an analysis of lesson topics within senior high school
Post on 08-Feb-2022
2 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―69
原 著
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within
Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:
Commonalities with and differences from
the Japanese situation
Seiko HIRAI
Kitasato University,College of Liberal Arts and Sciences
Abstract
Some segments of the Japanese education system believe that other Asian countries,
including Taiwan,have demonstrated recent advances― from elementary school-level to
college-level― in English language education.Some of these educators think this may help
to explain the perceived improvement in practical English skills in these countries.In this
study, English language education in Taiwan*1
was examined in order to redress the
relative scarcity of information about the use of high school English textbooks in Taiwan.
The primary focus was on lesson topics outlined in the Taiwanese senior high school
English textbooks.212 lesson topics were analyzed.These topics appeared in 18 textbooks
used in Taiwanese high schools that were published before the 2008 revision of Ministry of
Education (MOE) guidelines. Although the Taiwanese government has already begun
incorporating their latest(2008)MOE guidelines,it is simply too early to examine how these
new textbooks will impact the Taiwanese English education situation.Consequently,this
study focuses mainly on the earlier guidelines.The lesson topics were classified according
to the Nippon Decimal Classification.
The findings suggest that,in Taiwan,practical English functions,including common
writing skills,are emphasized.However,these Taiwanese texts also increase the breadth of
students’intellectual exposure to English by focusing on literature classics, particularly
poetry. English language educators in Japan may find some elements of the current
findings, particularly with respect to differential emphasis on literature in Japanese and
Taiwanese textbooks,helpful in informing and driving the discussions currently underway
on the future direction of English education in Japan.
Key words and phrases:Taiwanese high school English textbooks, lesson topics,
critical thinking, literature,Nippon Decimal Classification
I. INTRODUCTION
Many English language educators in Japan have already noted recent differences in
English language education― from elementary school-level to college-level― between
Japan and other East Asian countries(Butler,2005;Kawazoe,2005;Koike,2008;Oka,2009;
Tanabe,2003;Tanaka,2007).Kawai (2005)and Oka (2009)have,for example, illustrated
some of these distinctions by focusing on quantitative differences such as the much higher
vocabulary requirements in Korean and Chinese senior high schools compared with those
within the Japanese system.There are also indications that the types of text-books and
associated teaching activities might be an important distinction between the different East
Asian education systems.Hence,Kawazoe(2005)has pointed out that countries such as
China have been willing to very rapidly change their English teaching methods, from a
rote-memorization based paradigm,to one that is updated to reflect and address modern
challenges.On a similar note, Butler (2005) specifically points to how elementary school
textbooks and other teaching materials used in Korea focus on strengthening and stimulat-
ing critical thinking ability to a much higher degree than is attempted in the Japanese
system.
In a study that focused primarily on textbooks, Ogawa et al. (2005) have noted
differences, in “Lesson Topics”, in the senior high school textbooks used in Korea and
China compared with those used in Japanese textbooks.These authors suggested that the
adoption of lesson topics and forms are influenced by foreign language education policy
and curriculum guidelines set by each country at the national level. For instance, the
textbook topics in Japan and China are more relevant to the development of economy and
industry,which reflect the respective education policies of these two countries.Moreover,
literature topics, which are quite common in Korean and Chinese textbooks, are less
frequently used in Japanese textbooks,which appear to be consistent with the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) curriculum guidelines,
which place less emphasis on topics concerning literature.
Such differences in textbooks and guidelines between these countries have been
invoked by the ministry’s advisory committees (MEXT, 2005), and by other Japanese
educators (Koike, 2008; Koike et al. 2008) to explain some perceived improvements in
practical English skills― as measured by international standardized tests― that may
recently have surfaced in Korea and China (Appendix Table 1a and Table 1b).
The significance of Japanese test-takers’scores in international standardized tests,
such as TOEFL,and TOEIC is still debated among Japanese academia.Despite this,some
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
― ―70
interesting “trends”are apparent. For example, Koike (Koike, 2001; 2008; Koike et al.,
2008) has persistently pointed to how, since the 1960’s, the scores of such standardized
test-takers from other East Asian countries have caught up with,and even surpassed those
of their Japanese counterparts. Torigai (2002) reached a similar conclusion about the
situation in the 1990’s and there are indications that this“trend”is not changing,as Oka
(2009) found when he reported that in 2004, Japan placed 29th out of 30 Asian nations.
Indeed, as shown in Appendix Table 1a, Japanese TOEFL test-takers scores in the
decades spanning 1991 to 2010 have been the lowest among most East Asian countries,
excluding North Korea. Butler (2005) is particularly concerned with a study by Torigai
(2002)that demonstrated that Japan’s mediocre TOEFL scores were pulled down by the
relatively low scores obtained by Japanese senior high-school test-takers.
Interestingly,as Appendix Table 1a indicates,even TOEFL test-takers from Taiwan
appear to consistently have higher scores than do their Japanese counterparts.Even more
apparent is the relative lack of improvement Japanese TOEIC test-takers seem to have
made since the 1990’s(Appendix Table 1b).Even as TOEIC test-takers from China,Korea,
and Taiwan demonstrated marked gains in scores between 1997 and 2005,gains made by
Japanese test-takers are barely visible.Nevertheless,it should be noted that caveats apply
here as such differences may be more apparent than real.
Butler (2005), Kawazoe (2005), Koike (Koike, 2001; 2008; Koike et al., 2008), and
Tanaka (2007) are representative of many Japanese English language educators who
believe that Japan can gain a lot by examining how these other Asian countries have
brought about such “improvements”in the English language skills of their peoples,
although these educators concede that it is difficult, from such observations, to draw
broad conclusions on the relative merits of the different English education systems in use
in East Asia.
Studying the senior high school English language education process,in particular,can
be very revealing because many more individuals with sufficient exposure to the entire
English learning process are represented at this stage of the process than at earlier or even
subsequent stages.To this end,analyzing the textbooks used at this stage is very impor-
tant because these materials provide a clear index for the kinds of language skills and
abilities the educators are emphasizing and expecting their students to gain.
There are two main ways English textbooks are investigated. The skill-based
approach examines the teaching of vocabulary,grammar and language structure(Kodera,
1996). The other method examines the contents and topics used for the lessons. Most
researchers have focused on the former, but recently some researchers (Koshino &
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―71
Nakamura,2001) have started probing the latter.Because the contents and topics used for
such lessons often exert an enormous impact on the development of students’understand-
ing of the world (Katayama et al., 1986), these topics can be useful surrogates for inves-
tigating the specific aims and perspectives of the English education program in a target
country.For example,when the frequencies of lesson topics(such as philosophy,technol-
ogy, natural sciences, etc.)are classified and investigated, it may be possible to discern
whether all standard lesson topics are adequately represented or whether only certain
areas are emphasized in textbooks―such analyses can be indirect indicators of the specific
types of English usage favored by particular education boards and governments.Indeed,
Erikawa’s (2002;2006)analysis of English textbook topics in Japan following the second
World War and into the 1990s shows a correlation between socio-economic factors and
textbook topics.
Some recent studies have used this approach to study the situation not only in Japan
(Erikawa,2002;2006;Koshino& Nakamura,2001)but also in other Asian countries such
as China and South Korea(Ogawa et al.,2005),but to the best of my knowledge,there has
been only limited work on this for Taiwan.Data from Taiwan are frequently included in
many comparisons of English proficiencies,among East Asian nations.Yet,little informa-
tion on the use of English textbooks in Taiwan is currently available.This makes it more
difficult to draw direct comparisons on senior high school English education between
Taiwan and the other East Asian nations.The current study was designed to redress the
relative scarcity of this information.In particular I was interested in lesson topics in senior
high school textbooks,and have expanded the scope of the 2005 study by Ogawa et al.by
examining the situation in Taiwan.
As is the case with Korea and China, Taiwan is similar to Japan in that English is
viewed,both within the educational framework,and in society,as a“foreign”language,
not a“second”language.The educational system in Taiwan uses a 6-3-3(5)system similar
to that in Japan.Another similarity relates to the communication challenges each of these
countries faces in terms of globalization.
Although the Taiwanese government has already begun incorporating their latest 2008
MOE guidelines,it is simply too early to examine how these new textbooks will impact the
Taiwanese English education situation. Consequently, this study focuses mainly on the
earlier guidelines.Nevertheless, several of the new textbooks that have already incorpo-
rated the new 2008 guidelines were also examined to get some sense of perspective and
context on changes underway. How the Education ministry guidelines influenced the
selection,by textbook publishers,of textbook topics was also examined.Of the four aims
― ―72
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
stated in the Taiwanese 1995 MOE guidelines, only two major aims specifically refer to
topics,such as“English literature”,“fine arts”,“Taiwanese and foreign cultures”,“inter-
national affairs”,and “advances in science and technology”,which is the primary focus
of the present study.These two aims are:
1. To cultivate interest in learning English and to help students to appreciate English
literature and fine arts through both passive and active participation in such activ-
ities.
2. To encourage familiarity with not only Taiwanese but also foreign cultures and also
to promote an understanding of international affairs,and of advances in science and
technology.
The subject areas covered in these texts, and how the topics are structured and
presented,were examined. A major finding is that not only are practical English func-
tions, including common writing skills,emphasized in Taiwanese textbooks but also that
the students are given a broader intellectual exposure to English via literature classics and
poetry. MEXT and its advisors might find this information useful in planning changes
to the Japanese English language education,especially in secondary schools.
II. METHODOLOGY
1. Taiwanese textbooks investigated and the number of topics examined
Data for the study were collected between 2004 and 2012, during which the author
travelled from Japan to Taiwan 11 times.Included in these periods were several trips to
the National Textbook Resource Center in Taipei―where several officers*2were intervi-
ewed for specific information on the textbooks and on MOE issues― and to the library of
National Taiwan Normal University.Several university faculties*3were also interviewed
for textbook-specific information on MOE issues.Because the Taiwanese MOE guidelines
are in the Mandarin language,these materials were translated into Japanese by a Chinese
colleague.The author then completed the Japanese language to English language transla-
tions of these materials and had the final English version verified by a colleague in
Taiwan.
Of the five senior high school English textbooks series authorized by the Ministry of
Education in Taiwan,only three are widely used,published by three distinct publishing
companies: the Far East English Readers (FEER), the Lung Teng English Readers
(LTER),and the San Min English Readers (SMER).FEER is the most popular series of
textbooks(Chen Chia-hung,2000;Chen Hong-wen,2003),the next most popular is SMER,
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―73
followed by LTER.
Each of the Taiwanese series consists of six textbooks― books 1 through 6―which
students study over a three-year period.Here,all textbooks from the three series,a total
of 18,were investigated.Each textbook,except for two(books 5 and 6 of LTER),consists
of twelve lessons.Thus, the total number of lessons examined in this study was 212(See
Table 1a).As each lesson represents a single topic, a total of 212 topics were examined.
Because the main reading section or story for each lesson comprehensively and adequately
represents the topic focus of each lesson, the ‘pre-reading’and ancillary activities or
exercises that accompany each lesson were not examined.Additionally,I have observed in
the recent versions of FEER,New Far East English Readers;NFEER (2008):(Table 1b),
to analyze the recent trend.
Table 1a
Taiwanese Textbooks Analyzed
Textbooks Publishers Publication
Year
Number of
Lessons 12 1999 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 1
Far East English Readers 2 Far East Book Company 2000 12
12 2000 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 3
Far East English Readers 4 Far East Book Company 2001 12
12 2003 Far East Book Company Far East English Readers 5
Far East English Readers 6 Far East Book Company 2003 12
Lung Teng English Readers 1 Lung Teng Book Company 2002 12
12 2002 Lung Teng Book Company Lung Teng English Readers 2
Lung Teng English Readers 3 Lung Teng Book Company 2001 12
10 2003 Lung Teng Book Company Lung Teng English Readers 5
Lung Teng English Readers 4 Lung Teng Book Company 2002 12
Lung Teng English Readers 6 Lung Teng Book Company 2003 10
12 2005 San Min Book Company San Min English Readers 2
San Min English Readers 1 San Min Book Company 2004 12
12 2005 San Min Book Company San Min English Readers 4
San Min English Readers 3 San Min Book Company 2004 12
12 2005 San Min Book Company San Min English Readers 6
San Min English Readers 5 San Min Book Company 2004 12
Total 212 18
― ―74
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
2. Japanese textbooks investigated
Data for the Japanese textbooks were mostly collected in 2004.Of the sixteen senior
high school English textbooks series authorized by MEXT, ten publishers, Sanseido,
Shubunkan, Taishukan, Zoshindo, Kaitakusha, Kyoikusha, Obunsha, Tokyooshoseki,
Bun-Eido,Daiichi Gakushusha,were chosen because they represent the most widely used
textbooks used for senior high school English programs.
The data for Japanese textbook topics were taken from the same textbooks,listed in
Table 2 used by Ogawa et al.(2005).The six kinds of senior high school English textbooks
authorized by MEXT are:English I,English II,Reading, Writing,Oral English I and
Oral English II.Only two of these six, titled English I and English II,were specifically
examined because they comprehensively integrate general language skills,and are used by
almost all schools in Japan. In each textbook, the main lessons were examined and the
activities and exercises that are found between the main lessons were excluded because
these sections are typically not consistent with the topic focus of the lesson. Seventy
textbooks for English I and English II were published in 2004.A wide margin in the level
of difficulty,ranging from‘very easy’to‘rather difficult’exists between the textbooks,and
20‘rather difficult’textbooks were selected for analysis.202 lessons in total,as shown in
Table 3,were examined,and because each lesson represents a single topic,a total of 202
topics were examined,almost the same number as for the Taiwanese textbooks.Some of
6 72 Total
12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 6
New Far East English Readers 5 Far East Book Company 2008 12 12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 4
New Far East English Readers 3 Far East Book Company 2008 12
12 2008 Far East Book Company New Far East English Readers 2
New Far East English Readers 1 Far East Book Company 2008 12
Number of
Lessons
Publication
Year
Publishers Textbooks
Table 1b
Taiwanese Textbooks Additionally Analyzed
Three major publishers supply textbooks in Taiwan: Far East English Readers, Lung Teng
English Readers,and San Min English Readers.Each publisher has a series of books,numbered
1(for grade 10) to 6 (for grade 12).All textbooks listed follow the 1995 MOE guidelines.
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―75
these data were originally collated and presented in a paper I co-authored with Ogawa et
al.in 2007.For the current study,some additional analysis and collation of these data were
completed.
3. Classification of Lesson Topics:The Nippon Decimal Classification
To reduce individual biases and to facilitate comparisons between countries, I have
used “The Nippon Decimal Classification”(NDC)― the most widely used library classifi-
cation system in Japan― to categorize topics in this study.The Japan Library Association
constantly updates the NDC to reflect contemporary changes.
Table 3 shows how the NDC employs a multi-tiered classification system,with the first
Table 2
Japanese Textbooks Analyzed
8 2004 Sanseido Crown English Series I
Crown English Series II Sanseido 2004 10 8 2004 Shubunkan Encounter English Series I
Encounter English Series II Shubunkan 2004 8
12 2004 Taishukan Genius English Course I
Genius English Course II Taishukan 2004 10
Textbooks Publishers Publication
Year
Number of
Lessons
9 2004 Kyoikushupan One World English Course I
New Legend English II Kaitakusha 2004 12 10 2004 Kaitakusha New Legend English I
Mainstream II Zoshindo 2004 12
10 2004 Zoshindo Mainstream I
11 2004 Kyoikushupan One World English Course II
Planet Blue English I Obunsha 2004 9 12 2004 Obunsha Planet Blue English II
Prominence English I Tokyoshoseki 2004 10
10 2004 Daiichi Gakushusha Voyager English Course I
Unicorn English Course II Bun-Eido 2004 11 10 2004 Bun-Eido Unicorn English Course I
Prominence English II Tokyoshoseki 2004 10
10 2004 Daiichi Gakushusha Voyager English Course II
Total 72 20
― ―76
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
tier comprising ten classification items: Philosophy, History, Social Sciences, Natural
Sciences, Technology, Industry, the Arts, Languages, Literature and General Works.
General Works covers all items that cannot be classified in categories 1-9.Each of the 10
items within the first tier is then subdivided into 100categories,which in turn are further
subdivided into 1000 topics. Hence, a first-tier item, such as
. Two topics,
TS:
can be
divided into political science,which itself has sub-categories such as political history and
conditions. To minimize confusion, I have represented first tier items in bold italics
(
3%),
on ti
);second tier items are represented in bold (political science);third tier items
are italicized (political history and conditions).
III. RESUL
the
1. Taiwanese Textbooks:
General Observations:
Table 4 illustrates how lesson topics are represented in the three Taiwanese senior
high school English textbooks.Within
(7.
first classificati
st to
er,
c
,
(2.4%),
while
occurs
most frequently, at 26.4% of all topic categories, with
at 11
pic
%
at
2 nd at 18.9%, and
ies are ncy a
3 rd
here
.8%
e
),
e both ranke 0%),
. The nex
(4
and
e
e lo
(
for
r
a
each occur at
9.9% freque
e
t h
i
nd t
4%
d
w
8.0 t a
r
k
e
d, at 1.h
-
q
4 th
s
gh e
n
i gor
e
fr
t .
c ue .n
y
s
c ec i o en S i al S s c
ce ei n Sc s
S c l Sc a s o c i i ne e
i rat r e L u t e
Phi o h os y l p r c l es a Scien N ut a a eg L ng s u a
chno y T g e lo ts yr o Hi T r Ae h st dn u yrts I
en rks eral Wo G
Table 3
Organization of the NDC
0 General works
1 Philosophy
2 History
3 Social Sciences
4 Natural Sciences
5 Technology
6 Industry
7 The Arts
8 Languages
9 Literature
30 Social Sciences
31 Political science
33 Economics
32 Law
36 Society
37 Education
35 Statistics
34 Public finance
39 National defense,Millitary science
38 Customs, folklore and ethnology 318 Local goverments
319 International relations
314 Legislature.Parliaments
315 Political parties
317 Public administration
316 Stat and individual
312 Political history and conditions
313 Forms of states
311 Political theory and thought
310 Political science
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―77
Even within the most common first tier topics, differences in second and third tier
classification item frequencies were observed (Table 5).Social issues,English /American
novels and poetry,ethics,and biographies are all emphasized in these lower tiers whereas
the natural sciences and technology,which are highlighted within the first classification
tier, are not well represented here(Table 5).
The highest first tier category,
lish usage(for e
,has 56 topics,considerably more than
the 40 in the next highest category,
ry is
the fou
.Nevertheless,within the second classifica-
tion tier,English/American literature topics in
al problems
occur most frequently,while
Society(for example,“The World’s Best-Loved Advice Givers”from FEER,Book 5)and
Customs, folklore and ethnology, both in
lligraphy. The n
, rank second and third
respectively (Table 5).
ing on marke
, with 25 topics, ranked third, among first tier cate-
gories (Table 4), heavily emphasizes specific second tier items such as Ethics-Morals
(Table 5).
The first of the two categories occupying
r items
rth rank is
h 17 topics, inclu
,which
has 21 topics,many of which deal with
engineering, env
including pharmacy(for exam-
ple,“Chinese Medicine”from LTER,Book 4)although Astronomy and Space science is
also represented. The other fourth ranked category, also with 21 topics, is
it
h
ext cat
.
Here,many textbooks deal with English,such as reading English,conversation,composi-
tion,and speech.There is heavy emp
n
asis on practical Eng
which come from
t
xample,“How
to Carry on a Conversation”from FEER,Book 6).
The next catego
ape
/Ca
f wa
.
te.
w
, w
h o
n
l
is rank
egory is
ding various current issues
such as genetic
ting a
,
d commerci
ironment
ons.
The las
, and how to dispose o
wit
s
11
,
o
it
cs
r
i
y three
ed next with 15 topics.
four top
follows next
cat
h
go
t
y
pi
fo
e
m
ncluding
Sports,Dramas/Movi
r
s, and Pictures
ier
wo o
e us r
w
In
h
u
t c
ation s
topics,t
ati
f
c
c
o
f
it
o
s e
n
ateg
i
o
s
c
ocu r
t
l
and o m c
ry
n J
l
d l e a n is e i h p r
a
s
/
i
t f s i h e New
So c S s i e l e ci c n a a t r Li ut re e
t u Li r e t e r a
l So ai s i c S e c c en
ph li o y s h o P
a S u c l N i e t n s r c e a
c n al s e c e ci e M d i s
eg L n a a g s u
l T go y hno ce
yr sto i H e h ts T r A
I r ust d y n
s General work
― ―78
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
Table 4
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese Textbooks (1)
Textbooks
NDC
Far East
English
Readers
Lung Teng
English
Readers
San Ming
English
Readers
Total %
General
Works
0.0%
%%%
0 1 1.5% 2.8%2 3 1.4%
11.8%25 13 18.1%10.3%7 5 6.9%Philosophy
History 4 5.6% 8 11.8% 3 4.2% 15 7.1%
26.4%56 15 20.8%35.3%24 17 23.6%Social
Sciences
Natural
Sciences
5 6.9% 5 7.4% 11 15.3% 21 9.9%
8.0%17 11.1%8 7.4%5 5.6%4 Technology
Industry 3 4.2% 0 0.0% 2 2.8% 5 2.4%
The Arts 4 5.6% 1 1.5% 4 5.6% 9 4.2%
Languages 15 20.8% 3 4.4% 3 4.2% 21 9.9%
Literature 15 20.8% 14 20.6% 11 15.3% 40 18.9%
100%212 100%72 100%68 100%72 Total
Table 5
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese Textbooks (2)
The 2 nd tier
Frequency out of a pool of
212 topics examined
NDC Item No. Category
Fiction.Romance.Novels 933(Literature)
31
Family. Man and woman. Aged people 367(Social Sciences)
32
Practical ethics 159 (Philosophy)
12
Poetry 931(Literature)
20
11
289 (History) Individual biography
Ethics.Morals 15(Philosophy)
8
14
38(Social Sciences) Customs, folklore and ethnology
11
83(Language) English
21
93(Literature) English/American literature
17
36(Social Sciences) Society
Category NDC Item No.Frequency out of a pool
of 212 topics examined
The 3 rd tier
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―79
Comparison of Three Textbooks
There are some significant differences between the three publishing companies in
subject matter (Graph 1). The most striking difference is for the
lessons ea
topic, in
which FEER has 15 lessons as opposed to only three each for the two other book com-
panies.Moreover,SMER places greater emphasis on
g the content of
ni
,with a total of 11
lessons,compared with only five each for the other two book companies.In the
R,NFEER
category, LTER, with a total of eight lessons, outpaces the other two book compa
f F
es
(three and four
opics.
e 6)
ch).
Indeed, from what I have observed in the recent versions o
m t
EE
e a trend
(2008):
(Tabl asi, there does see nc o b war n s i
t
to e d r
a se L n ag gu
N c Sl e u at ie s ra nc
st H y o i r
ura ences l Sci Nat
Table 6
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese Textbooks (3)
Textbooks
NDC
Far East English Readers(1999-2003)
New Far East English Readers(2008)
0 00 Natural Sciences
Philosophy1 5 6
14 173 Social Sciences
History2 4 6
4 45 Technology
Natural Sciences4 5 12
7 47 The Arts
Industry6 3 1
14 159 Literature
Languages8 15 4
Total 72 68
Differences in lesson topic frequencies between the new and older versions of the Far East English
Readers series of textbooks are tabulated here.
― ―80
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
2. Japanese Textbooks:
Table 7 summarizes how lesson topics are represented in Japanese senior high school
English textbooks.Most of the Japanese publishers sampled tend to follow the guidelines
set by MEXT. These guidelines are quite broadly categorized into umbrella-like defini-
tions such as “International Understanding,”“Everyday or commonplace events”, and
tend to emphasize topics such as “Customs and Manners”, “Narratives”“Geography”,
and “History”,“Science”,etc.Reflecting this,
ome publishers,
occurs most frequently,at
29.7%,with
ar to favor Social
2 nd at 17.3%,and
ral Scie
3 rd at 10.9%.
e differenc
is 4 th,
occurring at 10.4% frequency but this is not very different from
hin the mo
(9.4%), and
rst tier top
(8.9%).The other categories are considerably lower,with
e repres
at 5.5%,
high freq
at 3.5%,and
h second and
at 3.0%,while
upings,
as Dai
is the lowest ranked,at
1.5%.
Despite the concordance on lesson topics between publishers, some differences are
also apparent. For example, the publisher Obunsha clearly does not focus on
ver on
es, in sec
as much as do the other publishers (highlighted in gray; Table 7). Instead,
Obunsha focuses on other areas, such as
e, while
nd Kaitak
,
sha,a
ca
, and
ories ar
e
.
The publisher Shubunkan has no topics whatsoe
es
thi d tier gro
s
o
where
third
ichi
Gakushusha allocat
m f
fiv
u
(25% of total) topics to this category.S
ar
e-
g
e
a
a
ics (Ta
such
u
.
Taishukan
if tier cla
u
s
t c ic
ppe
t
n it
S e i
req
r
enci
a
l
.ences to N c
o e
Ther
uen
n
b
t
s
8)
e
H
e io d
t
a c
mon f
n
st c i
d
i m
es,
e
d an
c
n e
a
y i
n
t b
t
w
n
e
n
ve
t o
o a S c Sl i ien c es c
u e a N t Sc ar nc s i l e T A h str e c n l T y e o o h g
a g e L u n ga
hpo y s lo Phi r s y H ot i
dust nI ry L t er ar it u e k Ge o s r al ne W r
i c o l a S
sei Stud
i c c S al e e r ut n s Na r Ae st Th gua e Lan g
yg olo chn Te
Soc iences ial Sc Natural
Graph 1
Lesson Topic Frequencies
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―81
topics oc
,and
ore freq
are not as frequently encountered in these subdivisions.Indeed,
ho
(Table 8).
tly than cur m
a
,e from uen
, nd
o t d s
es c n c S ei T Art he s
P h i h ol p y so c n l Scie Na es ra tu The
r st A y Technolog
Total 18 100%
0.0%0 Literature
11.1%2 Languages
22.2%4 The Arts
0.0%0 Industry
Technology 1 5.6%
22.2%4 Natural
Sciences
Social
Sciences
27.8%5 5.6%1 History
Philosophy 5.6%1
0
%
0.0%General
Works
Sansei
do
Textbooks
NDC
Table 7
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Japanese Textbooks (1)
Shubun
kan
Taishu
kan
Zoshin
do
Kaita
kusha
0.0%
18.8%
6.3%
31.3%
12.5%
0.0%
0.0%
18.8%
6.3%
6.3%
100%
0.0%
9.1%
4.5%
40.9%
9.1%
4.5%
0.0%
13.6%
9.1%
9.1%
100%
0.0%
0.0%
4.5%
45.5%
18.2%
13.6%
4.5%
4.5%
9.1%
0.0%
100%
0.0%
13.6%
4.5%
22.7%
4.5%
18.2%
9.1%
13.6%
4.5%
9.1%
100%
0
3 1 5
2
0 0 3 1 1 16
0
2 1 9
2
1 0 3 2 2 22
0
0 1 10
4
3 1 1 2 0 22
0
3 1 5
1
4 2 3 1 2 22
20 0 1 1 2 5
3
6 0 1
1
21 1 2 0 0 1
4
7 3 3
0
20 0 3 0 0 1
4
7 1 3
1
21 0 4 4 0 3
5
2 1 1
1
100%
0.0%
5.0%
5.0%
10.0%
25.0%
15.0%
30.0%
0.0%
5.0%
5.0%
100%
4.8%
9.5%
0.0%
0.0%
4.8%
19.0%
33.3%
14.3%
14.3%
0.0%
100%
0.0%
15.0%
0.0%
0.0%
5.0%
20.0
35.0%
5.0%
15.0%
5.0%
100%
0.0%
19.0%
19.0%
0.0%
14.3%
23.8%
9.5%
4.8%
4.8%
4.8%
Daiichi
Gakushu
sha
Bun-ei do
Tokyo
Sho seki
Obun
sha
Kyoiku
shupan
0.0%0
1 5.0%
1 5.0%
4 20.0%
6 30.0%
10.0%2 2 10.0%
3 15.0%
1 5.0%
0 0.0%
100%20
% % % %
General
Works
Philosophy
History
Social
Sciences
Natural
Sciences
Technology
Industry
The Arts
Languages
Literature
Total
Total
1.5%
8.9%
5.4%
29.7%
17.3%
10.4%
3.5%
10.9%
9.4%
3.0%
100%
3
18 11 60
35
21 7 22 19 6 202
% % % % % %Textbooks
NDC
― ―82
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
3. Comparison Between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks:
To facilitate comparisons with Taiwanese textbooks,lesson topics in all ten Japanese
publishers were aggregated and are presented in Graph 2. Four trends are evident. 1)
ost frequently r
was ranked the first in both Taiwanese textbooks and Japanese text-
books.In both countries,the most common second tier category was society(Table 5,8).
Customs, folklore, ethnology,was also most frequently represented in Taiwanese text-
books but was absent in Japanese textbooks(2 nd tier topic;Table 5,8).On the other hand,
politics (within the 2 nd tier category political science), which is hardly addressed in
Taiwanese textbooks, was the second most common
panese textbook
topic in Japanese
textbooks (2 nd tier topic; Table 5,8). 2) The most striking difference is seen with
overed (2 nd
,which is the second m
). In
addition, p
epresented first-tier topic in Taiwanese
textbooks, but was hardly represented at all in Japanese textbooks (18.9% in Taiwanese
textbooks,2.9% in Ja
in the fo
oetry, w
s;Graph 2 In both countries,English and American
literature,
ly ed in J
rm of novels and stories, are c
nor
; Tabl
ap
tier topic
ch is c
e 5,8
requent extbo ompl anese hi ,etel oks si i f y g t
e s c c n Soc e l i ai S
c S ial So ces ci ne
e ratur Lite
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―83
The 3 rd tier
Frequency out of a pool
of 202 topics examined
NDC Item No. Category
Psychology 14(Philosophy)
14
Society 36(Social Sciences)
15
Zoology 48(Natural Sciences)
8
Political science 31(Social Sciences)
13
7
80(Language) Linguistics
Motion pictures 778(Arts)
11
12
141(Philosophy) General psychology
11
519 (Technology) Pollution.Environmental engineering
34
361(Social Sciences) Sociology
17
369 (Social Sciences) Social welfare
Category NDC Item No.Frequency out of a pool of
202 topics examined
The 2 nd tier
Table 8
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Japanese Textbooks (2)
The top 5 lesson topics within each of the 2 nd and 3
rd tiers are represented here.
encountered in Taiwanese textbooks(3 rd tier topic;Table 5,8). 3)
ted in Taiwanese
t
,and
ooks (Ta
are more common first tier topics in Japanese textbooks than in Taiwanese
textbooks (Graph 2). In both countries,medicine is a very common second tier category
within
hree broad catego
,while within
al langu
,
ge
,public pollution was most frequently
represented (data not shown). 4) Although the number of lessons representing
elines
(e
are almost the same in both countries(Taiwanese textbooks:11.3%;Japanese
textbooks:9.3%;Graph 2,there are differences in second-tier topic frequencies(Table 5,
8).Hence,among second-tier topics,gener
ional ex
a
er
is the most represented in Japanese
textbooks,whereas practical topics such as English are the most represen
OE guid
all under
v
extb
th the 20
ble 5,8).
IV. DISCUSSION:
1. General Observations on Taiwanese Textbooks
This investigation shows that a very large segment of lesson topics covered f
hile also
just t
sing their exposu
ries―
nternat
aim to fo
p
te
iences. I
, and
estingly, t
―which
together account for about 57%of all lesson topics.This is consistent with M
ures w pprecia-
in
en wi literat
08 guidelines),which
iarity w
s th r,among students,a deeper a
ese three
tion of ocal and ure and enhanced famil forei
to
i
re
l
o i e
g
h cult
nt c r
n
a t ic er p
t a N S u l r ces en a ci
r h A t e T s
c ut ci S n es e l a N ar e T on gy ch ol
ag La e gu n
oS cia n Scie l ces a iter e tur L y oph Philos
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
Graph 2
Lesson Topic Frequencies in Taiwanese& Japanese Textbooks
Differences between the Japanese and Taiwanese textbooks,in lesson topic frequencies,are visible
in this graph.The lesson topic frequencies are expressed as cumulative percentages.
― ―84
categories represent only two of the three“pillars”of topic emphasis recommended within
the 1995 Taiwanese MOE guidelines;these refer specifically to literature,and culture and
international affairs. A third pillar on science and technologically-oriented topics is not
represented to the degree suggested by the MOE guidelines.
Of the three emphasized categories in Taiwanese textbooks,
the most
pop
stands out in
how differently it is featured in Taiwan compared with its treatment in some other
countries such as China and even Japan.Under
en Hong-wen
,many topics,with a particular
focus on American and European literature,are treated in the Taiwan situation.Classic
poetry is given almost the same level of attention as is given to classic novels.At least one
chapter in every textbook I examined presents poems in a well-organized approach that
exposes students steadily, in a step-wise fashion, to material of increasingly higher
difficulty level.
Another characteristic feature of Taiwanese textbooks is their focus on teaching
“practical”English within the
over,
NFEE
category(almost 10% of all topics).Given that
the older (1995) MOE curriculum guidelines have placed a greater value on utilitarian
English,it is not surprising that the areas in English communication,reading and writing
that are especially emphasized include topics on the practical aspects of daily life. The
level to which the three textbook companies conform to MOE guidelines is an important
factor at play here.Although,of the three text book companies,FEER textbook series has,
by far, the greatest frequency of Language topics, it still appears to have a relatively
well-balanced distribution of topic subjects. In fact, these topics emphasizing practical
English are seldom found in the LTER or the SMER series.FEER books are
dopted spec
ular in the Taiwanese school system (Chen Hong-wen,2003)and are strongly support-
ed by various school teachers (Chen Chia-hung,2000;Ch
o two parts:
,2003).Indeed,the
FEER series focuses on practical aspects―“Following Instructions,”“Making Requests,”
“Filling Out Forms”― to a much larger extent than do the other two textbook series. In
fact,these types of topics are seldom found in the LTER or the SMER series.Interesting-
ly, the newest 2008 MOE guidelines have called for more emphasis on language and
practical English skills, and it seems reasonable to infer that the MOE may have been
influenced by the relative success of the FEER text series approach. More
ks int ines R (2008) has actually a
ading”and t
ific aspects of the recent 2006 interim MOE
guidel
he Ta
on increasing emphasis on communicative approaches by splitting the text-
boo ts.
T
ther
iwanese
one only for“re
rge from the
he o
E gui
focused only on“conversation”
par
t MO oks d delines i tex h bo r tre ive nt of the t m ei at e n
e i e r L t ur at
e L ra it re tu
s Language
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―85
natural sciences― the number of topics related to
Ogawa et al.,2005
does not seem to
match the expectations implied by the scope of the topic areas and materials that is
contained within the 1995 MOE curriculum guidelines. Indeed, the overall number of
ing,“historical
topics found in these textbooks is relatively small in comparison with
the numbers of
ic
materialism (
and
en associat
topics.However, the SMER books (the
second most popular textbook series),which represent recent editions (2004 and 2005)of
the three textbook included in this analysis,have a more proportionate ratio of
oliticized
to
en as a distinct
id
(1:1)than that (almost 3:1)found in the other two textbook series.
Indeed, when all topics are considered, the SMER series is actually the most well-
balanced.Recent versions of NFEER (2008)have already increased the content of
alizations and it
topics(Table 6)and it will be interesting to see whether the trend towards more
topics about the natural sciences, found in SMER, continues and even expands to the
other textbooks.
The discrepancies,between the MOE and the textbooks,relating to
gories:
c
are even
more difficult to reconcile.It remains unclear why the textbooks do not cover sciences and
technology when the MOE curriculum guidelines stress the importance of these areas.One
possible reason for this variance is that Taiwanese textbooks,unlike textbooks in mainland
China,which seem to de-emphasize literature(
am,2005).The ten
;Ogawa et al.,2007),have
been influenced by a reorganized “Cheng-Chu Neo-Confucianism”approach to moral
traditionalism (Harrell& Huang,1994)― this seems to fit with longstand
tbook curricula w
”
tenets that value traditionalism (such as the fine arts) more than they do modernist
tbooks
About 47%
oft
he topics co
ed with industrial and technical topi
n
s).Nevertheless,the view
that Taiwan has retained traditional Chinese cultures,mores,values,and customs more
than has mainland China has become contentious and p
here is no co
ev
esponding
guidel
eology of indigenization,often described as“Taiwanization”or“bentuhua”,has gained
more traction in recent decades (Makeh
just two cate
h sch
sio
t
inherent in these dualistic
trends therefore makes it difficult to make gener
sson topics. Alth
also complicates any
attempts to conflate developments in senior hig
s, t
v
ool
o
ex
on
rr
panese Te
and
ith tradi-
tional emphases on Confucianism.
2. General Obser
v
ati
h
ns
es
Ja
in
ough th
x
s
focus on ne, in t
of t
, in es is con
vered fall under
T guideline e
Ne e ert 9 el
nc
s,
or
a moder
i
,
ore foc
i
ses of l
hes
h
199
E
se
id
e f is ming t
w e c M
n
X
gu
t
u
e s i ,
te
.
h
f i
n
n
l
t
e r s o
c S t se N a c n r i a l e u
e a u s e c r a i l N t c S n
i i e a c oS c en S c s l r Lit r ut a e e
u r e at e Lit r
n N i u c e ces l a a S r t
l a ra tu N
cie s ce S n
rt nI y us d
c c S o c i S l n ia e es
a ne l t N i ra S u ces c
ces l cia So n Scie
tura ences l Sci Na
― ―86
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
technologically advanced society, the importance of the sciences is typically understood
and so the inclusion of this topic is unsurprising. Moreover, the newest guidelines do
specifically include and reference the
ensive approach t
(MEXT, Central Education
Council, 2003;MEXT;2010).
An additional 40% of the topics fall, at almost equal frequencies, into the four
categories of
an are g
s,
ater than th
,
se observ
, and
tween the Ta
. These observations
agree with the findings of Ogawa et al (2007). To a large degree, the ten publishers
examined conform with MEXT guideline on lesson topic selections. These guidelines
expressly state that students’basic practical communication abilities such as listening and
speaking must be developed and that these specific topic areas should be emphasized; it
is also suggested that the publishers use issues that“relate to the daily lives,manners and
customs,stories,geography,history,traditional culture,etc.,of Japanese people and the
people of the world, focusing on countries that use the foreign language being taught.”
MEXT places less emphasis on literature topics and all the publishers have followed this
assiduously.
3. Comparison Between Taiwanese and Japanese Textbooks
There are some clear differences between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks. In
many Japanese senior high school English textbooks,the contents are focused and limited
to reading, writing or communication, and not to some combination of these areas. In
stark contrast, the Taiwanese textbooks favor a more compreh
cerpts from novel
hat
incorporates all three such areas within a single textbook.Overall,the differences between
the Taiwanese books examined and those used in Jap
eir abi
re
ty in a
parti
o
ular lang
ed
be
can do so by f
iwanese publishers.
The major difference between Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks relates to how
much emphasis is placed on
re is langua
topics,with such topics occurring,in Taiwanese
textbooks, at a frequency more than six-fold higher than in Japanese textbooks. To a
considerable degree,this difference centers around the treatment of poetry as Taiwanese
textbooks emphasize poetry to the point where there are almost as many poems as there
are ex
teratu
li
.
A belie
s, whereas Japanese textbooks are completely devoid of this
sub-category
languag
f persists in education circles that people wanting to improve th
i e target
reading
e
( g
c
-
depende
uage
d language-
ocusing on literature written in th
tensive
t, 1982;
,d
Akyel & Yalcin, 1990; Marquard
iven,re
Povey, 1979). English l
x
e
cuss dr n,nt an t qu i iring io f studen s,e n, s a o d
N ci a n ur e s l S a c t e
h t T Ar e o ec l o g T n y h g a n e L u g a i hP hy l p oso
e tur Litera
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―87
writing (Chamot & O’malley, 1986.) Indeed,Marquardt (1982)has noted how important
literature is in mastering the English language, and Chen Hong-wen (2003) reports that
Taiwanese senior high school teachers support the use of literature,particularly poetry,in
their English classes.
Material such as English literature can be sufficiently demanding,cognitively,that it
requires students to use higher-order thinking abilities.There is considerable literature on
how one’s understanding of complex matters improves as one’s ability in a target language
develops and expands,suggesting some synergistic interplay between the two sets of skills
(Vygotsky, 1986;Wells, 1986). Critical thinking and analytical thinking require learning
through the processes of comparison,evaluation,and criticizing,and such approaches can
foster higher-level English language development. Improving reading and writing activ-
ities impacts the development of other language areas, such as speech functions (Wells,
1986).
This focus on literature and “traditional”English language instruction are key
components of considerable debate, within Japan, on the future direction of English
education in the country and will be expounded in the sections below.
Another major difference between the Japanese and Taiwanese systems centers on
how Japanese textbooks favor politics,which are almost completely ignored in Taiwanese
textbooks(I found only one reference,and even that― on the prevention of damage by a
natural disaster― is apparently only tangentially linked to political science).Moreover,
ges presented by
g
and
alizati
are more commonly represented in Japanese textbooks
than in Taiwanese textbooks.As expounded in the following section,differences between
the Japanese and Taiwanese government guidelines can account for some segments of
these observed differences in lesson topics.
Some similarities between the two sets of textbooks are also apparent. Hence, text-
books from both countries have similar levels of emphasis on first tier items such as
wo countr
,although Taiwanese textbooks focus much more attention on practical topics
such as
health i
(also a first tier item)whereas Japanese textbooks focus instead on a
second tier item,
hat medicine is th
.In keeping with the common challen
tegory(Tabl
in te
lob
ooks fro
on,
th countries.On
is the most heavily represented in both Taiwanese and
Japanese textbooks,with society ranking as the most common second tier ca tries, it is
p
e
5,8). Given how
i
m bo
g t
e
ssues are viewed with great importance in both coun
tween textbo
robably unsurpr i sin w
i
t
s are more striki
e most emphasized f e eld
f i r hin s
be
b he t
th balan
oks fr
xt ever,
s m dif r e t ence w
a om t he i
o
ila n
ce,h
s.t i re n g e a i ht
a N ci t l S es r u c a en A t The r s
a e gu na g L
s E h l g i n
l a u g l re ge ang ne a
c Scien S es l a c o i
a a tur iences l Sc N
― ―88
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
4. Historical perspectives:
It can also be instructive to look back at the historical record to gain some perspective
on why these particular differences exist between these two neighboring countries. The
difference between the two countries’textbooks in the focus on
e-centric t
topics is
particularly interesting in light of how, sixty years ago, there was much more emphasis,
in the Japanese education system,on literature and reading than has been evident more
recently(Erikawa,2002;2004;2006;Koshino&Erikawa,2004;Saito,2004;Murakami,2007;
Sato 2009).
During the 1950’s,textbook publishers enjoyed a great level of freedom without much
input from the then Ministry of Education (Erikawa, 2002; 2006; Murakami, 2007). A
corollary of the freedom accorded to publishers in this time period is that literature,which
was not specifically targeted for emphasis, was simply featured more heavily than in
recent times(Erikawa,2002;2006;Murakami,2007).This began to change in the 1960’s as
the Ministry of Education drew guidelines that the publishers were forced to follow
(Murakami, 2007;Erikawa, 2002;2006; Isobe, 2006). Since then, Japanese textbook pub-
lishers have planned their textbooks carefully around the ministry’s guidelines.
It does seem clear then that this closer adherence to MEXT guidelines is reflected in
how all ten Japanese publishers do not place much emphasis on
e abrupt cha
, which is
consistent with all recent MEXT guidelines (Ogawa 2005; 2007) and with the prevailing
view, since the late 1990’s, among many Japanese English language educators (Kizuka,
2009). In fact, the 1970 guidelines required teaching materials to include standard
literatur
9;Sato, 200
opics such as novels, poetry, essays, and biographies, but all of these
were removed from the 1978 guidelines (Koshino & Erikawa, 2004). Indeed, English
Language education even in the U.K., in the 1970’s began moving away from traditional
methods to “Teaching English as Communication”(Brumfit, 1981). This presaged a
similar shift in English Language education in other European and Asian countries in the
1990’s (Kizuka, 2009).However, it is now being recognized, among Japanese academics,
that Japan may have taken this emphasis on communication to such an excessive degree
that it has negatively impacted the quality of teaching English over the last several
decades (Erikawa,2006;Kizuka,200
-
tion mater
9).
A notable change in this vein manifested in 1982, when MEXT de-emphasized the
teaching of grammar,which resulted in textbook publishers removing grammar-focused
textbooks from their publishing lines (Isobe, 2006). Grammar-based materials were
reduced to being scattered sporadically throughout textbooks,and oral-based communica
d (Erikawa,ials were favored and emphasize e s 006).The 2 s nge e w r
ti t era L ure
L e iteratur
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―89
facilitated by another MEXT-mediated phenomenon that converged in 1982,viz.“Yutori
Kyoiku”,which loosely translates into a“more relaxed education policy”that recommend-
ed reducing the numbers of all subject classes, including those for English. In Japan’s
consensus-driven culture,these recommendations quickly took root.Hence,both grammar
and vocabulary contents were reduced in English textbooks (Chujo et al., 2008; Isobe,
2006).For example,Sato points to how 6800 vocabulary words were required in the 1951
government guidelines but by 1998,these guidelines only required 2700 words(Sato,2009).
This trend continued over the intervening years;Japan’s MEXT 1989 guidelines reflected
this change towards a“communicative-based”methodology(Kizuka,2009),while in 2002,
MEXT’s“A Strategic Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities”focused a greater
level of emphasis on communication.
5. Political,Cultural, Socio-Economic and Ideological Considerations
Many Japanese academics believe that the decrease in vocabulary content described
above has impacted the study of Literature, which requires a high vocabulary level,
among Japanese students(Erikawa,2002;Koshino&Erikawa 2004;Murakami,2007).The
convergence of these trends― away from literature, reading, and high vocabulary and
towards communication―might have collectively exacerbated the situation regarding the
quality of teaching English in the country.
This analysis of the Taiwanese textbooks suggests that although Taiwan’s education
system seems to also have followed this general trend of focusing on English for communi-
cation, it did so without sacrificing an emphasis on literature.As discussed earlier,there
appears to be considerable consensus, among Taiwanese educators, on the benefits of
using literature in English classes(Chen Hong-wen,2003),whereas no such clear consensus
exists in Japanese academic circles.This probably explains the major difference between
Taiwanese and Japanese textbooks, in terms of how much emphasis is placed on
9) has criti
topics.
Despite the consensus-driven ideology prevalent in Japanese society, a clear shift in
English education approach and protocols has become central to a large ideological divide
between English language educators(Koshino&Erikawa,2004;2006;Kizuka,2009).Even
though most Japanese educators maintain that formal English-based protocols emphasiz-
ing practical speaking and conversation skills are more relevant and important today,
some others want Japanese students to gain a deeper understanding of the full comple-
ment of English language skills emblematized by reading,writing,listening,and speaking
(Saito, 2004; Murakami, 2007; Sato, 2009). Indeed, Sato (200 the zed how i c
e eratur Lit
― ―90
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
MEXT 2002 plan focused too heavily on practical-based skills, such that“speaking”and
“conversation”are referenced a total of 30 times whereas“reading”is referenced only five
times,and there is no reference made,at all, for“literature.
1980 marked a watershed year in which Japanese media noted that the English
education system in Japan was not keeping pace with the challenges of an increasingly
internationalized world,one that the Japanese economy was becoming more plugged into
(Goto,1997;Tsukamoto,1999).Other East Asian countries,such as China,Korea and even
Taiwan also apparently recognized the need to begin English education in the earliest
stages of school in order to meet the challenges posed by globalization (Allen,2010).The
media and other observers in Japanese academic and business communities are quick to
point out that while these other three countries have long been began making the
necessary changes to their respective education systems,Japan remains mired in a long-
running debate on the merits and practicalities of such“large-scale”institutional changes.
It seems reasonable to conclude that the government is concerned about Japan’s
standing vis a vis English ability within the East Asian block of nations and about the
state of English education in Japanese schools.In fact,MEXT members and advisers who
advocate English education at the elementary school stage in Japan have been encouraged
by the apparent success of this approach in Korea and Taiwan (MEXT, 2005; MEXT
Central Education Council,2006). Possibly in response to this,several plans,such as one
in 2002 and another in 2011, have been instigated to bring about reform in English
education in Japan.
But even before the above-mentioned revisions,MEXT has faced criticism.Because
all public and private schools in Japan must follow MEXT guidelines,many educators
(Erikawa,2002;Oka,2003)have expressed concern about how this has impacted Japanese
textbooks, especially in terms of vocabulary requirements. It is fair, therefore, to con-
clude that many academics do not agree with the previous directions taken by MEXT and
it seems that these criticisms have prompted MEXT to make revisions, for the 2013
guidelines,such as increasing,by about 30%,the number of vocabulary words that will be
required (“Koukou eigo”Dec.2,2008;MEXT,2010).
Taiwan and Japan have taken different routes in English education and although it
can be useful to explore some of the reasons for this,it is virtually impossible to say that
the Taiwan method is more“effective”than is the Japanese approach. However, if the
differences that are evident in TOEFL and TOEIC data are accepted as surrogate indica-
tors of English“proficiency”,then it could be argued that Japanese educators may be well
advised to examine the Taiwanese system for some additional perspectives on what might
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―91
be relevant to the Japanese English language education program,especially in secondary
schools and perhaps also in colleges.
It is hoped that the information presented here on differences between Japanese and
Taiwanese textbooks, can help inform, in a meaningful way, the discussions, described
above,underway in Japanese academia.Ideological differences in general procedures and
approaches between English language educators in Japan need to be addressed and
quickly bridged.Hence,whether Japanese students can gain a deeper intellectual expo-
sure to the intricacies of the English language by being encouraged,via a school-directed
emphasis on literature and poetry classics, to develop a richer reading habit (Sato,2009),
or whether formal English-based methods are more useful,must be reconciled.Whatever
approaches are adopted must be balanced with proportionate exposure to literature and
poetry in order to inculcate strong reading habits. In the final analysis, what is really
needed to drive the process of improvement forward is a stronger consensus and that level
of agreement may come with an approach that combines the strengths and benefits of
proposals from both sides.
V. CONCLUSION
This study addresses the paucity of data on Taiwanese textbooks and compares the
types of lesson topics outlined in the Taiwanese senior high school English textbooks with
Japanese textbook counterparts. Taiwanese textbooks, consistent with MOE guidelines,
emphasize “practical”English functions, such as common writing skills, as well as
exposure to broader intellectual concepts such as literature classics and poetry.Although
textbook lesson topics are useful indicators of how English is taught in a particular
educational system, it remains a surrogate indicator and other measures must also be
included before specific conclusions can be inferred from any comparative study.Differ-
ences other than text-book content between the system in Taiwan and that in Japan were
not examined in any detail so it remains unclear whether and to what extent, such
differences can account for perceived differences in English competency. From these
perspectives, it would be interesting and perhaps very illuminating to conduct a more
detailed comparison of the English education textbooks used in Japan with those used in
other Asian countries.
Note:*1Clearly, the political status of Taiwan remains a contentious issue within and
― ―92
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
without the People’s Republic of China(PRC).The PRC claims that the ROC government
is illegitimate and refers to the ROC as the“Taiwan Authority”,whereas the ROC views
itself as an independent sovereign state.While not wishing to offend any readers,I have,
for the purposes of this research, described Taiwan as a separate entity with its own
educational system.*2and
*3:see Acknowledgments
Acknowledgements:
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr.Chang Wu-chang*3for providing
very useful information that clarified specific and rather abstruse academic issues.I also
wish to thank Ms. Chen Meng-tsung
*2for helping me efficiently navigate the Textbook
Research Center in Taipei. I am especially grateful to Ms.Hsu Yu-chi for her unfailing
support.
References
Akyel,A.& Yalcin, E. (1990). Literature in the EFL class:A study of goal-achievement
incongruence.EFL Journal, 44(3), pp.174-180.
Brumfit,C.J.(1981).Language variation and the death of language teaching The BAAL
Newsletter,Nov, pp.1-6.
Chamot, A. and O’malley, M. (1986).A Cognitive Academic Language Learning Ap-
proach:An ESL Content-Based Curriculum.Maryland:The National Clearinghouse
for Bilingual Education.
Chen, Chia-hung (2000). Senior high school English teachers’perceptions of the new
English teaching materials and their usage in Southern Taiwan; Unpublished
master’s thesis,National Kaohsiung Normal University,Kaohsiung.
Chen,Hong-wen (2003). Investigating senior high school literature teaching by analyzing
the literary texts in different new versions of English textbooks Unpublished master’s
thesis,National Taiwan Normal University,Taipei.
Harrell, S. & Huang, Chun-chieh (1994). Introduction: Change and Contention in
Taiwan’s Cultural Scene In S. Harrell, and Huang, Chun-chieh (Eds.) Cultural
change in postwar Taiwan Westview Press. pp.1-21.
Huang,Kunfeng (2010).Some aspects of academic meritocracy in Taiwan:from the 1980’s
onward Doshisha shakaigakukennkyu (14),Alternative:Doshisha Sociological Associ-
ation, pp.31-46.
Makeham, J (2005). Introduction; Indigenization Discourse in Taiwanese Confucian
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―93
Revivalism In J.Makeham,and Hsiau,A-Chin (Eds.)Cultural,Ethnic,and Political
Nationalism in Contemporary Taiwan Bentuhua.New York;Palgrave Macmillan pp.
1-14.
Marquardt,W.F. (1982).Literature and cross-cultural communication, the art of
TESOL:Selected articles from the English forum Washington D.C.: English Teach-
ing Division, International Communication Agency.
MEXT (1999).The Course of Study for Foreign Languages Secondary Education.
Ministry of Education in Taiwan (1996).高級中学「英文」課程標准[English course cur-
riculum guidelines for high school English education].
Ministry of Education in Taiwan (2006).普通高級中学必修科目「英文」課程暫行綱要[Inter-
imversion of English course curriculum guidelines for high school English education].
Ogawa. N. Kiyonaga.K. et al. (2005). A comparative Study of Lesson Topics in High
School Textbooks Used in Japan,Korea and China,The Journal of Asia TEFL Vol.2
pp.67-84.
Oka,H.(2003).English Language Education in Japan― Ideals and Realities― Bulletin of
Foreign Language Teaching Association, 7,University of Tokyo.
Oka,H.(2009).English Language in Japan:Recent Developments Language,Information,
Text,No.16,Graduate School of Language and Information Sciences,University of
Tokyo,October pp.53-60.
Povey,J.F., (1979).The teaching of literature in advanced ESL classes In Celce-Murcia,
M& McIntosh,L. (Ed.),Teaching English as a second or foreign language pp.162-
186.
TOEFL Test and Score Data Summaries for the years(1993-1995,1995-1996,1996-1997,
1997-1998,1998-1999,1999-2000,2001-2002,2002-2003,2003-2004,2004-2005,2005-2006;
PBT: 1998-1999, 1999-2000, 2000-2001, 2001-2002, 2002-2003, 2003-2004, 2004-2005,
2005-2006; CBT: 2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008, 2008-2009, 2009-2010, 2010-2011,
2010-2011;iBT).EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE Retrieved July 4,2012,from
http://www.ets.org/toefl.
TOEIC Test Report on Test Takers Worldwide in 1997 and in 2005.Retrieved August 25,
2099, from http://www.ea.toeic.ed.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological
Processes.Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.
Wells, G. (1986). The Meaning Makers: Children Learning Language and Using Lan-
guage to Learn.First Edition.Heinemann Educational Books Inc.
― ―94
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
アレン玉井光江 (2010).「小学校英語教育の可能性」公開シンポジウム『日本の英語教育を発信
する』目白大学 英米語学科、大学院言語文化研究科英語・英語教育専攻 共催 目白大学新
宿キャンパス2010年10月.
バトラー後藤裕子(2005).『日本の小学校英語を考える―アジアの視点からの検証と提言』東京:
三省堂
中條清美,西垣知佳子,長谷川修治,内山将夫(2008).「ゆとり教育時代の高校教科書語彙を考
える―1980年代と2000年代の高校英語教科書語彙の比 分析からの考察―」『英語コーパス
研究』15,pp.57-79.
江利川春雄 (2002).「英語教育の50年」大修館書店『英語教育』51(3), pp.27-36.
江利川春雄 (2004).「英語教科書から消えた文学」大修館書店『英語教育』53(8), pp.15-18.
江利川春雄 (2006).「黒塗り英語教科書と戦後の教材・題材史」大修館書店『英語教育』55(11),
pp.10-13.
船橋洋一 (2000).『あえて英語公共語論』文春文庫
後藤典彦 (1997).「第一部小学校外国語教育への気運第一章経緯と展望」樋口忠彦ほか編
『小学校からの外国語教育』研究社出版 pp.2-9.
磯辺ゆかり(2006).「学習指導要領の変遷と教材の変化」『英語教育』大修館書店 55(11)pp.14-
15.
海木幸登・斎藤兆史・中村哲子・室井美稚子 (2004).「文学こそ最良の教材:英語の授業にどう
活かすか?」『英語教育』2004年10月増刊号大修館,pp.6-14.
片山嘉雄・遠藤栄一・佐々木昭・松村幹男(編著)『新英語科教育の研究(改訂版)』(大修館書店.
河合忠仁 (2004).『韓国の英語教育政策―日本の英語教育政策の問題点を探る―』大阪:関西大
学出版部.
川添恵子 (2005).『アジア英語教育最前線』東京:三修社.
木塚雅貴 (2009).「小学校における『外国語活動』導入から見たニーズと公共性確立の構図」『北
海道教育大学紀要(教育科学編)』60(1)pp.55-68.
小池生夫 (2001).「我が国の大学を中心とした外国語教育改革に関わる要請」田中慎也 (2007).
『国家戦略としての「大学英語」教育』東京:三修社 pp.112-121.
小池生夫 ほか (2008).『第二言語習得研究を基盤とする小,中,高,大の連携をはかる英語教育
の先導的基礎研究』平成16年度~平成19年度科学研究費補助金.(基盤研究(A)no.162021010)
報告書.
小池生夫 (2008).「世界水準を見据えた英語教育―国家的な危機に対応する小池科研の研究成
果と提言―」『英語展望』.No.116pp.14-17.
小寺茂明 (1996).『英語教科書と文法教材研究』東京:大修館.
小篠敏明・江利川春雄 編著(2004).『英語教科書の歴史的研究』辞游社.
高校英語は英語で教えるべし 朝日新聞 2008年12月22日.
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―95
文部科学省 (MEXT)(2002).「平成14年7月12日大臣会見の概要」
http://www.mext.go.jp/b menu/daijin/020705.htm (Retrieved October 26,2009).
文部科学省 (MEXT)(2005).「韓国・中国・台湾における現状と課題」
http://www.mext.go.jp/b menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/015/siryo/05120501.htm.
(Retrieved July 18,2009).
文部科学省 (MEXT)中高教育審議会 (2006).「外国語科の現状と課題―改善の方向性」
http://www.mext.go.jp/b menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3.
(Retrieved December 26,2009).
文部科学省 (MEXT)(2008).「小学校の外国語活動について」
http://www.mext.go.jp/a menu/shotou/gaikokugo/index.htm.
(Retrieved December. 10,2010).
文部科学省 (MEXT)(2010).「新学習指導要領」
http://www.mext.go.jp/a menu/shotou/new-cs/youryou/kou/kou.pdf.
(Retrieved December. 7,2010).
文部科学省 (MEXT)(2010).『高等学校学習指導要領解説:外国語編英語編』開隆堂.
村上郷子 (2007). 国際理解教育をめぐる英語教育の変遷」『埼玉学園大学紀要.人間学部篇』7
pp.205-220.
日本図書協会 (2003).『日本十進分類法 (NDC),新訂9版』.
小川直義・山下徹・平井清子・木下正義 (2007).「日本・中国・台湾における高等学校英語教科
書の題材研究について」『東アジア英語教育研究会紀要』2号 pp.5-21.
佐藤 学 (2009).「言語教育リテラシーの政策とイデオロギー」大津 由紀雄 編著『危機に立つ
日本の英語教育』慶應義塾大学出版会 pp.240-277.
田辺洋二 (2003).『これからの学校英語―現代の標準的な英語・現代の標準的な発音』早稲田大
学出版部.
田中慎也 (2007).『国家戦略としての「大学英語」教育』東京:三修社.
鳥飼玖美子 (2002).『TOEFLテスト TOEIC テストと日本人の英語力』講談社.
塚本美恵子 (1999).「公立小学校への英語教育導入の問題と課題:国際理解教育実践のために」
駿河台大学文化情報学部紀要『文化情報学』6(1),pp.33-47.
― ―96
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
Appendix:
Appendix Table 1a
Summary of TOEFL Test and Score Averages in Asian Countries:
China Japan Korea(DPR)
Korea(ROK)
Taiwan number of
examinees
number of
examinees
number of
examinees
number of
examinees
number of
examinees
* * * * *7782786977[iBT] January2011-
December 2011
[iBT]January 2010-December 2010
77 70 78 81 76 *****
[iBT]January 2009-December 2009
76 67 75 81 74 *****
* * * * *7277696578[iBT]January 2007-
December 2007
* * * * *7378726676[iBT]January 2008-
December 2008
[CBT]July 2005-June 2006
216 192 193 218 206 333271284454203786359017
[CBT]July 2004-June 2005
215 191 190 215 205 2639010234047788243817963
* * * * *7172696576[iBT] September 2005-
December 2006
[CBT]July 2001-June 2002
214 186 179 207 198 254437309344128425422699
[CBT]July 2000-June 2001
211 183 176 202 193 181605031131886076417644
24075 81749 4600 86188 27000202209184188213[CBT]July 2002-June 2003
21206 83093 4783 85010 21720203213187190213[CBT]July 2003-June 2004
[PBT]July 2005-June 2006
557 497 543 538 530 292118830343298327
10961 20554 1043 14862 10071194198178188211[CBT]July 1998-June 1999
14539 21636 1434 18839 10178193200178188211[CBT]July 1999-June 2000
[PBT]July 2002-June 2003
559 484not re-ported
530 524 13052213251274145
[PBT]July 2001-June 2002
563 487not re-ported
533 523 1164143741105116
76201 3685 12 640 197532543not re-ported
491555[PBT]July 2003-June 2004
67085 3910 28 865 170533545not re-ported
495559[PBT]July 2004-June 2005
[PBT]July 1998-June 1999
562 501 510 535 510 329676166733610045370760
[PBT]July 1997-June 1998
560 498 498 522 508 52826103674161114643979964
92499 99134 453 85235 34035515533509504559[PBT]July 1999-June 2000
92720 35121 281 32814 21897519530514505560[PBT]July 2000-June 2001
73206 154204 1586 112630 49737507518497496555[PBT]July 1996-June 1997
Country
Year
― ―97
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
Source:EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE website (URL. http://www.ets.org/toefl)The iBT
values represent scores out of a maximum of 120(x/120),the CBT numbers represent scores out of
a maximum of 300(x/300),and the PBT numbers represent scores out of a maximum of 677(x/
677).
Data not provided
118459 278309 2483 129003 105232506510480494553[PBT]July 1993-June 1995
58240 144572 1368 86039 46785509518492499556[PBT]July 1995-June 1996
Appendix Table 1b
Summary of TOEIC Test and Score Averages in Asian Countries:
Country China Japan Korea(ROK)
Taiwan
Year 1997 2005 1997 2005 1997 2005 1997 2005
Number of Test
Takers3,529 1,763 862,509 821,510 405,822 150,605 11,462 62,617
287(94)
257(100)
287(100))
250(96)
259(86)
246(88)
307(98)
256(107)
Listening Mean(SD)
Reading Mean(SD)
246(118)
266(116)
206(93)
198(91)
230(105)
248(107)
218(102)
243(97)
(181)(192)(197)(192)(168)(172)(203)(217)Total Mean(SD)
The scores displayed represent averages and standard deviations (SD)for tests taken in 1997 and
in 2005.Data presented in this table were adapted from data originally given in the TOEIC Test
Report on Test Takers Worldwide in 1997 and in 2005.The TOEIC values represent scores out of
a maximum of 900(x/900).
― ―98
An Analysis of Lesson Topics within Senior High School English Textbooks in Taiwan:Commonalities with and differences from the Japanese situation
台湾は英語が外国語として教えられる社会的背景が日本と似ており、6-3-3(5)制の学校教
育制度も日本と同様である。しかしながら、英語教育ではすでに1990年代には小学校に公式
に英語教育が導入され始め、現在は小学校から高校までの一貫カリキュラムを実施している。
近年、アジア諸国の英語教育が注目されているが、隣国台湾で2005年から開始された小学校
から大学までの英語教育改革を検討していく価値は大きい。本研究では、台湾の高等学校で
使用されている英語の教科書で扱われている題材を分析した。これを日本のものと比 する
ことにより、その特徴を捉え、日本の英語教育に示唆するものを明らかにすることが目的で
ある。
調査の対象とした教科書は、台湾で最も多く使用されている教科書会社3社のもので、合
計18冊(一学年2冊使用)である。それらの教科書で扱われている題材内容を日本十進分類
法(NDC)に基づいて分類し、その結果を分析・検討した。その特徴としては、1)「言語」
としての英語が多く取り扱われ、実用的な英語の題材が、「読む」「書く」「話す」「聴く」の
4技能の観点から取り上げられており、とりわけ、「自分の意見を書く」指導を重視している
こと 2)古典や現代の文学作品を多く取り上げ、中でも「詩」を重視し、人間性の教育を
重んじていること、が挙げられる。題材内容については、日本に比べ文学作品が多く取り扱
われている(台湾19%:日本3%)。この傾向は、新学習指導要領に則った改訂後の教科書に
ついてもその傾向が変わらないことが明らかとなった。文学作品を取り扱うことは、英語で
ものを考え、論理的思考に働きかける教材として、欧米では言語教育において広く使用され
ており、これからの日本の英語教育でもその可能性が大いに検討される価値のあるものであ
ろう。
キーワード:台湾、高等学校英語教科書、題材内容、論理的・批判的思考力、文学、
日本十進分類法
要旨
台湾の高等学校英語教科書の題材研究
―日本との比 を中心とした分析―
平 井 清 子
北里大学一般教育紀要 19(2014) 69-99
― ―99
top related