eisenhower presidency
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EISENHOWER PRESIDENCY• Fit American Mood
▫ Craved peace and stability▫ Ike “middle of the road”
Inspired confidence
• Dynamic Conservatism▫ Big Picture
Delegated authority Reconciled contending factions
▫ Governing Style Stayed out of legislative process Let Cabinet do it’s thing Laid-back to public
Ruthless politician Focused on business principles
▫ Slashed budget▫ Promoted private development of
hydroelectric and nuclear power▫ Economic advisors (CEA)
• Increases government spending in times of recession
Centrist course Pragmatic
▫ Reduce taxes▫ Contain inflation▫ Govern efficiently
• Modern Republicanism▫ Domestic program
Resisted national health care Civil rights Federal aid to education “Eisenhoover” nickname
Fiscal conservative 1st priority to balance budget
Successes Large tax cut for wealthy and business Increased funding for public housing Increased minimum wage from .75 to 1.00 Extended social security Construction of St. Lawrence Seaway Interstate Highway System
▫ Great domestic achievement, legacy▫ 40,000 miles
• Election of 1956▫ Democrats
Adlai Stevenson▫ Ike
“Everything booming but the guns” Landslide victory Democrats retained control of Congress
JIM CROW IN COURT• Chief Justice Earl Warren
(1953)▫ Jencks v. United States 1957
Accused has right to inspect government files used by prosecution
▫ Yates v. United States 1957 Overturned convictions of
Communist party officials under Smith Act Ended further prosecution of
communists “Impeach Earl Warren”
▫ Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 1954 Landmark case!!!! NAACP Thurgood Marshall
(lawyer) Reversed Plessy v. Ferguson
violated 14th amendment and “equal protection under the law”
Federal district judges to monitor South vowed resistance Ike wouldn’t force White resistance increased
Revival of KKK
CIVIL RIGHTS
• Resistance climaxed▫ Sept. 1957 Little Rock, Ark.
Gov. Orval E. Faubus President had to intervene
Mobilized National Guard to block desegregation of Central High
1st President since Reconstruction to use troops to protect rights of African-Americans
Court ordered withdrawal of Guard Eisenhower forced to back federal laws
Cold war issue
• 1956 Campaign▫ Civil Rights act of 1957
Established permanent commission To investigate voting rights issues
▫ Civil Rights act of 1960 No protection for voting Didn’t empower federal officials to
register African-Americans to vote
PHASE 2 OF THE COLD WAR• Ike and Dulles
▫ Ike appoints John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State To appease GOP
▫ “Dulles Diplomacy”▫ New look for foreign policy
▫ Though containment too passive▫ Initative to challenge Soviet Union and
China▫ Talked of “liberating captive nations” of
Eastern Europe▫ “Brinkmanship” – never backing down
▫ Threatened “instant, massive retaliation” to Soviet Eisenhower not happy No response to uprisings in East Germany
(1953) or Hungary (56)
• “Atoms for Peace”▫ Idea for both superpowers to contribute
fissionable materials to a new U.N. agency for industrial progress
• Spirit of Geneva▫ 1955, suspension of further
atmospheric tests- 1958
• Dulles’ “pactomania”▫ Mutal defense pacts with 43
nations▫ “new look” defense program
More nucs Russia countered with own
hydrogen bomb Nucs actually held
superpowers in check Reduce conventional forces Early Distant warning system-
Alaska Cheyenne Mountain Operations
Center
PHASE 2- COLD WAR
• Unrest in 3rd world countries• End of colonization in Africa/Asia• Pawns in Cold War
• CIA▫ Allen Dulles, head of CIA▫ Covert actions to prevent
communism TR’s grandson “Operation Ajax” Overthrow of Iran 1953
Sowed seeds of hatred U.S. played major role, oil the issue
▫ Philippines
▫ Guatemala Operation success Mercenaries overthrew the
government Had threatened U.S. business
interests
DOMINO THEORY• Vietnam Domino
▫ Most expensive operations▫ Ike refused to send troops▫ French surrendered 1954
French had try to “retake” after WWII Imperialism increased support for
communism U.S. supported France (financially) Result:
Indochina divided into: Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
Vietnam divided at 17th parallel North Vietnam- Communist South Vietnam- Democratic
▫ “Domino Theory” All of SE Asia would follow US refused Geneva Peace Accords Created SEATO
South East Asia Treaty Org. GB, France, Australia, New Zealand,
Philippines, Pakistan, Thailand, and the U.S.
CIA installed South Vietnamese government
TROUBLES IN THE THIRD WORLD• Middle East
▫ Difficult for U.S. to balance maintaining ties with oil rich states and supporting Israel at same time
▫ 1954 Nasser/Egypt “Suez Crisis” US tried to “woo” with building Aswan
Dam Recognized China instead
Seized the Suez Canal in 1956 Threatened Western Europe supply
line to oil Joint attack of British, French and Israeli
forces 1956 Did not consult Ike
Supported U.N. resolution to remove allies from Egypt
Eisenhower’s response Withdraw troops Anti-western sentiment in Middle
East Britain/ France never again important in
world affairs U.S. became “protector” of Middle- East
interests
• “Eisenhower Doctrine” 1957▫ US would send military aid to any
country threatened by communism Lebanon 1958
14,000 troops sent to prevent breakout of civil war between Christians and Muslims
▫ Anti-America Peru/Venezuela 1958 Fidel Castro/Cuba 1959
Overthrows government Nationalizes businesses, cuts of
U.S. trade Turns to Soviets
Breakdown of peace Spy plane/Russia 1960 “Spirit of Camp David”
EISENHOWER LEGACY Warning to Americans
Threat to traditional military life “military industrial complex”
Gave Americans prosperity and reassurance
Tried to prevent war
AFFLUENT SOCIETY
Coined by John Kenneth Galbraith 1958 Broad-based prosperity in
America
1950’s fulfillment of American Dream 60% owned homes 75% owned cars 87% owned one T.V. GNP up 50%
Despite debt 3 recessions
Highest standard of living in US ever “people of plenty”
INDUSTRY AND COMPUTERS• Federal spending major source
of economic growth▫ Doubled in 1950s
• Public spending▫ Roads, airports, home mortgages,
supported farm prices, stipends for education
▫ Electronics Consumption tripled Oil replaced coal as nation’s industry
source
• ½ of budget went to defense industries▫ R & D
New Industries Plastics, chemicals, general
dynamics
• 1944▫ International Business Machines▫ Mark I calculator▫ 500 miles of wiring
• 1946▫ US Army▫ ENAIC, 1st electronic computer▫ “debugged”, literally bugs▫ Led to development of programs
• Changed economy like 1st steam engine, electric motor▫ Sales to Industry and government▫ Crucial to IRS▫ 30,000 by mid 1960s for banks,
hospitals, universities, etc.▫ Silicon Valley 1951
Stanford Industrial Park Home to technology core
COSTS OF BIG BUSINESS• Rapid technological advances
accelerated power of big “B”▫ 1950: 20 firms over $1 billion▫ Massive oligopolies formed
TV, Auto Companies▫ New multinational enterprises▫ “executives” replaced capitalists
• Success required conformity▫ “the Lonely Crowd” 1950
No creativity
• Changes in agricultural▫ Scientific and mechanized▫ Technology cut hours▫ Factories in the fields
More machines, more chemicals
• Changes to the Environment▫ “Silent Spring” 1962 Rachel Carson
Poisons DDT
• Blue-Collar Blues▫ Consolidation transformed Labor
Movement 1955 merger of AFL and CIO
85% of union members▫ Higher wages, shorter
workweeks, paid vacations, health-care coverage, automatic wage hikes
▫ Fewer strikes▫ Unions more conservative since
more workers were in middle class▫ Decreased in numbers
Automation New jobs in service sector
▫ 1956 White-collar workers outnumber
blue collar for 1st time US now “post-industrial” society
PROSPERITY AND THE SUBURBS• Real income rose
▫ More income spent on luxuries Credit installment plan
1st credit card: Diner’s Club Card 1950 Indebtedness rose Advertisement increased
▫ 58 million new cars purchased in 1950s Flashier models
• Exodus to the suburbs▫ Highways constructed▫ Income tax stimulated home sales▫ Low interest loans (FHA, VA)▫ 98% white▫ 85% of homes built in 1950s
Embodiment of American dream▫ Greatest internal migration in US
history 20 million Sunbelt and Cali profited
CONSENSUS AND CONSERVATISM• “Togetherness”
▫ 1954 McCall’s Magazine▫ Ideal couple/family▫ Wed younger, children younger
▫ Post- war- traditional roles return▫ Fertility rate rose▫ Increase in population
Antibiotics
• Baby Boom▫ 1946-1964▫ Concern of child-rearing
Dr. Benjamin Spock, “Baby & Child Care” 1946 Don’t work, Breastfeed Less scolding/spanking
▫ Trend 1950’s schools construction 1970’s homes
• Domesticity▫ Pop culture glorified marriage
Doris day, Debbie Reynolds▫ Despite, increasing #s in workforce
Laid groundwork for 1960’s feminism
• Religion▫ Church attendance up
Cold war anxieties▫ Surge of religious activity
Evangelist: Billy Graham RC Bishop: Fulton J. Sheen Prot. Minister: Norman Vincent Peale
▫ Pop Culture Movies
Ben Hur, Ten Commandments Songs
“I believe”, “Man Upstairs” Congress
Added “under God” to pledge Added “In God we Trust” to currency
Books Bible sales all time high
• Education▫ Enrollment increased▫ Progressive educators promoted
socialibility Self-expression over math/science “well-rounded” students
CULTURE OF THE 1950S• Reflected prosperity and fear of Cold War
▫ Art New York/ Modernism Jackson Pollack
▫ Literature Dissatisfaction with jobs and homes
John Clecter’s “The Wapshot Chronicles” 1957
John Updike’s “Rabbit Run” 1960 African-American Culture
James Baldwin’s “Go tell it on the Mountain” 1953
Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man” 1951 Jewish Culture
Bernard Malamud’s “The Assistant” 1957 Philip Roth’s “Goodbye Columbus” 1959
Southern Culture William Faulkner’s “The Town” 1957, “The
Mansion” 1960 Eudora Weltly’s “The Ponder Heart” 1954
▫ Hollywood Diminished interest in political issues
Westerns, musicals, spectacles Working women replaced with dumb blondes Minorities invisible Movie attendance down 50%
• Message of Medium: TV▫ 1946: 1 in 18,000 had a TV▫ 1960: 9 out of 10▫ Radio stations transitioned
ABC, CBS, NBC▫ TV Guide, TV Diners▫ Retail
Davy Crockett 1955 Coonskin hats
• TV Culture▫ At 1st showcased creativity and talent
Opera Documentaries Sitcoms with ethnic families
▫ As price decreased demand for mass appeal increased Few with conflict or controversy
Exception “The Honeymooners” “I love Lucy” controversy
“Leave it to Beaver” the norm▫ Difficult to assess impact
Racial and gender stereotypes reinforced Virtually ended network radio Changed political life
McCarthy Trials, Checkers speech
THE OTHER AMERICA• Poverty and Urban Blight
▫ 35 million below poverty line▫ Bulk lived in inner-city slums
African-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans
▫ Michael Hummington’s “The Other America, Poverty in the United States” 1962 Poor trapped in vicious cycle Need for low-cost housing
• Black’s struggle for justice▫ 1954 Brown decision sparked new
civil rights movement Non-violent resistance
▫ Rosa Parks Dec. 1, 1955 Arrested = Montgomery bus boycott Challenged in Supreme Court 1956 1957 SCLC
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Led non-violent sit-ins
• Latinos and Latinas▫ Inadequate schools and housing▫ Loss of culture
Puerto Ricans Mexican-Americans
▫ 1951 Bracero program reintroduced 7.5 million new irrigated acres in SW
▫ Operation “wetback” 1953-1955 Deportation of illegal immigrants
▫ Supreme Court Decision Banned exclusion of Mexican-Americans
from juries (1954)▫ Breaking boundaries
1st Mexican-American mayor 1958 Roberto Clemente
• Native Americans▫ Poorest minority▫ 1954-1962: 12 Termination bills of
reservations passed 60.000 relocated
SEEDS OF DISQUIET
• Sputnik▫ October 4, 1957▫ 1st artificial satellite launched by
Soviet Union▫ Nov 3, 1957
Launched another satellite, this time with a dog inside
▫ US response Dec 6. 1957 “flopnik” Doubled funds for missiles
development Lead to creation of NASA 1958
▫ New focus on education National Defense Education Act 1958
Math, science, and foreign languages new focus
College enrollment increased 1.5 billion in new funding
SEEDS OF DISQUIET• Social consequences
▫ Juvenile delinquency▫ Rock-n-Roll
1950’s Alan Freed Bill Haley’s “shake, rattle, and roll” 1954
First white Rock-n-Roll hit Corruption of youth, delinquency, mix
races, devil’s music
• Elvis Presley▫ Embodied new Rock-n-Roll
movement▫ Developed out of Jazz and R&B
▫ Associated with African-Americans first
▫ Record sales tripled ▫ “American Bandstand” 1960▫ Outsiders
Buddy Holly Frankie Lymon Richie Valens
• Portents of Change▫ Movies
Marlon Brando in “ The Wild One” 1954 James Dean in “Rebel without a Cause”
1955▫ Beatniks
Revolt against middle-class America Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” 1956 Jack Kerouac’s “On the Road” 1957 J.D. Salinger’s “Catcher in the Rye”
1951 Joseph Heller “Catch-22”
Scorned conformity and materialism “square” America Romanticized outcasts Reaction
Scorned by Mass media Admired by college youth
Advocated spontaneity, rebellion against social standards, drugs
Set stage for youth rebellion in 1960s
END OF THE “NIFTY 50’S” Revolution on the way
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