moderately heavy
a. Difficulties in preparing bundles and carrying
b. Carrying head load of bundles causing stress and strain on eyes and neck
Drudgery level of agricultural activities as perceived by the agrarian women in paddy/jhum
cultivation
Parameters considered for ergonomic evaluation
Anthropometric data Muscular strength data Aerobic capacity, physiological cost of operation
(heart rate and oxygen consumption rate) Working posture and load carrying capabilities The technologies can help in reducing drudgery,
increasing utilization efficiency of inputs, ensure timeliness in field operations and reduce turn around time for the next crop, increase productivity, conserve energy, improve quality of work and quality of produce and ultimately enhance the quality of work life of agricultural labourers
In order to transplant 1 hectare of paddy the farmwomen has to dib her finger 30,000 times. This workload is however shared by about 10-12 women.
• Hand ridger• Fertilizer broadcaster• 4-row paddy drum seeder• 2-row paddy drum seeder• 2-row rice transplanter• 4-row rice transplanter• Twin wheel hoe • Cono weeder
Drudgery reducing tools and equipments for rice farming
• Foot operated paddy thresher • Pedal operated cleaner-grader • Wheel type of fertilizer broadcaster • Pedal thresher • Paddy parboiling unit• Spreading tool• Grain cleaner hanging type • Paddy winnower• Tools and equipment for value addition
Drudgery reducing tools and equipments for rice farming
Technology for rice farming and gender impact
Technologies Positive benefits for women farmersModern glutinous rice variety
• Increases land productivity • Provides independent income from
sale of glutinous rice cakesWeed tolerant varieties (Udayagiri, Ghanteswari, Nilagiri)
Better threshold weed density and weed tolerance which helps in drudgery reduction
SRI method Ease of crop management and weeding, increased production, saving in inputs and entrepreneurship development in preparation of mat nursery and transplanting
Combine harvester
Can be owned by women/ custom hired/ lending out to other farmers
Technologies
Positive benefits for women farmers
Post harvest machinery for processing rice; rice huller; rice micro mill; rice flour mill
• Reduces drudgery of hand pounding• Increases volume of rice processed• Saves time and provides flexibility in
time use• Provides additional income• Empowers women individually and as
a group
Rice husk stove
• Reduces use of purchased energy• Uses available biomass
Integrated pest management
• Increases savings on pesticides• Reduces/ eliminates harmful effects
of pesticides on human health and food in the natural habitat
Technology for rice farming and gender impact
Migration
Migration affects the social structure as well as agriculture and changes in agriculture sector leads to migration
Results in temporary/ long term female headed households and burden of agriculture falls on women
Leads to food insecurity and malnutrition
Gender Concerns in agriculture
Technology Access to resources Control over resources Post harvest process Institutional support Policy support Right to access safe and nutritious food Eradication of hunger Equal participation by men and women Control and management of natural resources Opportunities for off farm employment
In agriculture gender manifests in : Physical and mental efficiency Equity and distributional issues Food security Household welfare Human right Access to productive assets and resources
In the present socio-cultural settings all the above are skewed to men. Hence, gender mainstreaming in the present times has more emphasis on women.
Manifestation of Gender
Engendering agricultural Research
Distribution of gender studies into different theme areas
12.23
28.82
6.07
52.88
Extension, institution andtechnology transfer
Socio-economic andparticipation
Policy
Empowerment andmainstreaming
Gender studies in India
Attention to gender issues was first drawn in India by Dr M.S. Swaminathan when he was Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission by introducing a chapter in the Sixth Five Year Plan
At IRRI his strengthen and promoted the concept of women in rice based farming system
Studies related to women in agriculture and rural development in India dates back to 1961 and by 1988 more than 500 such studies were abstracted
Data base and tools on women in agriculture
There are many micro level studies on role of women. However at macro level the main sources of data are from secondary sources
Studies on role of women were initiated in India by Home scientists as early as 1960’s
Gender analysis in rice farming systems were initiated at IRRI and advanced the theory and practice of gender analysis. (Thelma Paris, 1991)
Gender analysis (SEAGA) Programme, Gender and Development Service (Vicke Wilde, 2001)
Sources of gender data All India Census NSSO FAO and studies and
World Bank Reports ILO Country level and
micro level studies (Eg.Gender Data Base & Studies of DRWA and studies under AICRP on Home Science)
Requirements of gender sensitive research
Gender perspective is incorporating gender concerns in research, extension and development and requires
Good contextual understanding of the environment in which it operates
Well defined gender objective Gender equity incorporated in participation,
prioritization design, decision making, implementation and evaluation
Appropriate research design exploratory, ex-post facto, experimental and action research
Expertise and organizational commitment
Research should aim to address
Role and status Occupational health hazards Drudgery Access to and control over resources and
inputs Technology refinement Policy advocacy Institutional measures Research methodology
SEAGA Approach
MARKETS Gender asymmetries in participation and power in land, labor, finance, and product markets• Distribution of risks and gains along the value chains
RISK & VULNERABILITY• Household composition/ labor availability (dependency ratios; migration; disability)• Physical and agro-ecological risks & gender-differentiated impacts• Gender-responsive social protection measures
INFORMATION & ORGANIZATION• Gender asymmetries in market information; extension services; and skills/training• Gender asymmetries in participation and leadership in rural organizations• Empowerment and political voice, especially of women
ASSETS Gender asymmetries in access to and control over social, physical, financial, natural, and human capitals
Sustainable livelihoods
Sustainable Livelihoods through a Gender Lens
Recent studies by DRWA
Studies conducted at nine states of India covering different agro-climatic zones indicated that
Women’s participation was more in homestead based agriculture
Joint participation in crop production – 75 per cent
Highest participation in Himachal and lowest in Uttarakhand with more of joint participation
Gender participation (%) in different
crops in Madhya Pradesh
Gender participation of women and men calculated on the basis of total percentage women hours in different crops showed that women’s participation in rice based cropping system was 44.5 per cent followed by finger millet (43.1%), vegetables (36.9%) and wheat (32.4%).
Gender participation (%) in different
crops in Madhya Pradesh
Some observations from Orissa
An ongoing study by DRWA with CRRI and other crop institutes indicated –
Women’s share in rice farming is about 40 per cent and constitute 1/3 of agriculture labour
Except ploughing women participate in almost all activities from selection of seed to fodder management
Excepting threshing and winnowing all the activities in rice farming are found to be carried out in traditional ways
Men and women opine that traditional technologies are easily available, affordable and specialized skilled not required
Closing the gender gaps• Can improve agricultural productivity,
additional benefits through raising, incomes of female farmers, increasing the availability of food and reducing food prices, and raising women’s employment and real wages
• Increases production and income• Generates broader social and economic benefits
by strengthening women’s direct to access to and control over resources and income
Evidences from Africa, Asia and Latin America consistently shows that families benefit when women have greater status and power within the household
Increased control over income gives women a stronger bargaining position over economic decisions
Female farmers are just as efficient as male farmers but they produce less because they control less land, use fewer inputs and have less access to important services such as extension advice
Closing the gender gaps
Approaches to closing gender gap
Policies and Programmes National Policy for Farmers National Food Security Mission RKVY NHM Mahila Kisan Shasaktikaran Pariyojana National Policy for Women in
Agriculture (Draft)
Models for closing gender gaps
• Women empowerment model• Gender sensitive para extension worker
model (Implemented at Simore, Kantamalim, Padasahi and Tangibanta)
• Public-private partnership for gender mainstreaming
• Cropping models for gender mainstreaming
Philosophy of agriculture development rests on the partnership between man and land and the man is in the centre stage of development, so is, the partnership between farm and home. Farm and home are inseparable, so are men and women like two wheels of a cart.
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