2. final- hill typology overview
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Overview of Hill Typology
in India
Submitted by
11606, 11620,
11630, 11643
Submitted to
Dr. Minakshi Jain
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Contents
•
Indian Subcontinent Continental Drift
Geological processes
Geological timescale of the Indian Subcontinent
•Hills/ Mountain ranges in India
Types & location of ranges
Features – climate, soil, vegetation, environmental issues,
etc.
•Himalayas
Formation
Location
Eastern Himalayas
Western Himalayas
Greater, middle and lower Himalayas
Environmental issues
Conservation & Development
Present scenario
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Indian subcontinent
• Continental drift
According to the “Theory ofContinental Drift”, Earth was
composed of several giant plates
called tectonic plates on which
lie the continents and theoceans. The continents were
originally a single mass have
drifted apart from each other
over a period of million years.
• About 90 million years ago, during the late
Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began movingnorth and collided with Asia. The collision with the
Eurasian Plate along the modern border between
India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that
created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas
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Geological processes
The action of natural geological processes on
the earth’s surface produces a variety of
landforms.
• Glacial landforms are formed by the action of
ice
• Fluvial landforms are formed by the action of
water
• Aeolian landforms are formed by the action of
wind
• Weathering causes physical and chemical
breakdown of rocks
• Earthquakes generate landforms through
tectonic and volcanic processes• Coastal landforms are formed by the action of
sea waves along the coast
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Geological timescale
Hadean
Archean
Proterozoic
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
4.5
Ga
3.8
Ga
2.5Ga
542 Ma
251 Ma
65 Ma
2
Ma
Ma- Million Years
Ga- Billion Years
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Physiographic regions of India
The Indian peninsula is uniquely positioned with a
diversity of geographical features.The major hill ranges in India
include
1. Himalayan range
– Western Himalayas
– Eastern Himalayas
2. Vindhya range
3. Aravali range
4. Satpura range
5. Ghats
– Western Ghats
– Eastern Ghats
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Aravali Range
•
The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India,running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest
direction, extending approximately 800 km (500 mi).
•The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills
and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi.
•The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount
Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,650 ft), lying near the border
with Gujarat.
•The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold
mountain.
•The range rose in a Precambrian event called the
Aravali –Delhi orogen.
•The range joins two of the ancient segments that make
up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the
northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment
to the southeast.
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Vindhya Range
•The Vindhya range runs across
most of central India, extending
1,050 km.•The average elevation of these
hills is from 300 to 600 m (980 to
1,970 ft) and rarely goes above
700 metres (2,300 ft).
•They are believed to have been
formed by the wastes created by
the weathering of the ancient
Aravali Mountains.
•Geographically, it separates northern India from
southern India.
•The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat,
near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and
north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.
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Satpura Range
•The Satpura Range begins in eastern
Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs
east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh.•It extends 900 km (560 mi) with many
peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
•It is triangular in shape, with its apex at
Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel tothe Tapti and Narmada rivers.
•It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which
lies to the north, and these two east west
ranges divide the Indo –Gangetic plain fromthe Deccan Plateau located north of River
Narmada.
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Western Ghats
•The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the
western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and separate it
from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.
•The range runs approximately1,600 km from south of the
Tapti River near the Gujarat –Maharashtra border and
across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula.•The average elevation is around 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Anai
Mudi in the Anai malai Hills 2,695 m (8,842 ft) in Kerala is
the highest peak in the Western Ghats.
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Features
•All major rivers of the peninsula originate in these
Ghats and much of the climate of central India isregulated by this mountain range.
•They have majorly black soil, red soil, laterite soil,
saline and alkaline soil
•They are home to tropical moist evergreen
forests which have climbers, lianas, epiphytes,
shrubs and dense canopy trees. Climatic regionsinclude tropical savanna, semi arid steppe and
tropical rainforest.
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Environmental issues
•
There is a spurt in construction activity and the illegalextraction of construction materials from river beds has
caused severe environmental damage.
• The deforestation of slopes for commercial planting of
monoculture crops such as banana, rubber, etc. has
changed drainage patterns leading to increased run off
and loss of topsoil
Reservoir of the Anayirangal Dam,
Munnar, Kerala
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Conservation and Development
• The construction of hydro-electric
projects, the alignment of highways
and railways and tourism related
development need to be an integral
part of ecologically sensitive regional
planning based on the physical realitiesof the terrain, and a scientific
assessment of the true value of the
environmental, cultural, and aesthetic
resource represented by theselandscapes
• The Ghats have been assigned to three
levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its
different region, to enable effective
evaluation of the environmental impact
and the suitability or otherwise of
major construction initiatives in the
region.
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Eastern Ghats
• The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of
mountains, which have been eroded and vivisected by
the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari,
Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.
• These mountains extend from West Bengal to Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and
parallel to the Bay of Bengal.
• Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of itspeaks are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.
• The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the
Eastern and Western Ghats. Arma Konda (1,680 m
(5,510 ft)) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in
Eastern Ghats.
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Features
• In geological timescale the Eastern
Ghats are older than their Western
counterparts.
• They receive both the northwest and
southwest monsoon rains. They arewell vegetated and fertile.
• Alluvium soil, red soil, black soil and
laterite soil can be found here
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Environmental issues
•
The landscape of the region is in aprocess of change, being affected by
the impact of developmental activities
associated with power projects,
industry, infrastructure and theexpansion of major urban centers as
well as extensive urbanization.
• Regions such as Niyamgiri hills (Orissa)
are being targeted for the exploitationof their buried mineral wealth.
• In more remote parts of the region,
native forests continue to be replaced
by commercial plantations andagriculture. This depletes biodiversity
and increases the risk of soil erosion.
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Conservation & Development
• The catchment of rivers extends over a vast arc
stretching from the Nilgiris in the south to theeastern extreme of the Satpura range.
• Water shed management to conserve soil and
water is a foundation for environmentally
sensitive landscape planning at both site and
regional scale.
• The region’s indigenous system of agriculture
have fallen into disuse and need to be revived
after study and research, to be incorporatedinto contemporary system of sustainable
management.
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Himalayas
• The Himalayas comprise of various high
peaks, the highest among them being
Mount Everest (8848 mts) and in IndiaMt. Kanchenjunga (8586 mts)
• The Himalayas run along the north border
of the country covering a total length of
2400 km. The range coordinates are from28°N and 82°E
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Formation of the Himalayas
• The Himalayas, which stretch some 2,900
kilometres between India, Pakistan, China, and
Nepal, is the world’s tallest mountain range.
• Millions of years ago, these mountain peaks
didn’t exist. The Asian continent was mostly
intact, but India was an island floating off thecoast of Australia.
• Around 220 million years ago,
around the time that Pangea
was breaking apart, Indiastarted to move northwards.
It travelled some 6,000 km
before it finally collided with
Asia around 40 to 50 millionyears ago.
Then, part of the Indian landmass
began to go beneath the Asian one,
moving the Asian landmass up,
which resulted in the rise of the Himalayas.
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• It’s thought that India’s coastline was
denser and more firmly attached to
the seabed, which is why Asia’s softersoil was pushed up rather than the
other way around.
• The mountain range grew very rapidly
in comparison to most mountainranges, and it’s actually still growing
today.
• The continued growth in the
Himalayas is likely due to the Indian
tectonic plate still moving slowly but
surely northward.
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Location
• The Himalayas stand like a mighty wall all along
the northern border of India. Their averagewidth varies about 240 km to 400 km with a
mean elevation of about 6,000 m. The Himalayas
cover an area of about 1 million sq. km. The
Himalayas form the largest/biggest and also
highest mountain range of the world.
• The Himalayas comprise of various high peaks,
the highest among them being Mount Everest
(8848 mts) and in India Mt. Kanchenjunga (8586
mts)
• The Himalayas run along the north border of the
country covering a total length of 2400 km. The
range coordinates are from 28°N and 82°E
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Eastern Himalayan Range
• The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's
eastern border with Burma.• They were created by the same tectonic processes
which led to the formation of the Himalayas.
• The physical features of the Patkai mountains are
conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys.
• The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the
Himalayas.
• There are three hill ranges that come under the
Patkai:
• the Patkai –Bum,
• the Garo –Khasi –Jaintia
• and the Lushai hills.
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Features
• The range experiences Polar
climate. Precipitation and
humidity are very high in
the forest regions due to
the north east monsoon being dominant.• The range is characterized by mountain and
alluvial soils.
• The area is ecologically rich in natural and crop
related biodiversity. It hosts globally important
plant species and communities.
EASTERN HIMALAYAN RANGE
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Environmental issues
• Climate change has affected the region, there is a
tendency towards a shifting monsoon season and
lack of winter precipitation. Heavy rains render theregion susceptible to weathering and leaching of
nutrients from top soil.
• Extensive areas of forests have been cleared over
the last century to make room for tea plantation.There is also concern about the use of toxic
pesticides in the gardens
• Annual floods remain a major concern. The river
swells and changes course, invading land on either
side.
• The region is ecologically fragile and suffers threats
to its environmental from deforestation, coal
mining operations, crude oil exploration, industries,
hydro power plants and insensitive development ofmilitary contonments.
Tea Gardens, Darjeeling
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Conservation and Development
•
There is an urgent need for regionallandscape planning on an ecological
basis to determine safest locations for
infrastructure and settlement.
• Policies for increasing forest cover toreduce run-off from river catchments
together with watershed management
would need to be an integral part of
environmentally sensitive regionalplanning.
• At the local level, site planning for
development of large areas needs to
protect sites from soil erosion andlandslides by storm water management
systems and landscape engineering like
slope grading, etc.
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Western himalayan range
The Himalayas can also be divided into four
latitudinal mountain ranges:
1) Tethys Himalaya or the Trans-Himalaya or
Tibetan Himalaya.
2) Greater Himalaya or Himadri or Himagiri.
3) Lesser Himalaya or Middle Himalaya or
Himachal or Antagiri.4) Siwalik or Outer Himalaya or Upagiri.
Western Himalayan Range
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• 1. Tethys Himalaya Range
• The Tethys Himalayan Range lies on the extreme northalso known as Tibetan Himalaya merges with the Tibetanplateau.
• The average height is 5500 to 6000 meter and the highestpeak is Leo Pergel (7420 m).
• 2. The Greater Himalayan Range
• The Greater Himalayan range is the highest mountainrange of the Himalayan system.
• This always remains snow-covered and is generallyreferred to as ‘Himadri.’ Its average altitude exceeds6,000 meters and its average width is 25 kilometers.
• 3. The Lesser Himalayan Range
•About 2 crore years ago at the time of second diastrophicmovement this Middle or Himachal Himalaya originated.
• This is located in the south of the Greater Himalayas andruns parallel to it in the east-west direction.
• Its average height is from 3,500 to 4,500 meters and it isnearly 80 kms wide on an average.
•
Its important branches are the Nag Tibba, Muoouri, PirPanjal and Dhauladhar.
• 4. The Sub-Himalayas or the Siwalik Mountain Range
• The southern-most range of the Himalayas is the Siwalikrange whose height varies from 900 to 1,500 meters.
• Its width varies from 10 to 50 kms. Its south slope issteeper than northern slope. The last organic movementgave birth to this Siwalik.
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Western Himalayan Range
• The Himalayan range is further divided into different
ranges:
• Pir Panjal Range: This is the largest range of the lower
Himalayas and runs from the southeast to northwest.
The Pir Panjal pass lies to the west of Srinagar and
comprises Banihal Pass, Sinthal Pass, Rohtang Pass ,
Munawar Pass and Haji Pir Pass.
• Ladakh Range: This range extends from the northern
side of Leh to the Tibetan border. It comprises Digar La
Pass and Khardung La Pass.
• Zanskar Range: This range is spread over an area that
starts from southeastern boundaries of Kashmir and
extends to the eastern limit of Baltistan. Singge La Pass,Runrang La Pass, Fotu (Fatu) La Pass, Marbal Pass and
Zoji La Pass are some of the passes of this range.
• Dhauladhar Range: This range rises from the plains of
India to the north of Mandi and Kangra. Hanuman ji Ka
Tiba or the 'White Mountain' is the highest peak of this
range.
• Karakoram Range: This range separates India from the
Central Asia and is also one of the laeger ranges of
Asia. It is home to the second highest peak of the
world, K2.
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FEATURES
• The range acts as a barrier to the southwest
monsoon coming from the Bay of Bengal.• It is the main watershed for the origin of river
Indus and the Ganga, and from the north in the
Tibet region it is also the origin of the river
Brahmaputra.
• Climate ranges from tropical at the base of the
mountains to one of permanent ice and snow at
the highest elevations.
• Physiographical complexity exerts a considerable
influence over the weather patterns in the region,as a result there is a considerable climatic
diversity, a variety of microclimatic conditions and
a unique range of ecosystems.
• Soils type include mountain soils and alluvial soils.
Ladakh Valley
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FLORA
• Nearly one third of the geographic
area of the himalayan province, is
covered with forests in various states
of ecological health.
• Nearly 30% of the forest species
found in the himalayas are not found
anywhere else in the world. Theseinclude oaks, pines , rhododendrons
and numerous lacuraceous species.
• The himalayan forests have a
tremendous variety of flora – from
the dense evergreen tropical forests
of the torrid bhabhar – siwalik belts
in the south through mixed
deciduous trees with grasslands in
the middle mountains to the sparsearctic type vegetation in the northern
belt.
• The shorea (saal) in the tropical
lowlands , the pine (chirpine) at the
lower elevations of the middle
mountains and the cedar (deodar)
and silver firs in the higher
elevations.
Oak tree
Rhododendron
tree
Pine tree
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• The forests of the siwalikterrane are dominatedby saal (shorea robusta) ,khair (acacia catechu) ,
haldu (adina cordifolia)and sain (Terminaliatomentosa) along withinfinite varities of shrubsand grasses.
•In the lower altitude ofthe lesser himalayas , thechirpine (pinusroxburghii) grows on dryslopes with poorconditions of soil, whileforests of oaks (quercusleucotrichophora), alder(alnus nepalensis) etc.cover moist slopes withgood soil.
• Higher altitude of thelesser himalayanmountains have forestscharacterized by kharsuoak ( quercus
semecarpifolia) , bluepine (pinus wallichii)etc.
saal (shorearobusta)
chirpine (pinus
roxburghii)
kharsu oak ( quercus
semecarpifolia)
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Environmental issues
• Extreme climatic events like monsoon cloudbursts, winter
hailstorms, land slides and earthquakes are majorconcerns along with natural phenomena like slope
movement, high seismic activity, glacial lake outbursts,
floods, erosion and sedimentation.
• Most hill towns are undergoing rapid growth. Excessive
and largely unregulated land development has resulted indeforestation, loss of habitat, reduction in biodiversity
and pollution of natural water resources .
• Quarrying, together with the unmanaged disposal of
quarry and development waste has destroyed fertile top
soil in these areas.
RAPID GROWTH OF SHIMLA IN SANJAULI AREA
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Conservation & Development
• Development in hill areas should respect the scale and
ecological fragility of their setting, and take into account the
traditions and character of the place.
• The landscape setting should form the basis for planning in
these areas, with the objective of improving socio-economic
conditions of development and urbanization within a
framework to conserve the unique natural scenery of themountains.
• The relationship between tourism and environment requires
careful management so that tourist places remain unspoilt.
• Prevention and control of erosion and landslides is essential
for the maintenance of vegetation cover so as to keep thetopsoil layer intact. The protection of existing natural
vegetation within drainage corridors is vital, along with
planting species suitable for slope stabilization.
MOUNTAINS
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PRESENT SCENARIO
LAND USE:
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Major Threats at present
• Rapid increase in human and livestock
population.
• Deforestation and Degradation of forests.
• Extension of cultivation to marginal and highly
sloping lands.
• Overgrazing of grasslands.
• Adverse soil, physical and chemical
conditions.• Accelerated soil erosion and loss of
productive top soil.
• Siltation of rivers and reservoirs.
•Increasing incidence of landslides.
• Indiscriminate mining and quarrying without
adequate land conservation measures.
• Overexploitation of land for construction of
roads, dams, industrial and tourist facilities.
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Resources
• The Indian Geographical Journal
• Landscape in Architecture, LA Journal Of
Landscape Architecture. Mohammad Shaheer,
Geeta Wahi Dua, Adit Pal.
• Birth of the Himalaya by Roger Bilham
• Dynamic Himalaya by K S Valdiya
• Published by Universities Press (India) Ltd.
• Land Utilization in the Central Himalaya: Problems
and Management Options
• , by Kireet Kumar, P.P. Dhyani, L.M.S. Palni (Indus
Publishing Company)
• Ecology and man in the Himalayas , by A.K Kapoor
and Satwanti Kapoor ( MD Publications).
• The Himalayan Dilemma, by United Nations
University
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
•
Landscape architecture (LA journal of LandscapeArchitecture) - by Mohd. Shaheer, Geeta Wahi Dua,
Aditi Pal.
• Birth of the Himalaya - by Roger Bilham
• Dynamic Himalaya - by K S Valdiya (Published by
Universities Press (India) Ltd.)
• Land Utilization in the Central Himalaya: Problems
and Management Options - by Kireet Kumar, P.P.
Dhyani, L.M.S. Palni (Indus Publishing Company)
• Ecology and man in the Himalayas - by A.K Kapoor
and Satwanti Kapoor ( MD Publications)
• The Himalayan Dilemma, by United Nations
University
• The Indian Geographical Journal
• Bin Zhu et al. Age of Initiation of the India-Asia
Collision in the East-Central Himalaya.
• En.wikipedia.org
• www.britannica.com
•
swapsushias.blogspot.comi i
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