art-basics.pdf - jerry weers
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Contents
1 Oil and Acrylic 1Materials 1Techniques 4
2 Watercolor 7Materials 7Characteristics of Watercolor 10Techniques 11
3 Light and Shadow 15Categories of Light 16Light or Shadow 17Value 17
4 Color 19Color Wheel 19Attributes of Color 22
5 Perspective 23Linear Perspective 23Aerial Perspective 27
6 Composition 29Elements of Design 30Principles of Design 31
1
1OIL AND ACRYLIC
Oil and Acrylic
oil paint pigmentbinderacryliccanvasstretcherprimergessoMasonitebristle brushroundflatbrightfilbertpalettepalette knifetechniquemediumpainterlyimpastoblendingscumblingglazingalla prima
The primary materials and tools used to create a painting in oil or acrylic are the paint, the surface on which the paint is applied, the brush or palette knife used to apply the paint, and the palette where the paint is mixed.
Materials
Paint
OilA traditional medium used by artists for centuries, oil paint is made from pigment held together with a binder of oil, usually linseed oil. Oil paint dries very slowly, allowing a longer period for the wet paint to be manipulated and modified. Brushes can be cleaned with mineral spirits or turpentine, followed by soap and water.
AcrylicFirst used by artists in the 1940’s, acrylic is a fast-drying paint, made from pigment suspended in a polymer binder. Popular because of its versatility, acrylic will adhere to virtually any surface and is completely permanent once dry. Its short drying time allows subsequent layers to be added to the painting very quickly. Brushes can be cleaned with soap and water.
“The greatest masterpieces were once only pigments on a palette.” - Henry S. Haskins
2 ART BASICS
Surfaces
CanvasCanvas stretched over a wooden frame or stretcher is the most frequently used painting surface. Types of canvas are linen, cotton and even synthetic. The weight and the tightness of the canvas weave can vary greatly, as can the price, with linen being the most expensive. Canvas can be purchase in pre-primed rolls, or as raw material to be sized and primed by the artist. While either an acrylic or oil primer is a suitable ground for an oil painting, an acrylic painting should be done only on an acrylic primed canvas. Pre-stretched canvases are also available, but are more expensive.
MasoniteFor centuries many artists have used wood as a painting support. A current favorite is Masonite or hardboard, available from most lumberyards in 4’ X 8’ sheets with a thickness of 1/4” or 1/8”. The sheets can be cut down to standard sizes, making an inexpensive, but very suitable surface for either oil or acrylic paintings. Before painting on them, the panels should be primed with two or more coats of acrylic gesso.
Canvas PanelsA canvas panel is a thin piece of canvas stretched and glued to a pasteboard surface. It is one of the least expensive and least durable painting supports, but is adequate for many beginning painting projects.
3OIL AND ACRYLIC
Round
Flat
Bright
Filbert
Brushes
Hair TypesThough paintbrushes are made from a variety of types of hair, both natural and synthetic, the brushes used for painting in oil or in acrylic on canvas are primarily bristle brushes made from pig and boar hair. Bristle brushes are considerable stiffer than those made from other types of hair, and that stiff-ness is necessary because of the thicker consistency of oil and acrylic paint.
Brushes made from softer hairs like kolinsky, red sable, sabeline, ox hair, camel hair, or various synthetics are better suited to watercolor, ink, and other media that have a more liquid consistency. Occasionally, a softer-haired brush might be used in oil or acrylic painting for special situations like glazing or detail work.
ShapesBrushes are available with the bristles formed into a number of different shapes, each with a particular advantage.
A round brush is good for detail work, making either thin or thick lines depending on the pressure applied.
A flat brush holds a lot of paint and its square end can create sharp straight edges.
Brights have shorter hairs than flats, so they hold less paint but allow a little more control. Like flats they can be used to create sharp edges.
Filberts have softer more rounded corners that create strokes without hard edges. The shape of a filbert is somewhere between a round and a flat, so it makes a good all-purpose brush.
Besides different shapes, brushes are available in a range of sizes from 0000 to 24, with a larger number denoting a larger brush size.
Palette and Palette Knife
Almost any non-absorbent surface can be used as a palette for mixing paint. Some commonly used materials are wood, plastic, glass or metal. The warm color of a wooden palette makes it easier to see colors accurately, as does painting on a toned canvas. A piece of medium toned paper under a glass or plastic palette can have the same effect. Students often use paper palettes, which are heavy sheets of waxed paper bound into a tablet. They have the advantage of being disposable.
Palette knives or painting knives come in a variety of sizes and shapes for use either in mixing paint on the palette or in applying paint to the surface of the canvas. Although there are less expensive plastic versions available, the traditional palette knife with a wooden handle and thin flexible metal blade is worth the extra money.
4 ART BASICS
TechniquesTechnique refers to the physical act of painting, to the way the paint is actu-ally mixed and then applied to the canvas.
Mixing Color
You can mix paint on your palette using either a palette knife or a brush. If after mixing you are left with a thin film of paint spread across your palette, use the palette knife to reassemble the paint into a pile. This will make it easier to pick up a significant amount of paint with your brush.
When mixing paint, try not to over mix. A little bit of variation in the paint can add excitement on the canvas and keep colors from looking flat.
Paint can also be mixed on the canvas by adding one color into another.
To create neutral colors mix complementary colors or colors from opposite sides of the color wheel. On the other hand, for purer, cleaner, more vibrant colors, mix colors that are more adjacent to each other on the color wheel.
Many colors of paint can be rather strong or even overpowering; so when combining two colors with the goal of creating a relatively light color, begin with the lighter of the two colors and gradually add a small amount of the darker color, rather than the other way around. Otherwise, you could waste a great deal of paint trying to lighten the darker color. Of course, the opposite is true when your desired result is a relatively dark color.
You should almost always be mixing your colors rather than using paint straight from the tube. If you look around you, there are very few things in nature with a color as intense as pure unmixed paint.
Using the Paintbrush
It is not necessary or even preferable to hold the brush like a pencil. There are a number of ways to hold a paintbrush. Choose the one that is best for the type of brush stroke you want to make. The most natural way for a right-handed person to stroke a paintbrush is in a downward direction or in a left to right direction. Try holding the brush in a way that will allow you to make upward brush strokes or brush strokes from right to left.
Painting and drawing are two different activities. Do not draw with the brush, paint with it. Paint the entire mass of the shape or object rather than drawing its outline. When drawing, a line is often used to represent the place where one shape meets another, but in reality there is no line there. There are just two areas of color or value next to each other, so paint the shapes, not the line.
5OIL AND ACRYLIC
Applying Paint
Learn to like the look and feel of paint. Your paint should have the consistency of whipped butter. If it is too stiff, add a little medium.
Be painterly. Pick up a significant volume of paint with your brush and lightly deposit it on your canvas without scrubbing or dabbing. Then you can manipulate the paint slightly if necessary. Moving the paint around is more easily done if you have placed a full juicy piece of paint on the canvas rather than a thin film.
Be decisive. Decide what your painting needs, make a stroke with your brush, and then reevaluate before making your next brush stroke. Try not to make more than two or three brush strokes before refilling your brush. Avoid timidly dabbing at your painting. If you are not sure what to do, stop, think about it, and once you have a plan, continue painting.
There are a number of techniques for applying paint that each create a special effect.
ImpastoImpasto is a thicker textured application of paint. In light areas impasto will catch the light from the room and create an even more intense light effect. In darker or shadowed areas where reflected light might be a distraction, use paint more thinly, holding the brush parallel to the canvas and making vertical strokes, which are less likely to catch the light.
BlendingBlending is softening an edge to create a smooth transition between two areas of color. Blending has its place, but if overdone can make a painting look stiff and overworked. As an alternative, try adding a color between the two areas to visually create a transition, but in a more painterly way.
ScumblingScumbling involves brushing a thin layer of paint over a dry area allowing some of the underpainting to show through. Again, scumbling has its place but should be used judiciously.
GlazingGlazing is brushing a transparent layer of color over an area of dry paint with the effect of optically combining the two layers. The glaze is usually a vibrant or intense color used to enrich the color of the layer below.
Alla PrimaAlla prima is an Italian word which means “at the first.” It is an oil painting technique in which the entire painting is done at one sitting while the paint is still wet, rather than building up layers of paint. The alla prima method is not really applicable to acrylic because the paint dries too quickly.
7WATERCOLOR
panstubesgouacheacid-freeroughcold-pressedhot-pressedsizingdeckle edgewatermarkfull-sheethalf-sheetquarter-sheeteighth-sheetwatercolor blockred sableroundflatfilbertmopriggerpaletteflat washgraded washwet-in-wetdry brushspatteringback washsedimentationlifting colorscrubbingmaskingscratchingsanding
2Watercolor
Watercolor is a paint made of finely ground pigment, using gum Arabic as a binder and water as a medium. It is usually applied to a textured absorbent paper in a series of thin transparent overlap-ping washes, which allow the white of the paper to shine through, giving watercolor its unique look.
Materials
Paints
Watercolor paint comes in two different forms. Pans, which are dried cakes of paint, are sold as full pans or half pans. Tubes are available in a variety of sizes ranging from 5ml to 37ml depending on the brand. Watercolor tubes are small compared to oil or acrylic, but with watercolor a little bit goes a long way. There are both professional and student watercolors. The professional grade paint is more concentrated and comes in a wider selection of colors.
Professional GradeM. Graham Daniel Smith Daler-Rowney Artists’Grumbacher Finest Winsor Newton Artists’
Student GradeDaler-Rowney Aquafine Grumbacher AcademyWinsor Newton Cotman
GouacheGouache, sometimes called body color, is an opaque watercolor that shares most of the characteristics of traditional watercolor, except for transparency. Although the use of gouache has lost favor with many transparent watercolor purists, many great watercolorists of the past have successfully combined gouache with transparent watercolors in their work. But since much of the beauty of watercolor is in the layering of transparent washes, gouache is best used in a minor way as a planned part of a painting, and never as a crutch to “fix mistakes.”
“Painting is very easy when you don’t know how, but very difficult when you do.” - Edgar Degas
8 ART BASICS
Paper
Good watercolor paper is 100 percent cotton rag and acid-free, which prevents it from yellowing with age.
WeightThe thickness of watercolor paper is measured by weight, either pounds per ream (lb) or grams per square meter (gsm). Standard weights are:
90 lb (190 gsm) 140 lb (300 gsm) 260 lb (356 gsm) 300 lb (638 gsm)
Depending on the size of the painting and the wetness of the paint applica-tion, it might be necessary to stretch thinner watercolor paper of less than 260 lb to prevent buckling. Besides warping less, heavier paper also stands up better to abuse.
TextureWatercolor paper comes in several textures:
Rough has a pebbly textured surface which is best suited for a bold expres-sive style.
Cold-pressed, with a medium texture, is the most commonly used surface.
Hot-pressed, which has the least texture, is good for detailed work and smooth even washes.
Although one side of the watercolor sheet is usually smoother than the other, there is no right or wrong side of the paper. Use whichever suits your subject and style of painting. Watercolor paper contains sizing, which tends to reduce absorbency.
SizeWatercolor paper is sold in sheets, which are 22x30 inches. Machine-made paper will have straight even edges. A high-quality handmade paper will typically have a deckle edge on all four sides, which is a result of the paper making process. The paper may also have a watermark in the corner identify-ing the paper manufacturer and sometimes even the particular style of paper.
Although a sheet of watercolor paper can be cut down to any size, it is most often used as a full-sheet (22x30), a half-sheet (15x22), a quarter-sheet (11x15), or even an eighth sheet (7½ x11).
Besides full-sheet (22x30), watercolor paper is also available in a variety of less common larger sizes with exotic names like single elephant, double elephant and emperor. Watercolor paper is even sold in 10-yard long rolls.
Besides individual sheets, watercolor paper is also available in a number of other formats. Spiral-bound or tape-bound pads, usually containing either 90 or 140 lb paper, are sold in a variety of sizes. Blocks are similar to pads but are taped on all four sides, which makes stretching the paper unneces-sary. Watercolor board is watercolor paper mounted to a 20x30-inch piece of illustration board.
9WATERCOLOR
Brushes
Hair TypesWatercolor brushes are made from natural or synthetic hair and can vary greatly in both quality and price. The best brushes can be expensive, but since watercolor is less abusive to brushes than oil painting, a good brush can last for years if cared for properly. The undisputed highest quality and most expensive watercolor brushes in the world are made from the tips of the winter fur of the male Russian Kolinsky red sable. But if Kolinsky red sable is not in the budget, some other more economical options are generic red sable, squirrel or even synthetic brushes.
Regardless of the price of a brush, it should be chosen carefully. When it is wet, a round brush should come to a fine point and a flat brush to a crisp edge.
ShapesRounds have a full round body that holds a lot of paint but tapers to a fine point for detail work.
Flats are used for laying in large areas of color, for wetting the paper surface, and for absorbing excess paint from the paper.
Filberts are flat with a curved end that does not come to a point.
Mops are large and round with soft absorbent hair used to wet large sections of paper or to paint large fluid areas like skies.
Riggers, script or liners have a long pointed length, which holds a great deal of color for painting long continuous lines. They were originally used to paint the rigging on ships in maritime paintings.
SizesFlat brushes are sized by their width: ½”, ¾”, 1”, etc. Round brush sizes are designated by a number—the larger the number, the larger the brush. Brush numbers can vary from one manufacturer to another. A number 8 brush from one company may be larger than an 8 from another.
Palette
A watercolor palette is usually made of metal, plastic or porcelain and comes in a variety of styles and sizes from compact travel versions to larger palettes for use in the studio. A palette typically has segmented areas around the edge to hold individual paint colors and one or more generous mixing areas. Dried paint is easily cleaned from the palette with water, and the individual colors can be recon-stituted by adding a few drops of water.
Round
Flat
Filbert
Mop
Rigger
10 ART BASICS
Characteristics of WatercolorWatercolor has a number of characteristics that distinguish it from oil paint-ing or acrylic, and these qualities are what give watercolor its special beauty. Many students find watercolor challenging because they tend to resist its uniqueness when they should be using it to their advantage.
TransparentWatercolor is a transparent medium. Overlapping washes of transparent color combine to create a richness and depth that would not be possible with a single wash of color.
Light to DarkBecause watercolor is transparent, it is not possible to paint a light color over a dark one. So the painting process in watercolor is to paint light areas first and work gradually toward the darker passages of the painting, saving the lightest sections by painting around them. Any pure white would be represented by the unpainted paper itself.
Diluted with WaterAs its name implies, watercolor uses water as its medium. Watercolor paint is never used straight from the tube but is always diluted with water—more water to make the color lighter, less for a darker color. The unique look of watercolor comes from the white paper shining through the transparent layers of paint. If the paint is applied too opaquely, it develops a glossy qual-ity, which should always be avoided.
Painted HorizontallyBecause watercolor is such a liquid medium, it is painted on a table or other horizontal surface to avoid the paint’s natural tendency to run, though some-times a watercolorist will tilt the painting surface slightly to allow gravity to help move washes vertically down the paper.
Fast DryingBecause it is a water-based medium, watercolors dry quickly, usually in a matter of minutes, which can be shortened further with the use of a hair dryer, allowing subsequent washes to be applied almost immediately.
Dries Lighter
Watercolor paint is slightly darker and more vibrant when first applied, and lighter and a little duller after drying. So one of the tasks of the watercolorist is to decide how dark to apply the paint to achieve the proper color when dry. Multiple applications of paint may sometimes be necessary to build the paint up to the proper value.
Easy CleanupBecause watercolors are water-soluble, cleanup is easy, and any dried paint can be reconstituted at the next painting session with a few drops of water, making it an economical medium as well.
11WATERCOLOR
TechniquesThe liquidity of watercolor allows for a variety of ways to apply and manipu-late the paint. In practice, multiple techniques are frequently used simultane-ously, but understanding and practicing them individually is a first step in becoming an accomplished watercolorist.
Flat Wash
Graded Wash
Wet-in-Wet
Wet-in-wetWith the wet-in-wet technique, wet color is painted onto the already wet surface of the paper, resulting in soft edges and diffused color. This is a good technique to use for some sky effects.
Graded washA graded wash is a wash that begins dark, and with the addition of water, gradually transitions to a lighter value. The process can be reversed, begin-ning with a light color and gradually adding more pigment. The technique can also be used to transition from one color to another. A variation of the graded wash is used to soften and round one edge of a flat wash.
Flat washA flat wash is an even layer of color laid across a portion of the paper. This is one of the most basic and often used watercolor techniques.
12 ART BASICS
Dry BrushDry brush is a method of creating texture by lightly dragging a relatively dry brush across the dry surface of the paper. The paint is deposited only on the high spots of the paper resulting in an area of broken color. The effect can be altered by varying the angle of the brush, the wetness of the paint and the texture of the paper. The dry brush technique is the opposite of a flat wash in which the wet paint tends to puddle in the lower areas of the textured paper.
Dry Brush
Spattering
Back Wash
Back WashOne of the accidental results of being unaware of a paper’s wetness is a back wash, which is caused by touching a very wet brush to a previously painted area that is not completely dry. The fresh paint floods into the drier area creating an irregular blossom effect. Back wash can be used intentionally to create some interesting effects but is difficult to control.
A similar result can be achieved by sprinkling salt into a wash of wet paint. The salt absorbs the pigment leaving small blossoms of lighter color. After the paint dries, the salt can be brushed off the surface of the paper.
Spattering Spattering, which creates a random pattern of small dots, is faster and less mechanical than painting them by hand. A toothbrush loaded with paint and flicked lightly with the finger will create small dots. A loaded paint brush tapped lightly against the hand will create slightly larger dots of color. The effect will vary slightly depending on the distance and angle of the spattering. Since spatter is difficult to control, some portions of the painting and tabletop can be masked using scrapes of paper.
13WATERCOLOR
SedimentationUnderstanding the intrinsic qualities of each particular paint pigment is important in controlling watercolor results. Some colors have more sediment, making them less transparent and causing a granular effect called sedimenta-tion as the paint dries. This can be helpful to achieve a textured look, but can be problematic when a smooth even wash is the desired result.
Sedimentation
Lifting Color
Scrubbing
ScrubbingWhen other lifting methods are unsuccessful, dampening a painted area and scrubbing slightly with a bristle brush can help loosen dried paint from the fibers of the paper, although scrubbing too aggressively can damage the surface of the paper, making subsequent washes unpredictable.
Lifting colorWater tends to level itself, moving from a wetter area into a drier one. A dry tissue, paper towel, or even a paint brush can be used to pull paint from the wet surface of a painting. Careful dabbing with a tissue is great way to model clouds or to create other similar effects.
Occasionally an overly generous wash of color can puddle on the paper, threatening to cause a back wash. A dry paintbrush can be used to siphon the excess liquid.
14 ART BASICS
MaskingWhite areas of a watercolor are typically saved by carefully painting around them. However, that can be difficult if the wash is particularly bold and spontaneous. In those circumstances some form of masking can be helpful.
Frisket is a latex masking agent that is painted over an area of the painting that the artist wishes to remain white. It is usually used either in small areas or along the edges of a larger area. Once the frisket is dry it repels any washes of color. When the paint dries, the frisket is rubbed off, once again revealing the white paper.
Portions of the painting with straight edges can be protected using masking tape. Masking tape is also useful for creating a finished border along the edges of a watercolor.Masking
Scratching
Destructive TechniquesThere are a few additional techniques that can be useful, but that should be used judiciously because they cause irreversible damage to the surface of the paper, which can negatively affect any additional washes of color to that area.
Scratching into a dried wash with a razor blade or other sharp object creates areas of white paper by removing paint from the surface.
Slightly sanding an area of dried color will expose white in the high spots of the textured paper, adding a bit of sparkle to an otherwise dark or dull wash.
Paper wetnessAlthough not really a watercolor technique, being able to accurately deter-mine the wetness of a section of watercolor paper is an essential skill. If the paper is too dry, a wash may have a harder edge than anticipated. If the paper is too wet, the paint may spread and diffuse too quickly.
The best method to evaluate a paper’s wetness is visually. Hold the paper up at eye level and view its surface against a light source. A very shiny surface means the paper is fairly wet. A duller and less reflective surface means the paper is drier. It is also possible to check for wetness by touching the paper, which will be cooler if it is still wet. Finally, carefully touching a loaded brush to the surface of the paper should give an indication of what to expect from a more aggressive application of paint to that area.
15LIGHT AND SHADOW
chiaroscuromodelinglighthighlightform shadowcast shadowreflected lightvalue
3Light and Shadow“I never saw an ugly thing in my life: for let the form of an object be what it may - light, shade, and perspective will always make it beautiful.” – John Constable
Chiaroscuro is an Italian word describing the use of light and shadow in art to create the illusion of space. Chiaro, meaning light, and oscuro, meaning dark, have the same Latin roots as the English words, clear and obscure.
Modeling is the way artists apply light and shadow to individual forms to create a three-dimensional effect.
Light is what makes vision possible. It’s what allows us to see the world around us. So understanding the visual world necessarily means understand-ing the way that light interacts with the world—the way that light reveals the world to us.
Amateur artists often have the mistaken idea that realism is about detail, about painting every blade of grass or the cracks between every board in the barn of their landscape. But no amount of detailed minutia will result in anything but a flat lifeless painting without also accurately representing the effects of light on their scene.
Realism is about capturing the light. But light cannot be treated like one more set of details to be pulled from the scene one piece at a time and depos-ited on the canvas. Light will never make sense unless viewed as a whole—as an event with causes and effects.
Sunlight falls across our hypothetical landscape at an oblique angle, sputter-ing across the field of grass with starts and stops until on the front wall of the barn the light explodes in a brilliance that washes out any detail, and then spills more weakly along the side of the structure until it reaches the back where the barn itself casts a warm dark shadow on a patch of grass hidden completely from the sunlight.
It’s that event in its totality that the artist must capture to create believability in his painting. But before he can paint it, he must understand it.
16 ART BASICS
Categories of Light
There are five categories of light as it falls across a form: the light area, the highlight, the form shadow, the cast shadow, and the reflected light.
The side of a form that faces toward the light is the light area. On a curved surface, especially if it is smooth and reflective, there might be in the light area an intense focal point of light called the highlight. The shadow created on the side of the form that is turned away from the light is called the form shadow. If an object blocks the light, throwing a shadow onto a neighboring form, a tabletop for example, that shadow is called a cast shadow. Sometimes reflected light will bounce from a neighboring area back into a shadow causing it to lighten slightly.
The area of reflected light is never as light in value as the light area itself.
Light is cool, shadows are warm. So as a form recedes into shadow, it becomes warmer, and as it emerges into the light, it becomes cooler. If a shadow area appears cool, it is because cool light has been reflected back into the shadow, like the cool blue sky reflecting into the shadow cast by a tree.
Shadows do not overlap, they merge with each other.
highlight
light area
castshadow
reflected light
formshadow
17LIGHT AND SHADOW
Light or Shadow
Every part of a form falls either into the realm of light or of shadow. Noth-ing can be in light and shadow simultaneously. When viewing a cube in light, it might appear that one surface is in light, one in shadow, and a third somewhere in between. However, that third side is also in shadow but has a slightly lighter value because of light reflected from another surface. Or the third side might be a part of the light area, but appears slightly darker because it is facing the light source more obliquely. To determine if an area is in light or in shadow, hold something like a paintbrush between the light source and the object. If you can see a shadow from the paintbrush on a surface, that surface is in light; if you cannot, the surface is in shadow.
Value
An artist represents light and shadow using value. Value is the lightness or darkness of a line, shape or area relative to black and white.
The artist, whether painting or drawing, has a limited range of values avail-able to him. His meager arsenal of pigments ranging from ivory black to tita-nium white can seem frustratingly inadequate when faced with the daunting task of capturing the broad light effects offered by nature. No piece of paint could hope to match the brilliance of sunlight or the rich velvety darkness of shadow—but then matching should not be the goal. Trying to represent light and shadow by copying piece for piece each value in a subject can only end in failure.
The artist must evaluate the range of values presented by his subject and then find a way to compress them into the value range afforded him by his medium. So the lightest value in his subject might be represented by the creamy white surface of the drawing paper and the darkest value by the darkest mark of his charcoal or pencil. All other values from the subject are adjusted to fit between those two extremes.
19COLOR
color wheelprimary colorssecondary colorstertiary colorscomplementary colorsneutral colortintsshadesanalogous colorsmonochromatic
colorslocal colorhuevalueintensitychromasaturationtemperature
Color 4“Color is my day-long obsession, joy and torment.”
– Claude Monet
Color Wheel
Most artists today base their understanding of color relationships on a system developed by Albert Munsell in the early twentieth century. Munsell’s color wheel divides the color spectrum into twelve distinct hues.
20 ART BASICS
Primary ColorsThe primary colors, red, yellow and blue, are the three basic colors that cannot be mixed from any others. All other colors can be mixed from these three.
Secondary ColorsThe secondary colors, orange, green and purple, are each a mixture of two primary colors.
Tertiary ColorsA tertiary color is a mixture of a primary and an adjacent secondary color.
And so on.
21COLOR
Local color is the color of an object under normal light.
TintsThe addition of white to a
pure color results in a tint.
ShadesThe addition of black
results in a shade.
Complementary ColorsColors positioned opposite each other on the color wheel are complementary colors; for example, red and green, blue and orange, yellow and purple. Just as black and white have the greatest value contrast, complementary colors have the greatest color contrast.
Analogous ColorsAdjacent hues on the color wheel are analogous colors.
Monochromatic ColorsMonochromatic colors have the same hue but vary in value and intensity.
Mixing two complimentary colors or colors opposite each other on the color wheel will result in a neutral color.
22 ART BASICS
Attributes of Color
Color has three characteristics or attributes—hue, value, and intensity. Using these basic characteristics, any color can be described and/or compared with any other color.
Value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. Red is a darker value than yellow.
Lighter DarkerValue
Hue is the name given to a color, like green or orange.
Hue
Intensity, sometimes called chroma, describes the degree of satura-tion, strength or purity of a color. Colors on the outer edge of the color wheel are the most intense. Toward the center of the wheel, colors are more neutral and less intense. Mixing a color with its compliment results in a less intense color. The addition of either white or black to a color to create a tint or a shade will also result in a less intense color. Do not confuse a color’s intensity with its value. For example, yellow is lighter in value than brown, but has much more intensity.
More Intense DullerIntensity
In addition to the basic characteristics of hue, value and intensity, color can also be described in terms of temperature. While green, blue, and purple are generally considered to be cool colors, and red, orange, and yellow are warm, temperature is really a relative term. Green is warmer than blue, but cooler than yellow.
Warmer CoolerTemperature
23PERSPECTIVE
perspectivepicture planevanishing pointhorizon lineeye levelone-point perspectivetwo-point perspectivethree-point perspectiveaerial perspectiveatmospheric perspective
5Perspective“The question is not what you look at, but what you see.”
– Henry David Thoreau
Linear Perspective
The fifteenth century Italian architect, Filippo Brunelleschi, is credited with first developing the theory of perspective, a tech-nique for representing spatial relationships and three-dimensional objects on the two-dimensional surface of the picture plane.
There are some basic concepts essential to the understanding of linear perspec-tive.
• Objects become smaller and closer together as they become more distant. This might seem obvious, but without the use of perspective, it can be difficult to determine how much smaller an object becomes at a particular distance.
• As objects become more distant, they will appear closer to the hori-zon line. An airplane that is directly overhead will become smaller as it flies off into the distance, but it will also appear lower and closer to the horizon even though it has not changed altitude. Likewise, an automobile moving away will not only become smaller as it becomes more distant, but will visually rise toward the horizon.
• The horizon line is always at eye level. This is true whether standing, sitting on the ground, or perched on the top of a tall building. The horizon line will appear to move as eye level moves.
• Parallel lines that are level with the ground will appear to converge at a single point on the horizon called the vanishing point. This means all parallel lines. If there are ten buildings positioned perfectly paral-lel to each other, all of the parallel lines from all ten buildings will converge at the same vanishing point.
• There is always a horizon line whether you can see it or not. If you are indoors or if the horizon is not visible because of trees, mountains or some other structure, try to visualize where the horizon would be in order to place the vanishing point correctly.
24 ART BASICS
One-point perspective can also be used to draw objects that are spaced at regular intervals, like telephone poles, fence posts, railroad ties, windows on a building, or the sections of a sidewalk. The objects that are further away will appear smaller, but so will the space between them. How much smaller can be determined by drawing a diagonal line from one end of the first object through center of the second, which will locate the position of the third object.
VPHorizon Line
Horizon Line
A quick method of placing people in a landscape is to remember that the horizon is at eye level. So if all of the figures and the viewer are the same height, their eyes will all be level with the horizon regardless of how far away they are. If a figure is shorter than the viewer, his eye level will appear below the horizon, and if taller, above the horizon.
There are three basic categories of linear perspective—one-point, two-point, and three-point perspective based on the number of vanishing points used.
VP Horizon Line
One-point PerspectiveOne-point perspective uses a single vanishing point to draw objects that are viewed directly from one side. The parallel lines that move away tend to converge at a single vanishing point on the horizon line.
25PERSPECTIVE
Two-point PerspectiveTwo-point perspective is used to draw an object that is turned at an angle to the picture plane, creating two sets of parallel lines that converge at two separate vanishing points on the horizon line.
VP VPHorizon Line
The Perspective of an InclineIn each example so far, the individual planes of each object were either parallel or perpendicular to the ground. However, if there is an inclined plane, as in the case of a house with a pitched roof, the vanishing point must be adjusted upward based on the degree of the incline. The steeper slope, the higher the vanishing point is raised.
To locate the peak of the roof, first find the center of that wall of the house by drawing lines from opposite corners. Then create a vertical line through that center point. Where that line intersects the inclined perspec-tive line is the peak.
The ridge of the roof is parallel to the horizontal lines on the second side of the house, so it would use the same vanishing point on the horizon line.
VP VPHorizon Line
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26 ART BASICS
Three-point PerspectiveNot as common as one- and two-point perspective, three-point perspective is used occasionally to represent an unusual view, such as looking up at a tall building, or looking down from an aerial view. In addition to the vanishing points for the two horizontal dimensions, three-point perspective has a third vertical vanishing point, which is either above or below the horizon.
VP VPHorizon Line
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Aerial Perspective
Aerial perspective, also known as atmospheric perspective, is the sense of depth created by the effects of atmosphere. Air contains moisture, dust and other particles in varying degrees that influence how we perceive objects as they move into the distance.
• The contrast of values becomes less. Dark values become lighter, very light values become darker, and at great distances everything tends to merge into a middle gray value.
• Color intensity or saturation decreases, causing objects to appear duller as they move farther away.
• Color temperatures become cooler as distance increases.
• Objects lose detail, become less sharp and less in focus as they recede.
While the effects of aerial perspective are most evident in the greater distances involved in a landscape, they can also be used to represent even the very limited depths of a still life.
29COMPOSITION
compositionelements of designlineshapespacepositive spacenegative spacecolorvaluetextureformprinciples of designbalancesymmetricalasymmetricalgolden sectionplacementproximityrepetitionrhythmmotioncontrastemphasisfocal pointcenter of interestpoint of viewunitydiversitydominancesubordinationsimplification
6Composition“That which is static and repetitive is boring. That which is dynamic and random is confusing. In between lies art.” – John A. Locke
Composition involves placing or arranging individual design elements, like lines, shapes, colors, values and textures, to create a unified work of art, taking what would otherwise be a random assortment of unrelated pieces and organizing them in some meaningful way.
Composition is about more than subject matter. The subject of a still life painting might be a pear and wine bottle sitting on a drape, but the design elements that make up the painting’s composition would be the intense green color and rounded shape of the pear, the dark smooth reflective texture of the wine bottle, and the light value of the white drape. If the pear was pushed back into the shadows of the still life, it would become smaller, darker, and a less intense color. It would still be a pear, but compositionally it would represent totally different design elements than it had when it was in the light.
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Elements of Design
The elements of design are the basic components used by an artist when creat-ing a work of art. They are line, shape, space, color, value, texture and form.
LineA line is a mark that has direction. It can vary in length. It can be thick or thin, and straight or curved or jagged. It can be used as an outline to define a shape or space.
ShapeA shape is a two-dimensional area. It can be a geometric shape like a circle or square, or it can be a more free-form or organic shape.
SpaceSpace is the area around, between or within shapes. Positive space is the area of an artwork that is filled with something. Negative space is the empty space.
TextureTexture is the surface quality of an object and can be either actual or perceived. Thickly applied paint on the surface of a canvas is actual texture that can be experienced by touch, while a painting of a smooth glass bottle or rough drape might only give the illusion of texture.
FormForm is a three-dimensional element having length, width and depth. In two-dimensional art, the illusion of form can be created through the modeling of light and shadow.
ColorColor is the visual result of the absorption and reflection of light by a particu-lar surface. Color can be described in terms of hue, value and intensity.
ValueValue is the degree of lightness or darkness of a line, shape or color.
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Symmetrical Balance
Asymmetrical Balance
Principles of Design
If the elements of design are the basic ingredients used by the artist to create a composition, the principles of design are the guidelines by which those elements are arranged and combined into a unified work of art.
BalanceBalance is the placement of elements to create a visual sense of equilibrium. Balance may be either symmetrical, in which both the left and right sides of the composition are roughly the same, or asymmetrical, in which different elements on the left and right are balanced through the adjustment of size, position, value, color, etc.
A composition that is symmetrically balanced tends to be formal and rather static. Asymmetrical balance, on the other hand, creates a tension between its elements that is usually much more exciting.
The golden section, sometimes called the golden ratio, is an aesthetically pleas-ing proportion that can be expressed mathematically as a/b=b/c.
While its use for centuries in painting and architecture and even its preva-lence in nature itself is often somewhat overstated, the golden section does reinforce the principle of asymmetrical division of space.
PlacementThe placement or position of design elements and their proximity to each other can affect the emotional impact of a composition.
Golden Section
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EmphasisThe emphasis in an artwork is an area that draws the viewer’s attention. More than one part of a composition may have some degree of emphasis, but there is usually a primary center of interest or focal point.
While there are many methods for positioning a focal point, one is to place the center of interest at the intersection of two lines that divide the picture plane vertically and horizontally using the ratio of the golden section. This method offers four possible locations for a focal point.
Point of ViewThe choice of a point of view can greatly affect the emotional impact of a composition. A bird’s eye view creates a sense of detachment, while eye level is more intimate, and viewing from a lower vantage point can give a feeling of subordination.
RepetitionRepetition can help unify a composi-tion. An element can be repeated in a way that creates a sense of rhythm and motion, or the repetition can be at regular intervals creating a more static pattern.
ContrastContrast is achieved by placing opposites in close proximity. Opposites can be light and dark values, complementary colors, rough and smooth textures, or even large and small shapes.
33COMPOSITION
General to SpecificOnce the decision has been made about what the simple compositional idea will be, it is important not to destroy the idea during the creative process. Begin with the most general part of the compositional structure and work gradually toward the more specific details, taking care not to lose sight of what originally gave the design its strength.
SimplificationUnderstanding composition is essential for the creation of interesting and compelling art and yet is often ignored by the beginning student who finds improved technique an easier goal to achieve. With a steady hand and a sharpened pencil or tiny brush, he attempts to render every detail of his subject, usually at the expense of much more important compositional issues.
Because of its overwhelming possibilities, composition can at times be intimidating. But composition need not be, and in fact, should not be overly elaborate to be effective. Design principles are used most successfully when they take a complex subject and present it in a simple direct way.
One way of accomplishing this is through selectivity, choosing which items are important to the composi-tion and discarding those that are unnecessary. It is also possible to simplify without sacrificing content merely by rearranging elements. Similar elements can be grouped together. For example, several shapes that have the same dark value can be overlapped so that visually they become one larger dark shape. The smaller shapes are still there as indi-vidual items, but compositionally they now appear as a single design element.
Dominance and SubordinationOne way of achieving variation is by using contrasting elements, like light and dark values, warm and cool colors, complementary colors, large and small shapes, or even rough and smooth textures. But these contrasting elements can themselves contribute to the monotony if introduced in equal amounts. One element should dominate to avoid the static quality of an equal division where nothing stands out, nothing seems important.
Frequently, the element that dominates the focus is the one that is most unique. So in a primarily dark composition, a small light area becomes the center of interest, or in a design filled with circles, a square shape stands out.
Unity and DiversityOne of the goals of any good composition is to create unity—a sense that all of the elements work together to create a harmonious whole. However, unity alone is not enough. Without variation within the design elements, a composition can become monotonous. Finding that balance between unity and diversity is one of the challenges of composition.
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