chapter4 basic bio mechanics
Post on 18-Nov-2014
140 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 4:Basic Biomechanics
National Academy of Sports Medicine
72
Basic Biomechanics
Objectives
After completing this chapter you will be able to:
• Define basic anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motion.
• Describe the muscle action spectrum.
• Classify muscles as movers.
• Describe and understand levers.
• Describe and understand common muscle synergies.
Key Terms
Biomechanics
Superior
Inferior
Proximal
Distal
Anterior
Posterior
Medial
Lateral
Contralateral
Ipsilateral
Sagittal
Flexion
Extension
Frontal plane
Abduction
Adduction
Transverse plane
Internal rotation
External rotation
Scapular retraction
Scapular protraction
Scapular repression
Scapular elevation
Muscle action spectrum
Eccentric
Isometric
Concentric
Agonist
Synergist
Stabilizer
Antagonist
First-class levers
Second-class levers
Third-class levers
73
Basic Biomechanics
Introduction to BiomechanicsBiomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study
how forces interact within a living body. Specifically, this chapter
focuses on the motions that the kinetic chain produces and the
forces that act upon it. (1, 2) This includes basic anatomical
terminology, planes of motion, joint motions, muscle action,
functional anatomy, levers, and common muscle synergies.
TerminologyAll industries have language that is specific to their needs. Because Health and Fitness Professionals deal with
human motion and the human body, they must understand the basic anatomical terminology to allow effective
communication. This section will review anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motions.
Anatomical location refers to terms that describe locations on the body. These include medial, lateral,
contralateral, ipsilateral, anterior, posterior, proximal, distal, inferior, and superior.
Figure 4.1 Anatomical locations
Biomechanics:
The scientific study of internal or external forces placed upon the body.
Proximal
Distal
Superior
Lateral
Medial
Inferior
Contralateral
Ipsilateral
74
Basic Biomechanics
Superior refers to a position above a reference point. The
femur (thigh bone) is superior to the tibia (shin bone).
Inferior refers to a position below a reference point. The foot
is inferior to the knee.
Proximal refers to a position nearest the center of the body
or point of reference. The proximal portion of the femur (thigh
bone) is located at the hip.
Distal refers to a position farthest from the center of the body
or point of reference. The distal portion of the femur (thigh
bone) is located at the knee.
Anterior refers to a position on the front or toward the
front of the body. The quadriceps are located on the anterior
aspect of the thigh.
Posterior refers to a position on the back or toward the
back of the body. The hamstrings are located on the posterior
aspect of the thigh.
Superior:
Positioned above a point of reference.
Inferior:
Positioned below a point of reference.
Proximal:
Positioned nearest the center of the body, or point of reference.
Distal:
Positioned farthest from the center of the body, or point of reference.
Anterior:
On the front of the body.
Posterior:
On the back of the body.
75
Basic Biomechanics
Medial refers to a position relatively closer to the midline of
the body. The medial side of the knee is the side closest to
the other knee.
Lateral refers to a position relatively farther away from the
midline of the body or toward the outside of the body. The
lateral side of the knee is the outside of the knee.
Contralateral refers to a position on the opposite side of the
body. The right foot is contralateral to the left hand.
Ipsilateral refers to a position on the same side of the body.
The right foot is ipsilateral to the right hand.
Medial:
Positioned near the middle of the body.
Lateral:
Toward the outside of the body.
Contralateral:
Positioned on the opposite side of the body.
Ipsilateral:
Positioned on the same side of the body.
76
Basic Biomechanics
Planes of Motion and Joint MotionsThe universally used method of describing human movements in three dimensions is based on a system of
planes and axis. Three imaginary planes are positioned through the body at right angles so they intersect
at the body’s center of mass. They include the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. Movement is said
to occur more predominantly in a specific plane if it is actually along the plane or parallel to it. Although
movements can be one-plane dominant, no motion occurs strictly in one plane of motion. Movement in a
plane occurs on an axis running perpendicular to that plane, much like the axle that a car wheel revolves
around. This is known as joint motion, or arthrokinematics. Joint motions are termed for their action in each
of the three planes of motion.
Figure 4.2 Planes of motion
Sagittal Plane
Transverse Plane
Frontal Plane
77
Basic Biomechanics
Sagittal plane
The sagittal plane bisects the body into right and left halves and
consists of predominantly front-to-back movements. Movements
in the sagittal plane are termed flexion and extension. Flexion
is a bending movement where the relative angle between two
adjacent segments decreases. (2, 3) Extension is a straightening
movement where the relative angle between two adjacent seg-
ments increases. (2, 3) Flexion and extension occur in many
joints in the body, including vertebral, shoulder, elbow, wrist,
hip, knee, foot, and hand. At the ankle, flexion is referred to as
dorsiflexion, and extension is plantarflexion. (1–3) Examples of
predominantly sagittal-plane movements include biceps curls,
triceps pushdowns, squats, front lunges, calf raises, walking, run-
ning, vertical jumps, climbing stairs, and shooting a basketball.
Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Vertebral flexion Vertebral extension Shoulder flexion Shoulder extension
Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Elbow flexion Elbow extension Hip flexion Hip extension
Sagittal:
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into left and right halves.
Flexion:
The bending of a joint, causing the angle to the joint to decrease.
Extension:
The straightening of a joint, causing the angle to the joint to increase.
78
Basic Biomechanics
Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Knee flexion Knee extension
Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Ankle plantarflexion Ankle dorsiflexion
Frontal plane
The frontal plane bisects the body to create front and back halves and predominately consist of side-to-
side motions. Movements in the frontal plane include abduction and adduction in the limbs (relative to the
trunk), lateral flexion in the spine, and eversion and inversion
at the foot and ankle complex. (1–4) Abduction is a movement
away from the midline of the body or, similar to extension, it
is an increase in the angle between two adjoining segments,
but in the frontal plane. (1–4) Adduction is a movement of the
segment toward the midline of the body or, like flexion, it is
a decrease in the angle between two adjoining segments, but
in the frontal plane. (1–4) Lateral flexion is the bending of the
spine from side to side. Eversion and inversion follow the same
principle but relate more specifically to the movement of the
foot and ankle in the frontal plane. Examples of predominantly
frontal plane exercises include side lateral dumbbell raises, side
lunges, and side shuffling.
Frontal plane:
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into front and back halves.
Abduction:
Movement of a body part away from the middle of the body.
Adduction:
Movement of a body part toward the middle of the body.
79
Basic Biomechanics
Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 Shoulder abduction Shoulder adduction Hip abduction Hip adduction
Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Foot eversion Foot inversion Lateral spine flexion
Transverse plane
The transverse plane bisects the body to create upper and
lower halves and consists primarily of rotational movements.
Movements in the transverse plane include internal rotation
and external rotation of the limbs, right and left rotation of
the head and trunk, and radioulnar (forearm) pronation and
supination. (1, 2, 4) Examples of transverse plane exercises
include cable rotations, turning lunges, throwing a ball, golfing,
and swinging a bat.
Transverse plane:
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into top and bottom halves.
Internal rotation:
Rotation of a joint toward the middle of the body.
External rotation:
Rotation of a joint away from the middle of the body.
80
Basic Biomechanics
Figure 4.22 Figure 4.24 Shoulder external Figure 4.23 Hip external Figure 4.25 rotation Internal rotation rotation Hip internal rotation
Figure 4.26 Figure 4.27
Figure 4.28
Radioulnar pronation Radioulnar supination
Trunk rotation
Scapular motion
Motions of the shoulder blade (or scapulae) are important for
the fitness professional to be familiar with to ensure proper
movement of the shoulder complex. Scapular movements are
primarily retraction, protraction, elevation, and depression.
Scapular retraction occurs when the shoulder blades come
closer together. Scapular protraction occurs when the shoulder
blades move farther apart. Scapular depression occurs when
Scapular retraction:
Shoulder blades are pulled together.
Scapular protraction:
Shoulder blades are pulled apart.
Scapular depression:
Shoulder blades are pulled together and downward.
81
Basic Biomechanics
the shoulder blades move downward while scapular elevation
occurs when the shoulder blades move upward toward the
ears. The photographs below illustrate these four scapular
movements.
Figure 4.29 Figure 4.30 Figure 4.31 Figure 4.32 Scapula retraction Scapula protraction Scapula depression Scapula elevation
Scapular elevation:
Shoulder blades are pulled apart and upward.
82
Basic Biomechanics
Muscle ActionsMuscles produce a variety of actions to effectively manipulate gravity, ground reaction forces, momentum,
and external resistance. The three different contractions that muscles produce are:
• Eccentric
• Isometric
• Concentric
This range of muscle action is known as the muscle-action
spectrum and is necessary to produce efficient movement.
Eccentric
When a muscle contracts eccentrically, it is exerting less force
than is being placed upon it. This results in a lengthening of the
muscle. In reality, the lengthening of the muscle usually refers
to its return to a resting length and not actually increasing in its
length as if it were being stretched. (3) An eccentric motion is commonly referred to as the “negative” in
gym and health club settings. An eccentric motion is synonymous with deceleration and can be observed
in many movements, such as landing from a jump. More commonly, it is seen in a gym when lowering a
weight during a resistance exercise.
Isometric
When a muscle contracts isometrically, it is exerting force equal
to that placed upon it. This results in no appreciable change
in the muscle length. (2, 3) In functional activities, such as
daily movements and/or sports, isometric actions are used
to dynamically stabilize the body. For example, the rotator cuff muscles help stabilize the shoulder joint
during a pushup. An isometric contraction can easily be observed when an individual pauses during a
resistance-training exercise in between the lifting and lowering phases.
Isometric:
A muscle maintaining a certain length.
Muscle-action spectrum:
Combination of eccentric, isometric, and concentric muscle actions.
Eccentric:
The lengthening of a muscle.
83
Basic Biomechanics
Concentric
When a muscle contracts concentrically, it is exerting more
force than is being placed upon it. This results in a shortening
of the muscle. A concentric muscle action is synonymous with
acceleration and can be observed in many movements, such as
jumping upward and the lifting phase during resistance-training
exercises.
Let’s use the example of a bicep curl exercise to illustrate muscle actions. The initial movement requires
the bicep to shorten to generate force to overcome the weight of the dumbbell in the individual’s hand,
allowing the dumbbell to move up toward the front of the shoulder (see Figure 4.33). This is the concentric
phase of the exercise. Once the dumbbell is raised to the front of the shoulder, the individual holds this
position. Because the length of the muscle does not change while holding this position, this is considered
the isometric portion of the exercise. As one lowers the dumbbell back down to the starting position, the
muscle must now lengthen (under the control of the nervous system) to decelerate the force of lowering
the dumbbell. This is the eccentric portion of the exercise (see Figure 4.34).
Figure 4.33 Figure 4.34 Bicep curl concentric Bicep curl eccentric
Concentric force production is emphasized in many traditional routines. It is important, however, for
Health and Fitness Professionals to train muscles to be strong not only concentrically, but also eccentri-
cally and isometrically to maximize strength potential, maintain proper joint range of motion, and prevent
injury. In essence, the entire muscle action-spectrum must be emphasized.
Concentric:
The shortening of a muscle.
84
Basic Biomechanics
Functional AnatomyThe traditional perception of muscles is that they work concentrically and predominantly in one plane
of motion. However, in order to more effectively understand motion and design efficient training pro-
grams, it is imperative to view muscles functioning in all planes of motion and through the entire muscle-
contraction spectrum (eccentrically, isometrically, and concentrically). The following section describes the
origin (proximal attachment toward the center of the body), the insertion (distal attachment away from
the center of the body), and muscle-action spectrum of the major muscles of the body. (5, 6)
Anterior tibialis
Origin: Outside the tibia
Insertion: Top of foot below the big toe
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates dorsiflexion
Eccentrically decelerates plantarflexion
Isometrically stabilizes the arch of the foot
Anterior tibialis
85
Basic Biomechanics
Gastrocnemius
Origin: Back and lower portion of femur
Insertion: Back of the heel (calcaneous)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates plantarflexion
Decelerates ankle dorsiflexion
Isometrically stabilizes the foot and ankle complex
Gastrocnemius
86
Basic Biomechanics
Quadriceps
Origin: Front of pelvis, front of femur
Insertion: Front and top of tibia
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee extension, hip flexion
Eccentrically decelerates knee flexion, hip extension
Isometrically stabilizes the knee, hip and low back
Quadriceps
87
Basic Biomechanics
Hamstrings
Origin: Ischium
Insertion: Tibia and fibula
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee flexion, hip extension, and lower leg external rotation
Eccentrically decelerates knee extension, hip flexion, and lower leg internal rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee
Hamstrings
88
Basic Biomechanics
Adductors
Origin: Pubis (lower portion of pelvis) and ischium (lower back part of hip bone)
Insertion: Inside and back of femur
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip adduction, flexion, and internal rotation
Eccentrically decelerates hip abduction, extension, and external rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the hip, low back, and knee
Adductors
89
Basic Biomechanics
Gluteus maximus
Origin: Ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones) sacrum (lower part of the
vertebral column)
Insertion: Back and top of femur and IT band (large piece of fascia running down the lateral aspect of the
thigh)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation
Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee
Gluteus maximus
90
Basic Biomechanics
Gluteus medius
Origin: Side of the ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones)
Insertion: Side and top of femur
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation
Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee (during side-to-side movements)
Gluteus medius
91
Basic Biomechanics
Erector spinae
Origin: Pelvis, thoracic, and cervical spine
Insertion: Spine and back of skull
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension
Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion
Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back
Erector spinae
92
Basic Biomechanics
Multifidus
Origin: Sacrum, lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine
Insertion: Lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension and rotation
Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion and rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the spine
Multifidus
93
Basic Biomechanics
Rectus abdominus
Origin: Pubis
Insertion: Ribs and sternum
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion
Eccentrically decelerates spine extension
Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and trunk
Rectus abdominus
94
Basic Biomechanics
Internal oblique
Origin: Top and back of ilium, thoracolumbar fascia (fascia covering deep muscles of low back)
Insertion: Pubis, ribs, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion, rotation
Eccentrically decelerates spine extension, rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the spine and pelvis
Internal oblique
95
Basic Biomechanics
Transverse abdominus
Origin: Top and back of ilium
Insertion: Pubis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)
Muscle actions
Isometrically stabilizes the pelvis and lumbar spine (low back)
Transverse abdominus
96
Basic Biomechanics
External oblique
Origin: External surface of ribs 5 through 12
Insertion: Anterior iliac crest of pelvis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spinal flexion, lateral flexion, and contralateral rotation
Eccentrically decelerates spinal extension, lateral flexion, and rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back
External oblique
97
Basic Biomechanics
Latissimus dorsi
Origin: Pelvis, ribs, lumbar, and thoracic spine
Insertion: Front of humerus, scapulae
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension, adduction, and internal rotation
Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion, abduction, and external rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder and low back
Latissimus dorsi
98
Basic Biomechanics
Pectorals
Origin: Clavicle and sternum
Insertion: Front of humerus
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation
Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension, horizontal abduction, and external rotation
Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder
Pectorals
99
Basic Biomechanics
Deltoids (anterior, middle, posterior)
Origin: Clavicle and scapulae
Insertion: Side of humerus
Muscle actions
Anterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation
Anterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension and external rotation
Anterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle
Middle: Concentrically accelerates shoulder abduction
Middle: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder adduction
Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle
Posterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension and external rotation
Posterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation
Posterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle
Anterior deltoid Medial deltoid Posterior deltoid
100
Basic Biomechanics
Trapezius (upper, middle, lower)
Origin: Bottom of skull and cervical and thoracic spine
Insertion: Clavicle and scapulae
Muscle actions
Upper: Concentrically accelerates scapular elevation
Upper: Eccentrically decelerates scapular depression
Upper: Isometrically stabilizes the cervical spine and scapula
Middle: Concentrically accelerates scapular retraction
Middle: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation
Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae
Lower: Concentrically accelerates scapular depression
Lower: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation
Lower: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae
Upper trapezius Middle trapezius Lower trapezius
101
Basic Biomechanics
Biceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae
Insertion: Radius (lateral forearm bone)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder flexion
Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder extension
Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle
Biceps brachii
102
Basic Biomechanics
Triceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae and back of humerus
Insertion: Ulna (medial forearm and elbow bone)
Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder extension
Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder flexion
Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle
Triceps brachii
103
Basic Biomechanics
Muscles as MoversNow that we have a better understanding of the individual capabilities of the major muscles of the body,
let’s take a closer look at how muscles work together to perform movement. Muscles provide the human
body with a variety of functions that allow for the manipulation of forces placed on the body, such as pro-
ducing and decelerating movement. These muscle functions categorize a muscle as an agonist, antagonist,
synergist or stabilizer.
Agonist muscles are muscles that act as prime movers; in other
words, they are the muscles most responsible for a particular
movement. For example, the triceps muscle is an agonist for
elbow extension (as seen in a triceps extension exercise).
Figure 4.35 Triceps extension
Antagonist muscles perform the opposite action of the
prime mover. For example, the triceps are the antagonist of
elbow flexion (as seen in rowing). See Table 4-1 for more
examples.
Figure 4.36 Row
Agonist:
Muscles that act as prime movers.
Antagonist:
Muscles that perform the opposite action of the prime mover.
104
Basic Biomechanics
Synergist muscles assist prime movers during movement.
For example, the hamstrings are synergistic with the gluteals
during a squat.
Figure 4.37 Squat
Stabilizer muscles support or stabilize the body (or joint),
while the prime movers and the synergists perform the move-
ment patterns. For example, the rotator cuff stabilizes the
shoulder joint during a pushup.
Figure 4.38 Pushup
Synergist:
Muscles that assist prime movers during movement.
Stabilizer:
Muscles that support or stabilize the body.
105
Basic Biomechanics
Table 4-1
Muscles as Movers
Muscle Type Muscle Function Exercise Muscle(s) Used
Agonist Prime mover Chest press Pectoralis major
Overhead press Deltoid
Row Latissimus dorsi
SquatGluteus maximus, quadriceps
Synergist Assist prime mover Chest press Anterior deltoid, triceps
Overhead press Triceps
Row Posterior deltoid, biceps
Squat Hamstrings
Stabilizer Stabilize while prime mover and synergist work
Chest press Rotator cuff
Overhead press Rotator cuff
Row Rotator cuff
Squat Transversus abdominus
Antagonist Oppose prime mover
Chest press Posterior deltoid
Overhead press Latissimus dorsi
Row Pectoralis major
Squat Psoas (hip flexor)
106
Basic Biomechanics
LeversIn addition to identifying the classification of muscles during movement, understanding human movement
also requires a rudimentary knowledge of levers. The musculoskeletal system is comprised of bones,
muscles, tendons, and ligaments, all of which create a series of levers and pulleys that generate force
against external objects. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and produce movement by
bending the skeleton at moveable joints. Joint motion is caused by muscles pulling on bones, because
muscles cannot actively push. Particular attachments of muscles to bones will determine how much force
the muscle is capable of generating. For example, the quadriceps muscles can produce more force than
muscles of the hand.
Most motion uses the principle of levers. A lever consists of a rigid “bar” that pivots around a stationary fulcrum (pivot point). In the human body, the fulcrum is the joint axis, bones are the levers, muscles cre-
ate the motion (effort), and resistance can be the weight of a body part or of an object (such as a barbell
and dumbbell). (7)
Levers are divided into first, second, and third class, depending upon the relations among the fulcrum,
the effort, and the resistance.
First-class levers have the fulcrum in the middle, like a seesaw.
Nodding the head is an example of a first-class lever, with the
top of the spinal column as the fulcrum (joint axis).
Figure 4.39 First-class lever
First-class lever:
Has the fulcrum in between the effort and resistance.
107
Basic Biomechanics
Second-class levers have a resistance in the middle (with the ful-
crum and effort on either side), like a load in a wheelbarrow. The
body acts as second-class lever when one engages in a full-body
pushup. The foot is the fulcrum, the body weight is the resistance,
and the effort is applied by the hands against the ground.
Figure 4.40 Second-class lever
Third-class levers have the effort placed between the resis-
tance and the fulcrum. The effort always travels a shorter dis-
tance and must be greater than the resistance. Most limbs of the
human body are operated as third-class levers. (7) An example
of a third-class lever is the human forearm: the fulcrum is the
elbow, the effort is applied by the biceps, and the load is in the
hand, such as dumbbell, when performing a biceps curl.
Figure 4.41 Third-class lever
Second-class lever:
Has the resistance in between the fulcrum and effort.
Third-class lever:
Has the effort in between the resistance and fulcrum.
108
Basic Biomechanics
Muscle SynergiesNow that we have an understanding of muscle actions, levers, and classification of muscles as movers, it is
equally important to understand how muscles work together in a synergistic fashion to produce optimum
movement. Muscles produce a force that is transmitted to bones through connective tissues (tendons).
However, muscles rarely work in isolation, but rather, in groups (controlled by the nervous system). This
simplifies movement by allowing muscles and joints to operate as a functional unit. In the end, through
practice of proper movement patterns (proper exercise technique), these synergies become more fluent
and automated. Table 4-2 illustrates common muscle synergies for some popular exercises.
Figure 4.42
Figure 4.43 Figure 4.44
Figure 4.45 Squat
Overhead press Cable row
Chest press
Table 4-2
Common Muscle Synergies
Exercise Muscle Synergies
SquatQuadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus maximus
Overhead press Deltoid, rotator cuff, trapezius
Cable rowLatissimus dorsi, rhomboids, posterior deltoid
Chest pressPectoralis major, anterior deltoid, triceps brachii
109
Basic Biomechanics
SummaryBiomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study how forces interact within a living body.
In order to understand the body and communicate about it effectively, a Health and Fitness Professional
must know the terminology for the various anatomical locations. It is also important to know and express
how the body moves in all planes of motion and associated joint motions, the muscle-action spectrum,
levers, and muscle synergies.
110
Basic Biomechanics
References
1. Hamill J, Knutzen JM. Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 1995.
2. Norkin CC, Levangie PK. Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
FA Davis Company; 1992.
3. Luttgens K, Hamilton N. Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion. 9th ed. Dubuque: Brown &
Benchmark Publishers; 1997.
4. Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG. Muscles Testing and Function. 4th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins; 1993.
5. Brooks VB. The Neural Basis of Motor Control. New York: Oxford University Press; 1986.
6. Gambetta V. Everything in Balance. Training and Conditioning. 1996;1(2):15–21.
7. Harman E. The Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise. In: Baechle TR, ed. Essentials of Strength
Training and Conditioning. Omaha: Human Kinetics; 1994:25–27.
top related