copyright, 1998-2013 © qiming zhou geog1150. cartography surface mapping

Copyright, 1998-2013 © Qiming Zhou

GEOG1150. Cartography

Surface MappingSurface Mapping

Surface Mapping 2

Surface Mapping

Statistical surface Concept of a statistical surface Mapping the statistical surface with point, line and

area symbols Portraying the land-surface form

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Statistical surface

The statistical surface is one of the most important concepts in cartography.

The magnitudes of the attribute values, referenced to unit areas, lines or points, can be viewed as having a vertical dimension.

The magnitudes can therefore be visualised as a 3-dimensional surface.

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Concepts of statistical surface

Left: An array of attribute values for unit areas. The numbers are rural population densities for minor civil divisions in a part of Kansas. Right: Elevated points whose relative height above the datum for each unit area is proportional to the attribute value in that unit area shown on the left.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Left: A perspective view of a smoothed statistical surface produced by assuming gradients among all the attribute values. Right: A perspective view of the statistical surface produced by erecting prisms over each unit area proportional in height to the attribute values.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

Continuous and non-continuous surfaces

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2-D representations by isarithmic and choropleth maps

Up: An isarithmic map of the statistical surface. Right: A choropleth representation of the same data set using 5 range-graded categories.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Mapping the statistical surface with point symbols Dot map

Unit value Size Location

A well-rendered dot map in which each dot represents 16.2 hectares of land in potato production.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Mapping the statistical surface with line symbols Hachures: short line symbols whose width or

spacing depends upon the slope at a point on the statistical surface.

Profiles: the lines of intersection between the series of parallel planes intersecting the datum at the right angle.

Oblique traces: intersects between 0 to 90°. Isarithms: parallel to the datum.

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Hachures

Line symbolisation of slopes or gradients by using hachures. In this diagram, hachures are equally spaced but vary in thickness depending on the value of the gradient being portrayed.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Hachures (cont.)

Line symbolisation of slopes or gradients by using hachures. In this diagram, hachures are of equal thickness but vary in spacing depending on the value of the gradient being portrayed.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

Benoit Bonne Hossard

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Profiles

A series of profiles situated at right angles to one another gives a clear picture of the surface and its underlying strata.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Construction of a profile

The construction of a profile from an isarithmic map. Line AB is drawn on the map. Intersections of the isarithms with line AB are perpendicularly projected to the appropriate line of a set of parallel ruled lines below. The resulting points are connected by a smooth line resulting in a profile A’B’.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Oblique traces

A reduced portion of a planimetrically correct terrain drawing of the Isle of Yell (Shetland Group).

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Perspective traces

Perspective traces: (a) “fishnets” where traces are drawn in both the x and y directions, (b) traces drawn only parallel to the x direction, (c) traces drawn only parallel to the y direction.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

a

c

b

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Two sets of perspective traces: (a) suing one-point perspective, and (b) using two-point perspective.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perspective traces (cont.)

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Isarithmic mapping

An isarithm is also called isoline or isogram.

Emphasise on the geographical distribution outside surface enclosing the geographical volume.

Focus is on the attribute values at points of a truly continuous distribution.

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Isarithmic mapping (cont.)

In the upper diagram, horizontal levels of given z values are seen passing partway through a hypothetical island. Traces of intersections of the planes with the island surface are indicated by dotted lines. In the lower drawing, the traces have been mapped orthogonally on the map datum and represent the island by means of isarithms.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Kinds of isarithmic mapping Attribute values that can occur at

points Isometric lines

Attribute values that cannot occur at a point Isopleths

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Mapping the statistical surface with area symbols Choroplethic mapping

Simple choropleth mapping Classless choropleth mapping

Elements of choroplethic mapping Size and shapes of unit areas Number of classes Class limit determination

Dasymetric mapping

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Choroplethic mapping

Examples of three ways we can map a set of z values that refer to enumeration districts or unit areas: (a) a simple choropleth map, (b) a dasymetric map, and (c) an isoplethic map.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Size and shape of unit areas

The same distribution mapped with three different sets of unit areas, using the same class interval scheme: (a) uses large units of equal area, (b) uses small units of equal area, and (c) uses irregularly size unit areas.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

> 40

25 - 40

10 - 25

< 10

A B

C

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Number of classes

Both (a) and (b) show five classes. Because of the simple distribution pattern on (a), we could increase the number of classes used. The lack of pattern in the distribution of (b) would make it even more confusing to the map reader if more classes were used.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

A B

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Class interval series (cont.)

Left: An unclassed perspective view of a statistical distribution. Each unit area is shown as a prism whose height is proportional to the value of the mapped distribution, and whose base is a scaled representation of the unit area. Right: A five-classed, perspective view of the same statistical distribution.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Choropleth map

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Portraying the land-surface form Historical background Visualisation methods

Terrain unit maps and hachures Morphometric maps Contouring Hill shading Perspective pictorial maps

Oblique regional views Schematic maps

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Early maps

Examples of portraying hills and mountains in stylised form on early maps.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Landform portrayal

“From the 15th to 18th centuries, landform portrayal developed along with landscape painting of the period. Thus, perspective-like, oblique, or bird’s-eye views for limited areas became popular”.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Landform portraying

Chinese ancient maps also shows excellent art works in landscape portraying.

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A section of topographic map that portrays the land-surface form with vertically illuminated hachuring.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

Terrain unit maps

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Terrain unit maps and hachures

A section of topographic map that portrays the land-surface form with obliquely illuminated hachuring.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Morphometric maps

On the left is a relatively realistic portrayal of the region. On the right is the same area, which employs a schematic treatment to emphasise the geomorphic characteristics

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Contouring

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A simple contour map

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Binary contour

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Altitude tinting

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Hill shading

Courtesy www.hear.org/starr/maps/stock/index.html

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Hill-shaded topographic map

“Recent printed topographic maps which combine hill shading with contours are the most effective ever produced by manual methods”.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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To see to believe?

Left: hill-shaded topography with the illumination source located in the South – the real-world simulation for the North Hemisphere. On this image, the landform appears inversed. Right: the upside-down view of the same image.

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Hypsometric colouring (layer tinting)

Courtesy www.scilands.de

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Layer tinting with contours

Courtesy geology.csustan.edu

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Block diagrams

“Even the simplest block diagram is easily accepted as a reduced replica of reality and is remarkably graphic”.

From Robinson, et al., 1995

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Oblique regional views

A reduced preliminary “worksheet” of an oblique regional view of Europe as seen from the southwest, to illustrate a strategic viewpoint during the World War II.

Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

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Perspective view with hill shade

Shaded 3-dimensional landscape(courtesy http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/HiBlog/tag/dtm/).

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Perspective view with hill shade and shadow

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Perspective pictorial maps

3-dimensional surface draped with airphoto to show the 3-dimensional landscape – Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong.

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Visual effects can also be added for visualising the 3-dimensional surface more realistically (sky colours, clouds, etc.) – Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong.

Visual effects