A MANUAL FOR CGLOR TELEVlSKDN PRO-QUCTWN

The-sis for the Degree of M. A.

MmfliGAN STATE UNEVERSHY

Janice Reefer

19.65

grazsns

L IB RA R Y

Michigan State

Univcr lty

ROOM USE ONLY

ABSTRACT

A MANUAL FOR COLOR TELEVISION PRODUCTION

by Janice Rector

The purpose of this study was to bring together pro-

duction principles influencing a color television production

staff. These influences are many and varied: color

psychology, technical changes due to color equipment,

light for color, set considerations due to peculiarities of

the color system, make-up necessities, and new commercial

considerations.

The study correlates the experience of production

staffs at three commercial stations and one medical tele-

vision unit in the midwest area, each of which allowed the

author to observe its operations and question its personnel.

The commercial stations are: WNBQ, Chicago; WON-TV,

Chicago; and WTMJ—TV, Milwaukee. The medical unit is at

the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Information was

gathered at these three places from producer-directors,

staging and light people, graphic artists, and engineers.

The interviews were supplemented by information gathered

from articles in trade journal about practices at other

local stations, and books and periodicals concerning lighting,

theatre, television (color and monochrome), photography,

Janice Rector

color, psychology, and the human eye. Other information

has come from printed reports of color production work—

shops conducted by the National Broadcasting Corporation

in New York. This study, then, is a compiling of informa-

tion, both fact and opinion, with the objective being to

derive from these varying sources certain principles which

persons, new to the world of color, could use, thereby

cutting down station time wasted in tria; and error periods.

The conclusions drawn from this compilation of

material are set down in the form of principles which may

supplement a student’s knowledge of color television, or

be followed by the colortelevisionproduction staffs to

ig Q)

.

2“,. . . (D

the addition of color telecasting to their monochrome

production, or the changeover from monochrome to color,

less difficult.

.J.h_ FOR ' LOR TELLVISLov

By

Janice Rector

Submitted to

Michig an State University

-h gif”iil fulfillment Of the refii.:rx‘

for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Eepartment of Television and E9»\cA‘A

, 1965

r E" 1:) 1‘ E‘J." [gr/4;”£1 //é/;5r‘(;__/(

Major PPSfes o...

——__ -7—

PROBE.I ’W

, ~_. .. r

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For furnishing information used in this study, the

author is grateful to the following persons, who pro-

vided access to their studios and answered questions about

their operations:

University of Michigan;

Hazen J. Schumacher, Jr ,--Associate Director of

Television TV Consultant,

Center for Research on

Learning and Teaching

Richard Pharo--Studio Engineer, Broadcasting Service

Television

aw:

Norman Nowicki--Direc or

Robert Stebbens-—Art and Facilities Manager

Gene Phillips——Assistant Manager of News Department

Felix Kubic——Cameraman

Leroy Olliger—-Production Manager

Roy Cotner—-Scenio Designer

Elmer Cawthon--Engineer

WTMJ—TV

Sprague Vonier--Sales Manager

Nicholes Brauer——Chief Engineer

Budd Reth-—TV Production Services Director

hugo Birmingham—-Producticn Supervisor

Robert Petrie—-Program Manager

WNBQ-TV:

John Burns—-Production Manager

11

At WJIM—TV, Lansing, Michigan (which produces only in

monochrome) the following provided helpful information

about television production in general:

William Corder-—Production Manager

None of these professional men should be held reSpon-

sible for the way the author has interpreted the information

derived from these interviews.

For guidance throughout the study, the author thanks

her academic supervisors, Dr. Colby Lewis and Mr. Arthur Weld.

TABLE OF CCNTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

LIST OF

LIST OF

Chapter

I

H H

G

TABLES . v .

FIGURES. . . . . . - .

TNIFODLCII.N . , .

BASIC INESFMATIC ABOUT C

OOt‘JcUJCiUJbC/J

lt:

C)

:13

electLJ; Ahsorpticn- . .

dditi.w3 Col-fl“ Mixtpu‘e . .

ubtra:five Col r Mixture

olor Dimensions .

ystems of 33:3: Notation

ole: Temperature.

clor as Slojective Expeien

olor Psycho;:gy .

olor Harmor‘ . .

O

”IFIC PRACTICES FOR COLOR TE\J

r \ » ~ 4 4r ' r‘

*‘LL’IT'OF”~‘u 'v 5 V 5.. o J . ., J C

ccurate C:i:r Reproduction

C t

O O O O

o O O 0

O O 0 O

u 0 J

a O a.

O ‘I 9 G

e 0 O I; t

u 0 Q 0

I 6 O I.

o O Q

Q

\- C (4

s 1 O a u

G a

LEVTSTON

u : g 1.-

There must be a sufficient minimum level

of scene br:ghtness. O i

The right kind of lights must be us.ed .

The contra—f range must be restricted

even m.2'. e than for morocnrone Tf .

Color can be a;tered by light and

shadow e a O

The appearance of the subject is altered

.f

by colored llluminatio:

The camera must be adjusts

color temperatur

The appeararce of the sub;

by the color of adJacent

areas . t»

to the proper

s affected

ackground

t. . U 9 0

OC)

"3

(.‘f'

U‘

P-

.1?“

KOva

'f—J

"~51\IIf4\0O)

[\‘I

h.)R)

h)

l.-J

y.)

}._|

Lt.)

}.—l

Chapter Page

Color is affected by the reflective

characteristics of the surface. . . . 48

Color fidelity is affected by the

peculiar characteristics of the

electronic system . . . . . . . . A9

Make--Up. . . 55

When Composing Shots for Color Television

Consider . . . . . . . . . . . 58

That theatrical properties of light may

be adopted to enhance productions. . . 58

Set considerations for the programs. . . 60

The part of costumes. . . . . . . . 60

Slides and Film . . . . . . . . . . 61

Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Commercial Considerations. . . . . . . 62

News Department Considerations . . . . . 63

Miscellaneous Production Notes . . . . . 64

BIBLIOGRAPHY o o o . . . . . . . . . . . 67

APPENDIX. . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Table

LIST OF TABLES

‘CLOR AS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT ILLUMINATIONS

V1

LIST OF FIGURES

I. MUNSELL COLOR WHEEL

II. VERTICAL "SLICE" OF A COLOR WHEEL.

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Although, as of this this writing in 1965, the pro-

duction of color television programs is restricted to a

few stations in large cities, students of broadcasting

are understandably curious about the principles and prac-

tices involved and foresee a time when there will be

broader opportunity to put their learning into practice.

Since color, when rightly used, can provide a closer

reproduction of reality than monochrome, affords a new

potential for decorative and emotional expression, and

should be particularly effective medium for advertising,

it seems inevitable that color television will eventually

supplant monochrome in stations everywhere. Although

directed primarily to students, the study may also prove

helpful to production staffs of stations which are contem-

plating a conversion to color for their local programs and

would like to benefit from the experience of other stations

which have already done so. The reader should be aware,

however, that since this study is intended to be a type of

handbook the author has sometimes presented as statements of

fact what some technicians and production people might prefer

to see reported as opinion.

In presenting this material, it has been assumed that

reader U!

will already be familiar with production principles

and practices in monochrome television and will therefore

need no explanation of "contrast range," "gray scale," "key

light," and other such terms of the trade. On the other

hand, it is supposed that the readers may have little

knowledge within the field of color. Therefore, the first

part of this study provides condensed information, obtained

from library research, about the physical propagations and

t—u

reproduction 0 color and about the psycho—physical factors

involved in the experiencing of color by the human organism,

explaining concepts and terminology which may help to make

the second part of the study more intelligible, In the

second part is a discussion of specific production practices

which are recommended to promote faithful color reproduc-

tion and efficient operation of the production staff.

The study has been made intentionally brief in hopes

of reducing the great amount of material which has been

written about color to that which will be essential,

appropriate, and reliable for the worker in color television

production, who is not expected to be an expert researcher,

or a theorist, or a specialist in any techniques involving

color except those of the television studio. In achieving

this brevity, however, an attempt has been made to furnish

more than how—to-do-it recipes by providing some under—

standing of the principles behind them. The author hOpes

that these general principles will remain valid long enough

for the study to be useful, evenixlthe face of all of the

technical advances so rapidly developed in the industry.

In presenting principles about color to a lay reader,

an author faces three problems. Much that has been written

about color harmony and the psychological effects of color

appears to be subjective and speculative, and therefore

unreliable. On the other hand, a thorough and accurate

understanding of those aSpects of color which have been

scientifically researched requires more grounding in scien-

tific disciplines, such as those of physics and physiology,

than can be expected of the average television production

worker.

The third difficulty is the highly transitory state of

man's scientific understanding of color and of the technical

devices which he uses for color reproduction. Technology

progresses so rapidly these days that the present methods

and equipment for color television may soon be outmoded.

For example, during the time it has taken to collect and

compile the information for this study, the four—tube color

camera has almost entirely replaced the three—tube color

camera. And it appears now that the Plumbicon four-tube

camera will soon be the standard of the industry.

CHAPTER II

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT COLOR

Although color television is proof of man's ability

to control color phenomena, his scientific knowledge of

these phenomena in terms of physics, psychology, and

physiology is still theoretical and incomplete.

It seems evident, at least, that color is not a sub—

stance but a sensation, which is normally in response to

the radiant energy known as light.1 This energy stimulates

cells in the retina of the eye to varying electrical

responses, which are communicated to the optical nerves,

which in turn send electrical impulses to the brain, where

they are interpreted as color sensations.2 Any attempt to

describe this process more specifically encounters a

divergence between old and new scientific theories.

According to established theory, the radiant energy

known as light travels at different wavelengths, each of

which produces a different hue sensation. These wavelengths

range from approximately 400 millimicrons for blue to

1Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Color;" Chicago: William

Benton, 1963), VI, p, 205.

2For a further description refer to Appendix I.

u

somewhat over 700 millimicrons for red. White light is

a mixture of all wavelengths within this range in nearly

equal quantities. Its component wavelengths can be dis-

played by passing a beam of white light through a prism

onto a white surface, where they Spread out in a rainbow-

like spectrum.

Color vision has been generally theorized to be

stimulated by three dominant wavelengths within this

Spectrum: red, green, and blue. Thus, the network of

Optical nerves "is so arranged that it forms three light

sensitive systems, one responding to red light, one to

1 And, as will begreen light, and one to blue light."

further explained, this theory is reflected in the current

method of reproducing color television pictures by triads

of phosphorescent particles on the receiving screen which

glow in red, green, and blue respectively. Not only

television, but also printed color reproductions and photo-

graphic color transparencies depend upon red, green, and

blue as the the three light "primaries."

In 1959, however, Edwin H. Land, president of the

Polaroid Corporation, announced and demonstrated a two-

color theory. In his experiments, he photographed a scene

through a filter which transmitted only the short wavelengths

lColor as Seen and Photographed (Rochester: Eastman-

Kodak, 1962?, p. 9.

of light onto a black-and—white negative. From this, he

made a positive transparency, called the "short record."

By similar means he obtained a "long record" from a

negative exposed only to the long wavelengths from the

scene. Then, onto a white surface he projected light of

short wavelength through the short record, and light of

long wavelength through the long record, and by super-

imposing the two projected images he obtained a full

color reproduction of the scene. To obtain a faithful

reproduction, he found that the wavelengths involved did

not have to be restricted to a very narrow portion of the

spectrum; it was sufficient that one record represent the

shorter, and the other the longer wavelengths. Hence, he

concluded that "Colors in images arise not from the choice

of wavelength but from the interplay of longer and shorter

wavelengths over the entire scene."l

Does this color theory have any television possibilities?

"Yes," say some television theorists but it will be in the

future. Their feeling is that it would make a more stable

color system and reduce the necessity for delicate balancing.

Francis Bello in Fortune explained the two—color television

system like this: one beam would carry the basic black and

white picture having been picked up through a green filter,

1Edwin H. Land, "Experiments in Color Vision," Scien-

tific American, CC (May, 1959), p. 88.

and a second beam would provide a red "interlace" of coloring

information thereby activating the red phosphors. In the

home receiver the blue phosphors would remain but the green

would be replaced by white. There would probably be some

loss of quality in the blue reproduction but basically all

colors would be more true and stable.1

Another challenge to the three-color theory has come

from three biOphysicists at Michigan State University,

Dr. Barnett Rosenberg, Dr. Kaiser Aziz, and Dr. Robert Heck,

who reported their findings in 1965. These are that light

striking the retina sets up an electrical current in the

cells called "cones." If the light wavelengths are short,

the current flows in one direction; if long, the current

flows in the opposite direction; if in between, the current

flows in both directions. Instead of three sets of cones,

one for red, green, and blue respectively, there appear to

be only two sets-—one for red-green reactions, the other

for blue-yellow. The red-green cones react positively for

red and negatively for green; the blue-yellow cones react

positively for blue and negatively for yellow; while colors

such as yellow-green yield a zero current.2

lFrancis Bello, "An Astonishing New Theory of Color,"

Fortune, LIX (May, 1959).

2Barnett Rosenberg, Robert J. Heck, and Kaiser Aziz,

"Color Responses in An Organic Photoconductive Cell," LIV

(August, 196A), pp. 1018-1026.

Whether this theory will become established, or

whether the Land two-color system will supplant the three-

color one is not yet known.

Selective Absorption

Most objects commonly seen appear colored because of

selective absorption. When white light falls on them, they

absorb certain wavelengths from it and reflect others which,

reaching the eyes, stimulate the sensation of a particular

color. Which wavelengths are absorbed and which reflected

will depend on the physical structure of the material.

"Red" material is so structured, for instance, that it

absorbs all but wavelengths in the region of 700 millimicrons,

which are the "red wavelengths."

For the material to appear red, however, the light

must contain red wavelengths for the material to reflect.

The material will look red under red light or under white

light, which includes red among its other wavelengths.

Under green or blue light, however, it will look black,

since it absorbs these wavelengths and receives no red ones

to reflect. (This would be true, at least, if the light

were spectrally pure. Most of the colors we commonly see,

however, are not produced by light of a single wavelength

or narrow band of wavelengths, but by the mixing of several.

Thus, the red material may contain some green pigmentation;

hence, seen under green light, it may appear somewhat dark

green rather than pure black.)

A so-called black material absorbs all wavelengths,

reflecting none. On the other hand, a so-called white

material reflects all the wavelengths it receives. Under

white light it will appear white; under red light, red--

and so on.

Selective absorption applies not only to opaque

materials, but also to translucent ones such as photo—

graphic color filters and the gelatines used to color the

beams of spotlights. Here, the material absorbs certain

wavelengths from the light passing through it and trans-

mits the rest.

Additive Color Mixture

As previously mentioned, white light can be separated

into component hues. On the other hand, these hues can be

added together to reconstitute white light. To do this, it

has been found necessary to use only three hues: red,

green, and blue. Where beams of these three hues overlap

on a white screen they produce white light. Overlapping in

pairs, they produce other hues:

Red plus green yields yellow

Red plus blue yields magenta

Green plus blue yields cyan (blue-green)

From this one can deduce that:

Yellow is white light minus blue

Magenta is white light minus green

Cyan is white light minus red

10

The hues at opposite ends of each line immediately above

form complementary pairs. the complementary to any given

color of light is that which, when added to it, will

produce white light.1

Red, green, and blue are called the additive pri-

maries. By varying their combinations and prOportions

they can be used to produce not only white light--or

yellow, magenta, and cyan light—-but also almost any other

hue. Therefore, they are used in the present color tele-

vision system at both the broadcasting and the receiving

ends.

Within the color television camera there are three

pickup tubes, one responding to red wavelengths, another

to green, and the third to blue.2 And on the inner face

of the receiving picture tube, there are phosphors which

are grouped in triads, one glowing red, another green, and

the third blue, when activated by the prOper electron beam.

Three electron beams scan together, one exciting the red

phosphors, another the green, and the third the blue, each

to its prOper degree of brightness. Thus, each triad com-

bines the light from its phosphors to produce a patch of

color corresponding to a tiny segment of the original scene

lMichel Jacobs, The Art of Color (New York: Doubleday,

Page and Company, 1926), p. 57.

2For further explanation refer to Chapter III.

11

viewed by the camera. This patch of color is not "equal to"

the original patch in the studio but it is a "created" color

patch which the television engineers hope will be as close

to the original color as possible.

Subtractive Color Mixture

To produce colors by additive primaries is not always

convenient, however, since this requires three separate

light sources such as the triad of phosphors of the over-

lapping colored beams. One could not produce colors by

placing a red, green, and blue filter in front of the same

light beam, because no light would get through; thus, a

red filter would absorb from white light the green and blue

wavelengths, transmitting only the red. The next filter,

whether blue or green, would absorb the red wavelengths

and the third filter would receive no wavelengths to transmit.

Results are different, however, with yellow, magenta,

and cyan filters. Each of these transmits, not one third but

roughly two thirds of the spectrum:

Yellow transmits both red and green

Magenta transmits both red and blue

Cyan transmits both blue and green

Thus:

Green is transmitted by both yellow and cyan

Blue is transmitted by both magenta and cyan

Red is transmitted by both magenta and yellow

As a result, where any two of these filters overlap, they

produce one of the additive primaries. In this fashion, a

yellow filter would substract blue, but transmit red and

12

green light. If the next filter were cyan, it would sub-

tract the red light, receive no blue to transmit, but

would transmit the green. So:

white light passed through yellow and cyan makes green

white light passed through magenta and cyan makes blue

and white light passed through magenta and yellow makes red.

Combining all three filters will produce black. We have

seen, for example, that yellow and cyan filters would sub-

tract all but green light; this green would be absorbed by

a magenta filter, leaving no light to transmit.

This process is known as substractive color mixture.

One of its uses is for photographic color transparencies

(such as 2" x 2" slides), which are built up in layers of

cyan, yellow, and magenta. These hues are called the

subtractive primaries. As another use, inks in the hues

are overprinted by engravers to make colored illustrations.

In this case, of course, reflection rather than transmission

takes place. When yellow and cyan inks, for example, are

printed together and viewed under white light, the yellow ink

subtracts the blue wavelengths and the cyan the red wave-

lengths, leaving only the green ones to reflect to the eye.

For the best results, painters should also use the

subtractive primaries, magenta, yellow, and cyan; but since

the practice of painters was established long before

subtractive color theory came into being, they have tra-

ditionally thought of their primaries as red, yellow, and

blue. Red and blue, of course, are terms applied to

13

additive rather than secondary primaries. Part of the con—

fusion is one of nomenclature. The additive primaries can

be more accurately described as vermilion, blue—violet, and

green; the subtractive primaries as purplish red, greenish

yellow, and greenish blue. Thus, the term red and the term

blue may each be used to refer to two entirely different

hues.

Using the painter's terminology, anyone who has used a

box of watercolors as a child knows that his primaries can

be mixed to make other colors. Thus:

Red and yellow make orange

Red and blue make purple

Blue and yellow make green

Some theorists of pigment coloration prOpose more than

three primaries. For example, the Munsell system uses five:

red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Figure I shows these

arranged at equal intervals around a color circle. Inserted

between are secondary hues: yellow-red, green—yellow, blue—

green, purple-blue, and red-purple°

Hues which are opposite each other in this circle are

complementaries, which pair off as follows:

red and blue-green green and red-purple

yellow and purple-blue blue and yellow-red

purple and green-yellow

With paints, complementaries are hues which, when mixed in

roughly equal proportions, produce--not white as with

colored light--but neutral gray. Gray is also the product

of mixing the pigment primaries. It is difficult to

14

red-

purple

orange

yellow—

green"

\\-§_n’—-"

FIGURE I

MUNSELL COLOR WHEEL

15

reconcile this with theory since, as explained in the

preceding section, a combination of the subtractive pri-

maries should result in black. The discrepancy may be due

to a fact alluded to earlier—-that, like most of the other

materials we see, the pigments are spectrally impure,

reflecting not a single wavelength but a mixture of several.

The painter can "gray down" or dull a given hue to any

desired degree by mixing with it more or less of its comple-

mentary hue or gray. He can darken it by adding black paint.

He can lighten it by adding white paint or, in the case of

tranSparent water colors, by diluting it to let the white

paper show through. In these ways he can be said to be

changing the color's dimensions.

Color Dimensions

Any color can be described in terms of three basic

dimensions or attributes. How these dimensions are described

and designated differs somewhat depending on whether one is

thinking in terms of light or paint.

Hue is a term used with both light and paint. This

describes whether the color is red, yellow, green, blue, etc.

More scientifically, it distinguishes color according to wave-

length. Thus the reds (from about 610 to 700 millimicrons)

differ in hue from the greens (520 to 580 millimicrons), and

a red of 612 would differ in hue from a red of 643 milli—

microns.

16

The next dimension is variously termed value, bright—

ness, and luminance. [glue is used by painters to describe

the lightness or darkness of color, its mixture with either

black or white-—light colors usually being described as

tints and dark colors as shades.

The gray scale for value is also the gray scale for

monochrome television brightness. Brightness and luminance

are terms used by television engineers and others who think

of color in terms of light rather than pigments. Where the

painter says "lighter," the engineer says "brighter," but

the two are simply emphasizing different attributes of the

same effect.

The lighter a colored surface, the brighter the light

reflected from it. To make color lighter on a television

receiver screen, the phosphors are made to glow more

brightly. Brightness is what the photographer or television

technician measure when he holds an exposure meter up to a

subject's face. It is the only dimension in which colors

are rendered in monochrome television.

Technically, the fire engine represents the third

dimension of color which the painter calls chroma or satura-

tign_and the engineer only saturation. Thinking in terms of

pigments, the painter uses the terms to mean the degree to

which a color departs from a neutral gray of the same bright-

ness, becoming more vivid or positive in hue. Thus, a highly

saturated red is as vivid a red as the pigment manufacturer

17

can produce. This red can be desaturated (dulled down,

grayed off) by mixing it with another hue, such as its

complementary blue—green. A color thus desaturated is

sometimes described by painters as a tone.

What happens in terms of light during this process

is that, as the proportion of red pigment in the mixture

is lessened, the red wavelengths reflected from it become

mixed with wavelengths reflected from other pigments——for

instance, wavelengths of both blue and green, so that the

mixture tends to reflect light from all over the spectrum.

When the radiant energy is spread more or less evenly

over the Spectrum, the reflecting surface will be

perceived as gray or white, depending on its level of

brightness and it will be "de-saturated." But, it would

be "saturated" if the light energy were confined to a

sin le wavelength or narrow band of wavelengths. It Should

0Q

be remembered that all hues when at full saturation or

(T

ecause of the inherentO”

intensit' are not of e ual stren h9

darkness or lightness of the hue itself.

Systems of Color Notation

The terms introduced in the preceding section are

useful to facilitate communication between persons who are

working to achieve a desired color effect. When everyone

in a television studio understands them, a director, for

example, can say, "That's too highly saturated to make a

18

g”d background," or "Let's see if we can reduce the

brigh;ness of the tablecloth," and othersnmillbe able to

give him what he wants.

The three dimensions are also useful for more pre—

cisely specifying which color one needs for a background

or costume. "Fiesta red" or "Tahitian coral" may not

mean the same thing to everyone and to some they may mean

nothing at all. Identification is improved when one can

refer to numbered samples on a chart. This will be evident

to workers in monochrome telev1sion who identify brightness

levels in terms of rumbered gray scale steps.

Not only brightness (value) but also hue and chroma

(saturation; can be indicated in the Munsell System of

Color Notation. As shown in Figure II, all pigment varia—

tions of a jiven hue can be laid out on a graph, the vertical

.5

axis of whizh measures (from bottom to top) increases in

value, and the hori ontal axis (from left to right) increases

in chroma, each proceding in numbered steps. To specify a

given color, then, one first states its hue, then its value

step, and finally its chroma step. Hue is designated by an

initial, the other dimensions by numerals. Thus, a specific

blue might be identified as B 5/3. The "5" tells one that

the color is in the middle brightness range, the "3" that

it is not saturated. The exact appearance of the color

can be seen by consulting the Munsell »cok of color samples.

l9

'\

White XE

Value to light

MHL (tint)

/\

LHL

HML

Gr 5 3

ML saturation or chromi

Gray ‘5? (tpne) ix B

LML

HLL

MLL ///;n

V

BL Value to dark

Black LL(shade)

FIGURE II WH White or High Light

MHL Medium High Light

LHL Low High Light

HML High Medium Light

ML Medium Light or Gray

LML Low Medium Light

HLL High Low Light

MLL Medium Low Light

BL Black or Low Light

20

Another sample book is the Color Harmony Manual,

originated by Egbert Jacobson, art director of the Container

Corporation of America, to illustrate a system of color

harmony deveIOped by Wilhelm Ostwald. Believing that har-

mony is a product of orderly arrangement, Ostwald so

organized his color samples that harmonic relations between

them could be readily discerned and plotted along straight

lines.

A third system is that of the International Commission

on Illumination, commonly known as the ICI System. By this,

a given color is Specified in terms of the amounts of red,

green, and blue which should be mixed to duplicate it. The

hue, brightness, and saturation of the color are expressed

.in qualities which are physically measurable by inter-

nationally accepted standards. Hue is expressed by dominant

wavelength; brightness by luminous reflectance or luminous

transmittance; and saturation by excitation purity, which is

the percentage of its distance between a neutral (white,

gray, or black) and the position (plotted on a chart) of

the fully saturated Spectral hue.

The three systems have been mentioned here only to

make the reader aware of them and of their purposes. For

more thorough understanding of them, he should consult other

sources 0

21

Color Temperature

Anyone who has taken color photographs probably knows

that he has had to use one type of film for daylight

exposures and another for pictures taken under incandescent

tungsten light. If he has tried to use the tungsten-type

film in daylight, he knows that the pictures he took with

it looked unnaturally blue. This is because tungsten light

contains fewer blue wavelengths than daylight does; hence,

to compensate, the tungsten-type film has been made more

sensitive to blue.

There are two phenomena to appreciate here. One is

that light sources differ in the kinds of wavelengths and

consequently in the color of the light which they emit. The

nearest to white light is that given off by the sun at high

noon, in contrast to which incandescent tungsten light is

yellower. A single type of film might still be used if the

eye could register the extent of this difference in waves

lengths, but (and this is the second phenomenon) the eye,

influenced by the brain, adapts to incandescent light,

apparently becoming more sensitive to blue, thus making the ‘

light appear whiter than it actually is. So the filmed

report, although objectively true, would be at variance with

man's subjective experience. Therefore, as his eye's sensi-

tivity to blue increases, the film's sensitivity must be

rebalanced to correspond.

22

The same adjustment is required with a color television

camera. For the system to reproduce colors as they appear

to the eye, the outputs of the red, green, and blue pickup

tubes must be balanced to match the eye's relative sensi-

tivity to red, green, and blue wavelengths--and this

balance will be different according to the color temperature

of the illumination in which the camera is Operating.

When a non-inflammable material such as iron or fire

clay is heated, it changes color from dull red to bright red

to orange to yellow and, at extreme temperatures to white.

There is a direct connection between its heat and the color

of the light it emits. So, very high temperatures which no

thermometer could withstand, or the temperatures of remote

incandescent objects like the stars, can be measured in terms

of their color. Man's knowledge of what temperatures equate

with certain colors is gained by progressively heating a

small oven of fire clay and noting the temperatures at which

its glowing interior emits certain colors of light. These

temperatures and colors are equated in terms of color temper-

ature, which is measured in degrees Kelvin, after the

British scientist, Lord Kelvin.

The light emitted from a given source can be described

in degrees Kelvin. To find its color temperature, the afore—

mentioned oven is heated to the point where its interior

matches the color of the light in question. Then the

temperature of the oven at this point, measured in degrees

Kelvin, is the color temperature of the light in question.

23

The color temperature of incandescent lamps varies

according to the size of their filaments in relation to the

voltage of the current passing through them. Normal incan-

descent lighting used in television color studios may

range from 2900° K to 3200° K. White fluorescent lamps

are 3500° K. The color temperature of daylight varies,

sunlight plus light from a clear blue sky ranging from

6000° K to 6500° K, whereas light from a totally overcast

Sky is rated between 6700° K and 7000° K. More about what

such differences mean to color television production will

be reported in the next chapter.

Color As Subjective Experience

In discussing color temperature, it was indicated

that people do not always see colors as the camera records

them. Partly this is because the eye makes certain adapta-

tions to accommodateto changes of hue and brightness in the

light striking the retina. Partly it is because the retina

relays color impulses to the brain, which evaluates and

interprets them in the light of such factors as previous

experience, memory, mood, fatigue, and momentary interest

and attention. Man, then, sees subjectively, whereas the

camera sees objectively. Therefore, colors which the

camera has reproduced may not seem natural to the human

observer.

The eye differs from the camera in its adaptation to

brightness. It is true that both instruments have an iris

24

that can be closed or opened to regulate the amount of light

passing through it, but that on the camera must be con—

sciously controlled (photocells not yet being used on tele-

vision cameras), whereas that in the eye is automatic and

unconscious. Because of this unconscious adjustment,

successive levels of illumination which are actually very

different may appear to us nearly or completely alike.

Furthermore, flat, contrastless light appears less bright

than contrasty illumination. Also, a scene containing

highly saturated colors appears brighter than one which is

more desaturated, a vividly colored interior seeming brighter

than an overcast exterior although such is not the case. For

these reasons, the eye is not reliable for determining proper

camera exposure. This should be done with an exposure

meter.

Besides failing to discriminate accurately between

successive general brightness levels, the eye is poor at

discerning the range of brightness in a single scene. As

we gaze from one part of the scene to another, our eyes

adapt rapidly to brightness differences between them so that

the contrast between them appears lower than it actually is.

Therefore, we may not realize that the contrast range

exceeds that which the television system can faithfully

reproduce.

Another subjective phenomenon is known as ”simul—

taneous brightness contrast." This means that a light

25

subject will appear even lighter when seen against a dark

background, and a dark subject darker against a light

background. This affects the appearance of colors; for

example, a colored subject seen against white will seem

duller (more desaturated) than against black.

The term "brightness constancy" has been given to

our tendency to see a white object as white under almost

any circumstances, even if it is in the Shade and its

actual brightness is a middle gray.. The same is true of

faces; therefore, we may fail to illuminate them sufficiently

for the camera's objective requirements.

We are also faced with a "hue constancy" tending to

see colors as we think they should look, not as they actually

are. Therefore, we fail to see that the face in the Shadow

of a tree may be green with light reflected from the foliage

but seeing it so recorded by the camera, we would reject it

as unnatural.

Colors appear more intense when we are first exposed

to them, then decrease to two-thirds or less of their

apparent saturation. Somewhat related to this effect is

our tendency to adapt quickly to Colored illumination,

viewing objects under it as if they were under white light.

This is apparent to anyone who has worn tinted sun glasses.

Removing the glasses, we are likely at first to see every-

thing tinged with a hue complementary to that of the

glasses, so that after wearing green glasses, for instance,

26

the world looks pink, if, after looking fixedly for some

time at a relatively pure hue, we shift our gaze to a

neutral gray surface, it will appear tinged with the

complementary to the positive hue. If the hue is green,

for instance, its "after image" will be rose.

A related phenomenon is "simultaneous hue contrast."

This means that a color, seen against some other saturated

color, will take on some of the complementary of that

saturated hue. Thus, raw beef on a yellow platter may

look purple Since it is tinged with blue, which is the

complementary of yellow. Displayed on a blue-green platter,

however, its redness will be enhanced since the complementary

of blue-green is red.

Color Psychology

Experiments with the response of the human organism to

color reveal some conclusions which perhaps may be self

evident. Overlong exposure to any Single hue is liable to

be distressing, the color receptors in the retina seeming

to seek a balance of hues from various portionscfi‘the

spectrum. Intensely saturated hues are liable to produce

visual fatigue. When two highly saturated complementaries

(as red and bluish green) are seen juxtaposed, they may

vibrate against each other.

Fully saturated colors are strong attention getters,

which should be used to reinforce the center of interest in

a composition rather than to compete with it. A small area

27

of high saturation is sufficient to balance a much larger

area of low saturation.

Contrast——in any of the three dimensions of color—-

is also a strong attention getter. Hence, the highest

contrast should be located within the center of interest.

To emphasize the center of interest it is effective to

establish between it and its background a pronounced con—

trast of at least one of the dimensions (brightness,

saturation, or hue).

Maximum hue contrast occurs between complementaries.

These seem to have opposite natures in several respects.

Red, yellow, and orange are generally described as "warm"

colors, whereas their complementaries in the blue and green

region cf the spectrum are "cold.” The warm colors are also

classified as "active," whereas thelr complementaries are

"passive.”

Contrasts between values and intensities may be used

to promote an illusion of depth. Thus, a small spot of

red w1ll seem to advance, and an equivalent spot of blue

to recede. Brighter (lighter) objects tjnd to appear

closer than dark ones; and the greater the brightness czn~

trast between foreground and background, the greater the

illusion of depth. Depth can be destroyed by using too

highly saturated a background.

Colors have an apparent weight, which should be con~

sidered when determining their placement. Strong reds and

28

yellows make poor carpets, for instance, because they

refuse to settle on the floor. A narrow dado of pink

would be too weak to support a red wall.

That colors have an ability to stimulate emotional

reactions and symbolize meanings seems evident, but much

that has been written on this subject is Speculative. The

study is complicated Since varying the dimensions of a

given hue may result in a different psychological effect.

Furthermore, the effects vary with the sex, health, age,

nationality, associations, and other characteristics of

the beholder, making generalizations unreliable. Almost

every work on color assigns qualities or "feelings" to the

various hues. These qualities are typified by the following

1examples:

Red: exciting, fervid, active

Orange: lively, energetic, forceful

Yellow: cheerful, inspiring, vital

Green: peaceful, quieting, refreshing

Blue: subduing, sober

Purple: dignified, mournful

White: pure, clean, youthful

Black: ominous, deadly, depressing

Of possible interest to the producers of musical

programs is the tendency of some people to make associations

between sound and hue—-low sound being paired with deep

tones, slow music with blue, and fast music with red.

lMathew Luckiesh, The Language of Color (New York:

Dodd, Mean, and Company, 1925).

29

"Though individual colors affect us in various ways,

it is in various combinations and above all in various

arrangements that the fullest emotional suggestiveness of

color is called forth."l

Color Harmony

The art of making harmonious color schemes cannot be

taught or even explained in a few pages of print. Some

persons have an instinct for it. Others theorize about

it, seeking mathematical relationships to serve as formulas.

Some schemes, called monochromatic, are built on varying

the brightness and the saturation of a single hue. Others,

called "analagous," use hues that are spectrally adjacent,

such as various tones of red, orange, and yellow. More

lively schemes use complementary colors, contrasting reds

and oranges, for instance, against a background of greenish

blue.

One of the Simplest theories to practice holds that

colors will harmonize if used in their "natural order of

value." In other words, yellow is naturally a light color,

purple a dark one. Moving around the color circle in one

direction from yellow towards purple, pure orange is darker

than pure yellow, pure red is darker than pure orange.

Moving the other way, pure green is darker than pure yellow,

pure blue is darker than pure green. A color scheme which

keeps the hues in this natural order of value or brightness

lLouis Wienberg, Color In Everyday Life (New York:

Dodd, Mead & Company, 1928), p. 68.

30

will be harmonious. A scheme which reverses this order

will be discordant. For example, deep purple with pink

will be harmonious; lavender and maroon will be discor-

dant. This does not mean that discords should always be

avoided; sometimes they contribute a piquancy which saves.

a color scheme from being too bland or too sweet.

Pairs of colors which will not make satisfactory

combinations are: those colors in which there is not

enough contrast between lightness and darkness to prevent

confusion; those between which there is an insufficient

difference of hue to be clearly recognized; and those which

strain the eyes due to the "vibration" of the colors.

But these are only a few of many different theories.

The person interested in color planning and harmony can

find many others recorded in books. Besides reading,

however, he should develop his ability to design in color

by looking at color and working with it, analyzing the

schemes he sees in paintings, illustrations, and costume

essembles, and experimenting with schemes which he builds

for himself with paints or swatches of colored material.

CHAPTER III

SPECIFIC PRACTICES FOR COLOR TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

It was the aim of the previous chapter to present

general information which would be usefulto those who work

with color in any medium, including those engaged in the

production of color television. Besides this general

information, however, the television production person

needs something more: he needs to know how his work in

color will be affected by the conditions of his particular

medium, especially by the requirements of the cameras and

associated elements of the electronic system.

There are some basic differences between monochrome

television production and color television production; but

if the staff's knowledge is sufficient in monochrome,

adapting to color should not be too difficult.

In television broadcasting the camera picks up

reflected light from the scene and transfers this reflected

light into electronic signals. Where the monochrome signal

is made up of a brightness or luminance signal, which

transmits only light and dark images, the color signal is

made up of a luminance signal and chrominance Signal. This

31

32

luminance Signal of a color camera supplies the entire signal

1

for the monochrome receivers and the chrominance Signal

carries the color information.2

In color television after the light from the scene

has passed through the camera lens, it must be separated

into red, green, and blue wavelengths and diverted to the

appropriate color tube. This is accomplished by a system

of dichroic and regular mirrors. (Dichroic mirrors reflect

light of one dominant wavelength and transmit the rest.)

New developments in color television equipment are

being made at a rapid rate. Two such new deve10pments are

the RCA TK A camera and the Plumbicon camera tube.

The new RCA transistorized color camera has added a

monochrome (luminance) channel, which sharpens the picture

and produces a more natural coloring, to the red, green, and

blue color channels. The RCA engineers feel that with this

camera there are two advantages over the three tube cameras:

(1) monochrome receivers can have better pictures because the

picture resolution is independent of the accuracy of the red,

green, and blue phosphors; and (2) the contrast of color

pictures is a1So enhanced by the high resolution of the

luminance channel. This camera is becoming the standard

camera for the industry.

1Donald G. Fink, Color Television Standards (New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 118.

2William F. Boyce, Fundamentals of Color Television

(Indianapolis, Indiana: Howard W. Sams and Company, Inc.,

1954), pp. 65 and 66.

33

The Plumbicon camera tube has been introduced by NU

Phillips Gloeilampenfabrielen of Holland. It is a small

lightweight vidicon type television camera tube offering

all the benefits of circuit simplicity while producing

pictures of image orthicon quality. The Plumbicon has high

sensitivity and insures excellent final gradation of high

contrast pictures. Its only deficiency, at this time,

is a limited sensitivity to red. Cameras are being tested

in Great Britain using four Plumbicon tubes (1 red, 1 green,

1 blue, and 1 for luminance).

Accurate Color Reproduction

Marvelous as these color systems are, they will not:

reproduce color accurately unless production people insure

that the Scene before the cameras meet certain conditions.

Those conditions required by the present day RCA systems

are as follows:

There must be a sufficient minimum level of scene

brightneSS.—-The light level for monochrome television

normally ranges between 75 and 100 foot candles. Color

television requires about four times as much, often cited

as between 350 and 400 foot candles. This much is needed

because light from the scene must be Split among three

image orthicon pickup tubes within the camera, with enough

light reaching each tube to let it function properly. Some

smaller studios can handle as low as 250 to 300 foot candles

34

if the cameras are not very far from the performer.1 Thirty

to 40 per cent of the light is lost before reaching the

tubes from passing through balancing filters and dichroic

mirrors; for example, on the WGN "Bozo Show" (a daily program)

they maintain a light level of 300 to 350 foot candles with

highlights reaching A00 foot candles.

The exact amont of illumination depends, of course,

on the lens stop, which in turn depends upon the desired

depth of field. To secure adequate depth of field for

closeups of a surgical incision, the University of Michigan

television unit sometimes applies 1,000 foot candles to the

immediate area of the incision.

Light in a studio may be measured by measuring inci-

dent light fromtflmasource or by measuring reflected light

from the set or object.- WTMJ in Milwaukee measures incident

light normally but will measure reflected light occasionally

as a comparison.

For a low key effects it is prudent to keep the

performers lighted to 350 footcandles, reducing the back-

ground to no less than 250 foot candles. To preserve their

true color, backgrounds should normally receive as much

illumination as the performance area. If darkened too much,

they may become muddied and mottled with tinges of spurious

color. However, for special effects the background may be

1Broadcast News, LXXXI (December, 1954), p. 20.

35

deliberately "dropped" to almost black as seen in the

"Perry Como Show" and the "Andy Williams Show" quite

frequently.

To provide sufficient illumination, it is useful

to have instruments of high wattage than may be used in

monochrome production: 1500w scoops, 2 5kw Fresnels, and

1 to 3kw ellipsoidal projectors. Backlights will, of

course, need to be higher in wattage to balance the increased

amount of frontal illumination.

Spots on floor stands and panning with the action have

proved helpful for reinforcing insufficient light levels.

Care must be taken that they move with the camera so as not

to unbalance the evenness of the illumination.

A ”trick" to be remembered is "any object or part of

an object can be made more visible to the observer by

directing to it a light source whose wavelength matches the

color of the object or portion of the object."1

The right kind of lights must be used.--Most studios

have found that using incandescent lights rather than

fluorescent lights produces a better picture--color or

monochrome. The reason fluorescent lights are not used even

though they give off less heat, last longer, and cost less

is the softness of the light. This light disperses evenly

over a wide area causing a minimum of shadow, thereby making

lColor Television (Philadelphia: Philco Corporation,

1956), p. 1A.

36

it difficult to define forms or achieve depth. Fluorescent

lights also emit a cold blue or green cast giving this tinge

to everything in the scene.

Using both incandescent and fluorescent lights for a

scene simultaneously Should not be tried because the camera

will not transmit a good color picture where the spectral

characteristics of the light sources vary.

Thus, at this time, incandescent lights seem to be

the best for studio purposes. However, there are some

problems revolving around the use of incandescent bulbs as

well. For example: (1) the cameras will need to be

adjusted a bit more often because of the general red glow

the lights emit; and (2) the temperature at which the fila-

ment is operated, the age of the lamp, and the diameter and

length of the filament effect the color temperature of the

lamp. (As the temperature of an incandescent body is

increased the light goes from a yellow—white at lower

temperatures to blue at higher temperatures. As the lamp

gets older the light will become more yellow or orange in

cast.) But for the purposes of television lighting incan-

descent lights have a wider range of usable intensities~

going from a soft overall light to a hard pointed light.

Table I illustrates the subtle color change which is

caused by the use of various light sources. A lighting

director should know the "tinge" his lights will cast and

inform the scenic designer or artist so they may make the

correct changes in their paint colors.

TABLE

I

COLOR

AS

AFFECTED

BY

DIFFERENT

ILLUMINATIONS

Colored

Media

Blue

Skylight

Noon

Sunlight

Tungsten

Lamp

Mercury

Arc

Ultramarine

Chrome

yellow

Vermilion

Chrome

green

Cobalt

blue

Purple

Pink

Dark

blue

blue

lemon

yellow

yellow—red

green

light

blue

blue

pink

blue

greenish—blue

golden

yellow

brick

red

yellow-green

light

blue

reddish

violet

redder

pink

blue

dark

red

orange—yellow

red

yellow-green

violet

red-purple

light

red

bluish-black

deep

blue

greenish—yellow

red—gray

yellow-green

violet—blue

violet

light

blue

violet-blue

37

38

The contrast range must be restricted even more than

for monochrome TV.--The overall subject contrast should not

exceed 20:1.

One should remember that this subject contrast is a

product of the light ratio and the reflectance ratio.

To understand what is meant by light ratio, imagine

that a subject is lighted by a fill light, aimed from

directly in front,and a key light, coming in from a 45°

angle, each delivering equal amounts of light on the subject.

The area illuminated by both instruments receives twice as

much light as the area illuminated only by the fill; hence

the lighting ratio is 2:1. If one moves the key in half

way, however, the inverse square law operates to increase

its light four times. Therefore, the highlight area now

receives four units of key plus one unit of fill, totaling

five units, while the shadow area still has only one unit

of fill. Thus, the lighting ratio is now 5:1.

To obtain the reflectance ratio, use an exposure meter

to measure the lightest and the darkest area of the subject

when it is lighted uniformly with flat frontal illumination.

A ratio of 6:1 would mean that the lightest area reflects

six times as much light as the darkest.

The subject contrast range is obtained by multiplying

the lighting ratio by the reflectance ratio. For example:

2:1 x 6:1

5:1 x 6:1

12:1, which is within tolerable limits

30:1, which exceeds the recommended limit

of 20:1

39

The lower the reflectance ratio (i.e. the closer all

subject colors are to the same brightness level), the more

the lighting ratio can be increased.

Normally, however, there will be wide variation in

the reflectance of subject colors. Hence the light should

be quite evenly applied. A second reason for applying the

light evenly is that otherwise shadow areas are liable to

pick up tinges of spurious color and a false hue. As a

rule, therefore, a modeling light should be used cautiously,

not exceeding a 2:1 reflectance ratio between the highlight

and shadow areas of the performer's face, and plenty of fill

light should be used in shadow areas. Applying this to the

nine step gray scale of value-~in monochrome the range

should be six steps but in color the range is only four°

When shooting outdoors, overcast skies are better than

direct, bright sunlight, the shadows from which will

probably need to be lightened by using reflectors. Indoors,

light studio floors will help to diffuse the light and

reflect it into areas left in shadow by the toplight.

The color of performers' faces changes perceptibly as

they move through hot spots and shadows. Therefore, a con—

sistent level of illumination should be maintained through—

out their movement path. Since even illumination is

needed not only across the scene but also in depth, there

should be enough rows of lighting instruments overhead to

cover all zones of the playing area from front to rear.

“0

These overhead lights should be beamed at no angle flatter

than 45° with the horizontal. When instruments must be

hung lower than this or mounted on floor stands, one should

avoid having the performers walk forward or backward in

their beams since, following the inverse square law, the

illumination on these performers will vary inversely with

the square of their distance from the light source; thus,

by halving their distance from the source, they will

increase their brightness not twice but four times.

To even out the illumination, dimmers, of course, are

very handy for balancing the output from various lighting

instruments but they do change color temperature if moved

from a specific setting during a program. Some unevenness

may be caused not only by direct light but by bounce light

from some reflectant surface. In judging the evenness of

the light distribution, a meter is more reliable than the

eye.

Once the lighting ratio has been carefully restricted,

there may still be trouble from too wide a reflectance

ratio or, in other words, from having very dark and very

light objects present in the same scene. This may cause

situations like the following: The camera begins with a

full shot of a fashion model wearing a royal blue suit

and carrying a white bag and gloves. For this, a reasonably

generous exposure is required to bring out the form and hue

of the suit. Then, however, the same camera zooms into a

Ml

closeup of the white bag and gloves. To keep these from

washing out, the exposure must be reduced-—but as the iris

is closed, one can see the color of the Suit change from

royal blue to navy.

Since regulating the iris control does change the

color of subjects, it is advisable to keep hands off it

and solve one's problems by restricting the light and

reflectance ratios instead. Concern with these ratios

is nothing new to television, of course, since workers in

monochrome must also be cautious against exceeding the

contrast range. When this is exceeded in monochrome,

however, only form and detail are obscured, which is bad

enough--but in color television, the color of the subject

is altered as well.

Color can be altered by light and shadow.--Intense

illumination causes color to appear less saturated because

the hue is diluted by the excess of illumination, while

low intensities cause a more saturated appearance. Where

illumination is dim, bright light colors are necessary in

order to show up, for the middle and deep tones will drop

down and meet together in dark tones.

Shadows are dangerous because they may pick up unwanted

colors and take on a color tinge of the complementary of the

light source. But if too many lights are unskillfully

employed, secondary shadows will be cast within the principal

42

shadows. Shadows are also affected by the amount of

scattered light received from duesurroundings. To correct

for shadows supplementary light should be thrown into the

shadow areas. Shadows, however, are needed because too

much light tends to obscure the forms of the subject in

floods of uncontrolled light, producing flat and insipid

impressions.

The appearance of the subject is altered by colored

illumination.-—The two references for building color

schemes in color television are human flesh and recognizable

commercial products. Since these must be reproduced as the

public knows them and expects to see them, they serve as

the foundation for all other colors in the scene.

One way to preserve their versimilitude is to illumi—

nate them only with unfiltered light, restricting colored

illumination to backgrounds. This is contrary to the

practice in stage performances of lighting the performance

area with amber or bastard amber for key light, with blue or

surprise pink to fill the shadows. In color television,

colored light is used on performers only in dance numbers

or for other frankly stylistic effects. Commercial packages

are invariably keyed with white (i.e. unfiltered incandes-

cent) light, although sometimes an attempt is made to enhance

the color of the package by toning its shadow side with fill

light which is complementary in hue to that of the package.

43

When a subject fails to look natural in color,

despite the avoidance of colored light sources, the

spurious hue may be due to reflected light from some

nearby colored surface.

No one source of light can bring out all object

colors to the best advantage. Some colors will be

accentuated, others reduced, and almost all objects will

change more or less with a change in the spectral quality

of the light source. But all colors in a scene may not

retain their relative values as the intensity of light is

increased or decreased. This overall quality of all

colors depends on the color composition of the light. Thus

colors may be changed by changing the color of the light

source. Very often if a color on set is creating a "glow”

or "bloom" problem it can be corrected by a change in the

lighting of that area. When using colored lights it should

be remembered that a colored light thrown against a pigment

of the same color will emphasize the color. When a colored

light falls upon a composition containing a variety of

color, it will make the least change in those colors which

are most nearly identical with its own; and it will make

the greatest change in those which most directly oppose it.

All other colors will be modified in proportion to their

opposition to the color of the light and always in the

direction of decreasing value. "It may be taken as a

44

fundamental aXiom that a colored object will not appear

the same, in general, under two illuminants differing

in spectral character.”1

To use colored lights or gels it is important to

have them strong enough that the other lights won't wash

them out.

The camera must be adjusted to the proper color

temperature.--In order to reproduce color faithfully, the

color television camera must match as closely as possible

the eye's relative sensitivity to various wavelengths in

the illumination. The eye is more sensitive to the yellow

and green regions of the spectrum than to red and blue.

If the camera were more sensitive than the eye to blue,

for instance, it would render blue too light in proportion

to red and green and would also render all colors that con-

tain blue in mixture (including white) more bluish than the

eye sees them. Adjusting the response of the camera to

that of the eye is accomplished by proportioning or

"balancing" the relative outputs of the red, green, and blue

channels.

This balance must take into account the color tempera—

ture or relative proportion of the wavelengths in the

illumination reaching the camera. In balancing tubes for

lMatthew Luckiesh, The Lightinngrt (New York: McGraw

Hill Book Company, Inc., 19l7), p. 53.

45

interior shots, for example, the blue tube is made more

sensitive to compensate for the relatively low blue

content of incandescent tungsten light, which is rated

usually around 3200° K. When these relative balances have

been accomplished, cuts may be made between the indoor

camera and the outdoor camera without noticeable incon-

sistencies in the color of the successive shots. However,

it must be remembered that even under the best conditions,

color cameras are difficult to balance and they do not

always "fall in line" as the theories would indicate.

In the previous chapter it was noted that artificial

light sources may differ widely in color temperature--

incandescent tungsten and fluorescent sources, for instance,

being so different that they cannot be mixed on the same

subject without risking unpredictable results. Fluorescents

(at 35009 K) and incandescents (probably at 3200° K) differ

by 300° K, whereas the camera should not be exposed to a

variation of more than 200° K.

This precaution must be observed when incandescent

lights are dimmed, since a dimmed filament becomes

increasingly deficient in blue, making skin tone brown.

As previously indicated, natural light also varies

in color temperature, being yellowish and reddish early

and late in the day, bluish in shade and under overcast

skies, white in noon sunshine, and blue-green at dusk. As

such changes occur, a light-balancing filter may be used

46

for changing the quality of the light admitted to the

camera in order to match that for which its tubes are

balanced. When there is a predominance of blue in the

light a yellow filter can be used to suppress some of it

in favor of the red and green wavelengths. On the other

hand, a bluish filter can be used to readjust light which

is too yellow.

The gppearance of the subject is affected by the color

of adjacent or background areas.—-No color is seen by itself.

When considering a color it must be realized that the

essential factors are the colored object itself in relation

to its scenic area, the light source, and the observer.

The color of the skin, clothing, and objects may

change as the performer moves from one background to another

or as the camera takes a different angle shot, particularly

if these backgrounds differ widely in the amount of light

they reflect and the "rule" of simultaneous brightness con—

trast comes into play (explained on page 22). Large bright

backgrounds darken and muddy tones of everything in front

of them. To play safe, they should be kept somewhat darker

than the subject because if colors near flesh tones are

used (peach, light yellow) there will be little contrast

and one may lose the face in the background.

To darken a backing without repainting it or substi—

tuting a new one, one may be able to move a light off it,

move it back from the subject, angle it down, or shield it

4‘7

so that it receives less light to reflect. To lighten a

background without repainting it or substituting a new

one merely reverse the above procedure.

A blue drape-~not too electric blue seems to be a

good all-rowmdbackgroundsbecause it complements flesh

tones and does not cast a tinge of its own color on other

colors. But blue drapes are not as easily controlled with

colored lights as are gray drapes with some "warmth,"

i.e., a neutral of the proper value, the color of which

may be influenced by the lighting.1 Broadly speaking

intense pure colors of the warm end of the spectrum should

be used only for accessories and trimming because of

their "advancing" quality, while these same colors grayed,

or the cool colors, can be used for the large background

masses. It may save a great deal of trouble, at first,

to use neutral background and brighten them up with lights.

It should be remembered that the backgrounds for

closeup shots may include things other than scenery. A

hand passing across a commercial display of variously

colored towels, for instance, can turn dark and brown when

it passes in front of a white towel.

Similar trouble can be caused by excessively bright

areas adjacent to the subject. Thus, white shirts will

muddy the faces above them and should therefore be

replaced by gray shirts. The arm of a kitchen demonstrator

lSprague Vonier, WTMJ—TV, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

48

may be darkened and browned by its adjacency to a white

mixing bowl or to some highly reflectant metallic object

such as a toaster. As in monochrome television, glossy

surfaces should be sprayed to diffuse highlights and

eliminate glare. Extremely light areas on commercial

products and white pages from "slick" magazines may also

need to be sprayed with a flattening agent. Such effects

as this could be remedied by adjusting the camera controls

when an excessively bright area enters the picture.

The effects of simultaneous hue contrast can also be

observed in a color television picture. (Remember the raw

beef looking purple on a yellow platter, but looking redder

on a blue-green one. Page 26.)

Remember also that the subject may be spuriously

colored by light reflected from a nearby colored surface.

Color is affected by the reflective characteristics

of the surface.--Everyday experience will confirm that

reflectance plays a substantial role in color appearance.

A wool and a satin, for instance, may look altogether

different although colored with the same dye because the

texture makes a difference in the appearance. In a loose

fabric of porous surface the light penetrates more deeply

and is colored by many multiple reflections. For example:

wool fibres are transparent while those of cotton are not;

hence light cannot penetrate as far into the latter as

into wool. Thus when cotton is seen under white light, the

49

wavelengths which one might expect to be absorbed cannot

penetrate the material sufficiently to be absorbed; they

too are reflected, producing white highlights or giving

the whole surface a washed out appearance. Therefore, a

hard to use color, like pure red, may turn out to be

suitable in fabrics of some textures even though not in

most.

Generally, in television, it is best to use purer

colors in roughly textured weaves, such as tweed, and in

piled fabrics, such as velvet, rather than in smoothly

polished ones because they give a softness to a color and

do not reflect glare.

Also, a surface angled to reflect light into the eye

or camera lens will look different than when it is angled

to reflect in some other direction.

For these reasons it is difficult to predict the

appearance of a certain color by judging only from a color

chart with matte-finished samples viewed under ordinary

diffuse room illumination.

It is best to stay away from starched whites and

light colors, since the starch adds a gloss which reflects

directly into the camera lens causing a "bloom," and light

colors are naturally more light reflecting.

Color fidelity is affected by the peculiar character-

istics of the electronic system.--Reference to "peculiar

characteristics” does not necessarily mean that the system is

50

inaccurate.“ Sometimes it is just that the camera sees more

objectively than the untrained eye, bringing out hues such

as the purples in tar roads which artists may discern but

are ignored by most of us. At the Colonial Theatre in

New York, which NBC Color Television used as its first

theatre studio, the brown linoleum floor persistently showed

on camera with a greenish hue, attributed to refraction of

light through a surface film of wax and dust. Here also,

a ”blue" drape came out on the screen as blue-green,

apparently because of a green ingredient in the dye which

affected the camera more positively than it did the human

retina.

While acknowledging the accuracy of the system when

it is properly aligned, it must also be admited that this

accuracy is sometimes not achieved without a great deal of

engineering skill and effort. Some colors seem harder

to reproduce than others. Certain yellows, for instance,

may easily go too orange or too green. This trouble seems

to have persisted from the early days of the system:

Vance Hallack, producer in charge of color for NBC,

recalls that during the 1950 FCC demonstrations, trans—

mission engineers fought bitterly all day with the

receiver engineers, each blaming the other for the poor

color coming through. "Finally, during a break," he

says, "I sent out for green bananas and substituted

them for yellow ones in a fruit bowl on the set. Soon

as we started up again, a receiver man called up,

screaming:

"What's with the green bananas?"

m-zu‘1

sM-hwfi

IEM

..

51

"Don't know what you're talking about," I told him.

"They’re yellow on our monitors." That kept him

quiet for half an hour. Then he called up again and

said: l"Got your yellow bananas--but your apples are

blue."

Colorscxitelevision tend to be a bit more saturated

than they actually are so the artists correct for this by

graying all colors a little.

The alignment of cameras for faithful color reproduc-

tion takes considerably longer than with monochrome cameras,

since the three tubes within each camera have to be balanced

and then the cameras have to balance with each other.

Before every program the cameras must be set up and

adjusted so as to broadcast the maximum possible color

fidelity. In color films there are different kinds of dyes

to adjust for color reproduction but in color television

there are only the three ”pick up" tubes in the camera.

must be adjusted so that the engineers(I)

These pickup tube

asting efficiently.()

can be sure they are broad

Requirements for successful color reproduction are

accuracy of exposure, appropriate quality of the illumina-

tion,and suitable contrast range of the subject.

There are several methods used by stations, in various

combinations,to check this color fidelity from the station

point of view. There are four places where color fidelity

can go astray. These places are: (l) the color balance and

lMichael Day, "Color Television is Here," Popular

Mechanics (January, 1954), CI, p. 129.

52

registration of the cameras; (2) the color temperature of

the lights; (3) the iris Opening used and the distance

between the camera and the object; and (4) technical

difficulties in the camera chain.

There are several methods used to check the color

balance and registration of the cameras. They are—-the Pa

use of an electronic color bar, gray scale alignment, and ‘

"color girl" test pattern. The electronic color bar is

incorporated in some color equipment. When the color bar

“C“4-3

135‘.-

_

is electronically generated the bar shows on the monitors

'E'3

and the engineers register this alignment on the oscillo—

scope so that when the cameras are turned on the color tubes

are adjusted to match the predetermined oscilloscope setting.

However, some stations do not have this electronic

system and must rely on ”home made" color charts or on the

regular gray scale which they used for monochrome production.

The use of the gray scale does not always insure color

fidelity but it does insure a correct contrast range, which

is a factor in producing color fidelity.

Since it is far too costly to hire a "color girl,"

like NBC in New York, just to check flesh tones, which are

actually the determining factor in color fidelity, some

stations use either a rear projection "color girl" test

pattern or, as the University of Michigan Color Television

Medical Center does, use a hand in front of a green

53

background- Green is complementary to any colors resembling

flesh tones (tan, cream, pink-orange) and does not cast a

tinge of its own color as a color such as red might do.

Color distortion is most likely to occur if the

illumination in the scene differs from that for which the

cameras were originally set. When the cameras have been

checked out on the charts and color bar, etc., it is a good

idea to check the cameras in the light which is being used

for the show.

There is absolutely no substitute for checking

everything on camera; even if samples have to be

brought in in advance to determine how fabrics or

construction materials will render on camera under

specific conditions. Two rules probably are use-

ful: keep it simple and "leave yourself an out"

.in other words, use what has proved successful

and then make simple changes in accent material or

set pieces that can be quickly altered if something

goes wrong; plan sets, positioning of players, con-

struction so that a change in lighting or a quick

repaint job will correct the inevitable horror that

will show up in camera rehearsal.t

Then, after all of the adjusting is done, one might

take note of certain pecularities of the system. The color

television system seems to increase saturation, causing'

colors that are already highly saturated to "pop out" of

the picture. Thus, many costumes from theatrical wardrobe

houses may prove too saturated for color television. The

enhanced vividness is particularly evident with reds and

blues.

lSprague Vonier, WTMJ—TV, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

54

This intensification of red by the system requires

caution in the use of saturated red accents. A red carna-

tion worn as a boutonniere by a performer in the background

of the frame may be more evident than anything else in the

composition. Nails coated with bright red polish may look

like wounds, and lips covered with bright red lipstick may

completely destroy the unity of the face. With some faces,

the system seems to bring out blotches of red pigmentation

on the nose and cheeks and to call undue attention to the

redness of backlighted ears. This has implications for

television make-up, as will be explained in the following

section.

As for blue, sometimes a neutral gray cyclorama tinted

faintly with pale blue light is likely to appear much bluer

on camera, and sometimes it is liable to look bluish gray

even when it is under clear lighting. This effect can be

counteracted by choosing a warmish (brownish) gray dye for

the cyclorama instead of a purely neutral gray. Sometimes,

a blue tint may appear in white objects and in highlights

such as those on a shiny human face. This color contrast

between highlight and general flesh tone looks artificial

and may exaggerate the modeling of undesirable features such

as ”bags” under the eyes. It should be corrected by powdering

the face to reduce shine.

55

There is not as much trouble controlling black and

white in the color system as in the monochrome system but

the "rules" of contrast range still apply, and it is not

a good idea to use large areas of these two "colors."

Make—Up

The needibr~make-up in the theatre and now for

television arose because of the use of intense illumination

which gives a sallow, pale, and flat appearance to the

naturally unpainted face. Make—up is used to mold features,

smooth the complexion, give the person an even, healthy

skin tone, to correct for age, for lighting, and to create

character. Make—up must be kept subdued so that it will

appear natural.

Since ordinary theatrical make-up is too warm and

reddish for studio use in color television, Max Factor

worked with NBC to develop a special series of tones which

are grayish and deficient in red. This comes in both

pancake and panstick.

Actually, there are two ranges:

CTVl through CTVl2 are for normal use. (CTV stands

for ”Color Television.") One is the lightest tone, twelve

the darkest.

CTVlWltfiumnufiuCTVl5W are warmer tones, developed for

musical revues and high fashion. (Negroes may use llW

through l5W, the darker tones of this range.)

56

There is also a CTV rouge, a CTV gray for eye shadow,

and a choice of tones for CTV lipstick.

For straight female make-up, CTV4 is normally applied

as a base. The panstick form is preferable for faces be-

cause it can be put on more thinly than pancake, allowing

the performer's natural skin tones to show through, whereas

a heavy application would hide her individuality behind a

mask. Pancake, however, goes on more quickly for body make-

up, which may be needed to keep necks, shoulders, arms, and

hands from looking too "raw" or too light. For cheek rouge

and lipstick one can use the CTV colors, which are muted red.

Most women need glamorizing, with particular regard to cheek

color and definition of the eyes.

The system seems to reduce the definition of some

faces, particularly when distant from camera and particularly

in the region of the eyes. To counteract this, one can use

eye shadow (neutral gray is safe), line the eyes, both top

and bottom, with black liner, and apply mascara to the

eyelashes. Eyebrow pencil should be toned to match the

subject's hair.

Finally, to kill the shine; one applies powder--either

white talc or a neutral flesh tone, containing very little

pink.

For men, lipstick is not used. Rouge is rarely needed

unless an area of shaven beard has had to be covered so

heavily with base that rouge needed to be worked in to keep

the face from looking dead.

57

Most children photograph better without make-up. But

if it is necessary to use some, it should be very light with

no lipstick or eye shadow.

The need to reduce the contrast between a performer

and his background sometimes means altering the make-up

rather than the background. For example, a very pale tone

may be needed on hands that must be seen against light sinks

or refrigerators. In this case, shots should be restricted

to closeups of the hands and whatever they are handling; or

if long shots are necessary, the performer must be placed

so that the hands are not seen prominently, else they will

look too pale in comparison with the face.

Natural shadows are not just a few shades darker than

the foundation base. Flesh very often shows a green, a

neutralized blue, blue-violet, or a purple shadow. Thus to

correct a shadow it is necessary to overcome these color

tinges as well as to lighten the area.1

Outdoor make-up for color television is different from

studio make-up because sunlight is cooler (in color sense)

than incandescent lighting. Instead of exaggerating red

pigment in the skin, sunlight is apt to turn flesh tones

somewhat gray, particularly when the sky is overcast. Hence

one may need to use pansticks such as the Factor N series,

lVincent J—R Kehoe, "The Basic Rules of Movie Make-up,"

Popular Photography, XLVIII (January, 1961), p. 97.

58

which is bright and warm, with lipstick that is light and

rather vivid. No eyeshadow is used when there is bright

overhead sunlight; instead, reflectors may be used to

lighten the eye sockets.

Just as in monochrome television, local stations are

more apt to minimize the need for make-up than network

studios, according to NBC network personnel. The local

stations will point out that by no means every performer

needs make-up and that sufficiently desaturated cosmetics

can be found without resorting to the special color tele-

vision make-up series. This may be in part because few

local stations maintain make-up specialists who must build

up the importance of their craft. The local station's

profit motive dictates that color production require as

little outlay as possible for additions to the staff

beyond those needed in monochrome productions or for

increased fees to performers to cover the time devoted to

make-up. But the difference in color television between

persons wearing make-up and those not wearing it is quite

apparent.

When Composing Shots for Color

Television Consider

That theatrical properties of light may be adopted to

enhance productions ——As has been discussed earlier, the

primary function of light is to give sufficient illumination

so that the subject may be clearly televised. There are two

59

areas of lighting to be considered-—technical and non-

technical. 'The technical objectives of television

lighting are to illuminate the scene before the camera,

to make it possible to obtain a satisfactory picture

signal, and to provide a good picture quality which

includes good resolution and a realistic balance of tones.

The non-technical area should include creating feeling

of volume and space, mood, and atmOSphere, to achieve a

pleasing composition by distribution of light and shadow,

to support the illusion of reality which is attempted in

the setting; to add sparkle to the picture by use of high-

light, backlight, etc., to add beauty and glamour to the

face by smooth soft lighting, and to bring out the good and

play down the bad.

Each program should be lit according to the action

that is to take place, the location of the performers at

each point during the program, and the kinds of angles

and shots to be taken.

Light for a scene may be mixed in two ways: either

by direct mixture of projected light or by indirect mixture

of reflected light. One must consider that without shade

there would be no sense of form. Form is revealed by

light and shade more than by color; and modeling is affected

primarily by the positions of the light sources. Therefore,

one must decide which way or combination is best for the

mood and effect desired; always rememberingiflmfi:the point of

60

reference for color fidelity is the human flesh tone--

everything must be geared to make the human personality on

the screen dominent, acceptable, and believable.

Set considerations for the program.-—It is well to

remember that large and extremely dark areas, very bright

colors, and very excessive contrasts should be avoided.

Finely divided and intricate patterns should not be

used; the small areas of color seem to mingle and lose

their individual character because the camera can't dis-

tinguish fine detail.

The same props and sets used in monochrome may be

used for color with one consideration--if the prOps are

chipped or shabby looking they will look worse in color

than they did on monochrome. Props and sets have to look

a little nicer for color.

The part of costumes.--Costumes are an integral part

of any program, but they should not dominate players or

draw too much attention to themselves. Clothes have become

symbolic. Their main function is as a covering for the

body but they may also indicate and communicate special

messages.l Dress can give the impression of age, social

position, status or rank, and season. Thus costumes aid

in making character relationships clear.

lLawrence Langer, The Importance of WearingAC1othes

(New York: Hastings House, 1959), p. 156.

61

Color in dress is a prime means of providing a frame

and setting for the personality of the wearer. Colors must

be selected for complexion, features, character of

expression, and personality.

Camera studies sould be made of characters and cos—

tumes against the background to check for conflicting

colors and lighting.

Slides and Film

Slides.--Do not use more than three or four hues on a

slide. Most effects desired can be handled with only four,

and this helps avoid getting the slide too busy.1

For legibility of slides, telops, balops, studio

cards, etc , light figures on a dark background are con-

sidered by the University of Michigan Medical School

slightly more desirable than dark against light.

ilm -—Here are some suggestions made by the color TV

workshop conducted by the color corps of NBC December 10,

1953 for bettering the quality of color films (the specific

reasons for the following statements have been explained in

the preceeding text).

‘

lEverett Stahl, "Preparing Slides for Color TV,"

B oadcasting, XLIX (May 9, 1955), p. 42.

62

1. Use complementary colors in achieving harmony.

2. Use a positive color separation between fore-

ground objects and their background.

3. Use flat lighting with plenty of fill light in

shadow areas.

4. Avoid large dark areas in the scene.

Use plenty of close-ups.

Avoid sustained long shots.

\JO\U1

. Avoid changes in overall brightness from scene

to scene.

When dramatic and highly emotional effects are

wanted from color sequences. . .deep blue colors

should be ”cut" abruptly into bright red colors

for maximum excitation. However, bright red

colors should be "faded" or "dissolved" into soft,l

cool hues when more melancholoy moods are desired.

Commercial Considerations

An accurate color reproduction of a product can be

achieved by controlling the environment surrounding the

product.

When working with foods, Faber Birren in 99193

Psychology and Color Therapy suggested noting that certain

colors stimulate the appetite.2 These "true appetite

colors" are, for the most part, peach, red, orange, brown,

buff, warm yellow, and a clear green. Pink and tints of

blue and violet are "sweet" and not usually found in the

main part of a meal.

lFaber Birren, Color Psyphology and Color Therapy

(New Hyde Park, New York: University Books Inc., 1961), p. 263

21bid., p. 263,

63

excellent background for foods because itH (I)

{D

:3

Blue

warmer tones. (Note hue constancy factor5‘

(D

(I)

(D

brings out t

page 25.)

Back light (light falling on a subject from behind

and above) is effective for enlivening bottled liquids in

commercial displays.

It is probably a good idea to impress upon the

advertiser a wise use of color, not just color for color's

sake. In an article entitled "Color" in Broadcastipg this

statement was made: "An emotional fatigue factor enters

if color commercial in a aturation campaign is done inU)

warm, excitable colors which do not wear as well as violet,

1blue, and green ”

News Department Considerations

Somesmationswill want to go as completely into color

as they can and this will, of course, include the news

department. Certain considerations must be thought about

first before rushing pell—mell into filming.

Color film costs about three times as much as black

and white. There are greater problems with color because

of the consideration of the color temperature of the film.

The same film cannot be used indoors as out--at least with—

out filtering, which, of course, cuts down light. Also,

lDon Estey, "Color," Broadcasting, IL (October 10,

1955). pa 41:

64

more light is needed for color film and this limits night

pictures unless the photographer carries more portable

lights. But, actually, the greatest criteria for a

choice between color and black and white are the subject

matter and the time for which the film is needed. As to

subject matter-—if a fire is burned out and merely

smoking, why waste color: black and white will do the

job. But if a fire is blazing and flaming then color

has a definite advantage. As to the time the film is

needed--it takes longer to develop color film because most

stations do not have equipment for color development. If

the news story is filmed at two for the 6 o‘clock news

show it will have to be done in black and white.

Miscellaneous Production Notes

Color requires more personnel in some departments like

engineering, art, and film.

There is also a need for more consideration of lighting

in color than in monochrome because many color problems may

be corrected with proper lighting.

For regular programs more rehearsal time will be

necessary at first; but after the initial "getting acquainted”

period there is little difference from black and white.

However, new programs will take longer to set up in color

than they would have in black and white due to the many

variablesattached to color television production, as dis-

cussed in the previous chapters. Engineering, however,

65

definitely needs more time to check out cameras and equip-

ment. Warm-up time and readjustment time for color

cameras takes much longer too.

Basically a station does not need to radically change

its set up when adding color production. The biggest

problems the station will face are probably (1) getting the

departments to plan each program sufficiently so that all

departments understand the show, the format, and whether

or not it is in color; and (2) to work together, letting

the right hand know what the left hand is doing, so to

Speak. Some of the stations the author interviewed indi—

cated that there was a problem of cooperation between the

engineering department and the production department. There-

fore, it seems wise for a new station to set up certain

procedures and standards so that time will not be wasted in

arguing and "finger pointing."

There should be one person to make the decisions on

color fidelity so that it won't be a case of too many

different ideas on what is the correct color.

It is a mistake to assume that color, just because

it is color, is superior to black and white in all respects.

Questions which one of the management personnel should ask

everytime a show is considered are "What effect is desired?"

and "How important is color to the characterization of the

subject?" Another consideration is the cost--since color

66

production is so much more expensive than black and white

because of increased personnel, equipment, and time

expended. Can the station afford it? Things can be

simplified by using monochrome production where color is

not necessary.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

6?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Albright, H. D., Halstead, William P., and Mitchell, Lee.

Principles of Theatre Art. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Company, 1955-

Becker, Samuel L., and Harshbarger, H. Clay. Television:

Techniques for Planning and Performance. New York:

Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1958.

Birren, Faber. Color a Survey in Words and Pictures.

New York: University Books, Inc., 1963.

Color, Form and Space. New York: Reinhold

Publishing Corporation, 1961.

Color Psychology and Color Therapy. New Hyde

Park, New York: University Books, Inc., 1961.

Functional Color. New York: The Crimson Press,

1957.

New Horizons In Color. New York: Reinhold

Publishing Corporation, 1955.

. The Story of Color. Westport, Connecticut: The

Crimson Press, 1941.

Bond, Fred. Color. . .How to See and Use It. San Francisco:

Camera Craft Publishing Company, 1954.

Boyce, William F. Fundamentals of Color Television.

Indianapolis, Indiana: Howard W. Sams & Company, Inc.,

1954. -

Bretz, Rudy. Techniques of Television Production. New York:

McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953.

Carnt, P. S., and Townsend, G. B.” Color Television. London:

Iliffe Books Ltd., 1961.

Chambers, Bernice Gertrude. Color and Design. New York:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.

68

69

Corry, P. Lighting the Stag_. London: Sir Isaac Pitman

and Sons, Ltd., 1961.

D'Amico, Victor E. "Color," "Light and Color," and "The

Costume," Theatre Art. Peoria, Illinois: The

Maguel Arts Press, 1931.,pp. 62-68, 87-104, and 166-

17 .

Dupuy, Judy. Television Show Business. General Electric,

1945.

Evans, Ralph M. An Introduction to Color. New York:

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948.

Eye, Film, and Camera in Color Photography.

New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959.

. Hanson, W. T., Jr., and Brewer, W. Lylie.

Principles of Color Photography. New York: John Wiley

and Sons., Inc., 1953. '

Feininger, Andreas. Advanced Photography. . .Methods and

Conclusions. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, Inc., 1952.

. Successful Color Phgtography. New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957.

The Creative Photographer. Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: 'Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955.

Fink, Donald G. (Ed.). Color Television Standards. New York:

McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.

Hiler, Hilaire. Color Harmoney and Pigments. California:

Research Publishing Company, 1942.

Hilmer-Petersen, K. Color Before the Camera. London:

The Fountain Press, 1952.

Hunt, R. W. G. The Reproduction of Color. London: Fountain

Press, 1957.

Itten, Johannes. The Art of Color. Translated by Ernest

Vag Haagen. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation,

19 l.

Jacobs, Michel. The Art of color. New York: Doubleday Page

and Company, 1926.

Jacobson, Egbert. Basic Color. Chicago: Paul Theobald, 1948.

70

Kate, Dav; lflmaldorld of Color. IkflMhMi: Kegan Paul,

Trerh, Trubner and Company Ltd., 1935.

Larger, Iawrence. The Importance of Wearinnglothes.

lew Yor : Hastings House, 1959.

Luckiesh, Matthew. C r and Its Applications. New Jersey:

D. Van Nostrand

o

ompany, Inc., 1927.

A.

IV

1

.L

m

L

. The language of Color. New York: Dodd, Mead

and Company, $925.

\;

A

. The lighting Art. New York: McGraw—Hill Book

Company, Inc , 1917.

ttle, Angela D. Color of Foods.

Ma’Ki nney, Gordon, nd Ii

Westoort, Connect iotm: The Avi Publishilig compn“,

In;., 195?,

._ .. .., .,. f;.- .. . --.,,.l .., ._- ‘ "._.-. ‘.. -.

Miami, Nip-1.13.. 1. .. 'V --S _. .._..'.- ," timid 1,}710- -. Jig—JV , 157.26". F LU ca4:111? 52;}--.1‘;

finjjn [M_L:;tmer.fl. Bs:.Jn Lchght;n1 Mif:;;;;<3cmpany,

Manse; , A. H. A Color Notation. New York: Munse l Co-or

"TeleV‘Cirn

_ R -\ , ,

Rub-u e a L) JGJ. E7 9 a", d Watb Ir). ’ L(— 4 E . l d) _-.

" . ‘,- 4 r~ fl- ‘ l.. y" " 1‘ " \“I‘\ ‘r A ‘b L: ‘ '

Th~a.rl oi Lighting Pra.-i-~. new lork: lh:atr- A:,s

‘ ("L - ‘7: ' FIT:-BOJKS, .399, pp. J“-\.',

h .- *‘ . - " e ' c 7 "‘oa‘g~o‘, waluer Ih~ Enjoyment ari use 2’ sci . w . lcr',A ‘ ’- ‘ ’ ,. .-

than -: Sorlan” - S. _, L9c<

, u. - 1- — , .. - H o, ‘

wl~.cerg, Louis .. 3 .' : -"dHy l_ ” Raw rk' . ll,, ,____, __ _____ T i '- _

._.,‘1 1 fl.. ..

Meat, and Compl*5, Jaro

viiison, 3?;oer‘ 3‘ C ' t’.a a li Mir at i¥-rk. Itsw lVdc7:

r I, j 1‘ _ _ ‘ ,‘ T. ‘. 4‘! '\

arcflte.‘ “-1 ‘1.-K rubll;0'rg o’m'pcfl'” 1-1 , fly;

D yaw dd: {4; . F

-‘\ 3 H T. I \4 - -.r o” A.» - H ‘ - ( ‘9 r! A .‘v.

[QALKJEI‘S’ LTGSEI .LrJThJ’d-t..-l Lou. ‘~.-'./..-A'.fl, ”1‘ A ftJ. k . 1I'I/L. ’1‘,

_,,,. A, C fi :, -l-wm_wn

.Lyrjj) ’ <':- 51‘ ’ ’ (J— )9 C

- - r“ w n .2 i H r .~ 1 , 1‘. ..|. 1,. .. . _ J" ”' “ 1!

Be.',, 5 aicls. Ar Astonishing new Theory o. L or,

'— ‘ '- ‘ L. ' ‘ ‘ O \ ‘- 5 8 7 I”\ t‘? c ”L ’; ',- ". ”w 1."-r_1ture, ,9 (May, 1959), ia4—l4 , -99—ltt, LUb, .c.,

\J

T .in i-» N... I; x _-. : ' ;_“ s‘h .3» a.

Bria -ast News, oi (Decemoer, i954) (whole issuc

71

Brown, Sandford. "Color Catches Fire," Saturday Evening

Post, 236 (August 10, 1962), 74-75.

"Color and Its Measurement," Ciba Review, 2 (1961).

Color Committee of the Illuminating Engineering Society.

"Color and theste of Color by the Illuminating

Engineer," Illuminating Engineering, 57 (December,

1962), 764-776.

"Color," Life, 17 (July 3, 1944), 39-50.

"Color the Brain Sees," Newsweek, 53 (May 18, 1959), p. 65.

Corkey, D. A. and Simon, B. J. "Land's Theory of Colour

Perception and Its Implications," Engineers Digest,

21 (October 10, 1960), pp. 96 and 121.

Day, Michael. "Color Television Is Here," Popular Mechanics

101 (January, 1954), pt 129.

Estey,uDon. "Color," Broadcasting, 49 (October 10, 1955),

1-42.

Evans, Ralph M. "Maxwell's Color Photography," Scientific

American, 205 (November, 1961), pp. 118—122, 125-126,

128.

”Four Channel Live Color TV Camera," Broadcast News, 120

(April, 1964), 32—35.

Fox, Joseph. "Getting Set for Color Television," Broad-

casting, 46 (April 19, 1954), 69-70.

Helson, Harry. "Color and Seeing," Illuminating

Engineering, 50 (June, 1955), 271-278i

"Color and Vision," Illuminating Engineerigg, 49

(Rebruary, 1954), 92-93.

Herman, E. P. "What is Color?" Design, 60 (March, 1959),

143, 166, 170.

Kehoe, Vincent J. R. "The Basic Rules for Movie Make-Up,"

Popular Photography, 48 (January, 1961), 96-97, 102.

Ketcham, Howard. "What Color Can Do For You," Readers

Digest, 77 (November, 1960), 177—178.

Lamourne, Norah. "Costumes for the Stage," Drama, 58

(Autumn, 1960), 30—32.

72

Land, Edwin H. ”Experiments In Color Vision," Scientific

American, 200 (May, 1959), pp. 84-94, 99.

Langer, Lawrence. "Clothes and the Performing Arts,"

Theatre Arts, 43 (December, 1954), 75—78, 82.

Lewis, John Colby. ”Living and Learning with Color TV,"

Broadcasting, 47 (August 23, 1954), 70-72, 74.

Logan, H. L. ”Color in Seeing," Illuminating Engineering,

56 (AUEUSC, 1963), 553-559-

Rosenberg, Barnett, Heck, Robert J., and Aziz, Kaiser.

"Color Responses in an Organic Photoconductive

Cell, ” Journal of the Optical Society of America,

54 (August, 1964), 1018- 1026.

Saunders, E1113 . "The Intricacies of Color TV,"

Broadcasting, 48 (January 31, 1955), 50.

Stahl, Everett. "Preparing Slides for Color TV," @3229“

casting, 48 (May 9, 1955), 42.

Taylor, Charles. "Postscript on the Plumbicon, " Inter—

national TV Technical Review, 4 (September,1963 ),

pp. 334—338.

Watson, Lee. "Color Concepts in Lighting Design," iQLLQT

tional Theatre Journal, 10 (October, 1958), 254~29

Miscellaneous Papers and Pamphlets

Amperex Electronic Corporation, Bulletin, 55875, October, 1964.

Color Corps of the National Broadcasting Company. '-olcr

TeleViSion Workshop" (Typed transcript of meeting).

December 10, 1953.

Color Digest. Brooklyn, New York: Higgins Ink Company,

Color Television. Philadelphia: Philco Corporation,

1956

"Colour," Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 6. Chicago:

William Benton, 1963.

Department of Information Radio Corporation of American.

RCA Color Television. New York: Department of

Information Radio Corporation of America, 1953.

73

Eastman-Kodak. Color as Seen and Photographed.

Rochester: Eastman-Kodak, 1962.

Hazeltine Laboratories Staff. Principles of Color $219“,

visigg; New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.

University of Michigan. Medical Bulletin. 27 (November—

December, 1961), No. 6.

"Vision," Encyplopaedia Britannica. Vol. 23. Chicago:

William Benton, 1963.

APPENDIX

74

APPENDIX

The Eye

"Color is a special sensation excited by the action

on the retina of rays of light of a definite wave length."1

But the eye tends to measure light and color as sensation

and not as radiant energy.2

The eyeball is covered by a transparent outer

covering called the cornea. Behind the cornea is the iris

which regulates the amount of light which may enter the

eye. The iris is a ringlike structure which expands and

contracts under the action of light and forms the pupil.

Directly behind the pupil is the lens which bulges or

flattens out to aCcommodate for close or distant objects.

In back of all this is the retina. The retina is a network

of sensitive nerve endings where the light is focused.

It is from the retina that impulses are transmitted to the

brain.

1Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Vision;" Chicago:

William Benton, 1963), V1, p. 208.

2Color Digest (Brooklyn, New York: Higgins Ink

Company, Inc., 1953), p. 20.

75

76

These light sensitive elements of the retina are

connected to the brain through a complicated net-

work of nerves. This network is so arranged that

it forms three light sensitive systems, one

responding to red light, one to green light, and

one to blue light.

The upper half of the retina is more sensitive than the

lower half especially in observing changes in illumination.

There is a central region of the retina called the

fovea. This region is dominant in cones and is sensitive

to colors as well as to achromatic light. Only in the

foveal region does the eye see in fine detail. Foveal

vision is essentially day vision. Surrounding and covering

the fovea there is a yellowish pigment which is rather

thick. This pigment, called mecular pigmentation, decreases

the amount of blue light reaching the cones. The mecular

pigmentation varies from one individual to another so

greatly that it causes considerable color perception differ-

ences. Luster is seen only in the foveal region. Of the

receptors in the eye some are sensitive to each of the

three primary colors. The receptor sensitivity is for

deep blue to blue-green and green, green going toward blue

and going toward red, and red. This eye color mixture is

additive.

The cones of the eye are concentrated in the central

region and react to the brightness of light, color, and motion.

lColor as Seen and Photographed (Eastman-Kodak, 1962),

77

Cones are both achromatic and chromatic. The population of

cones decreases as the distance from the center of the eye

increases.

The rods of the eye are scattered throughout the

retina. They react chiefly to brightness and motion in a

subdued light. The rods are dark-sensitive and respond

only to achromatic sensations. They respond usually to

rays of the shorter wavelengths. Only the rods function

in night vision.

The outer region of the retina is called the periphery

and contains only rods. The periphery is sensitive only to

achromatic light.

We use our eye to give the brain pieces of information

which build up into an image. We actually "see" in our

brain because the information is sent there, interpreted

there, and given meaning there. The eye-brain combine

causes us to see color and objects as we think they should

look, not as they actually are. Visual adaptation is the

adjustment of the visual mechanism to the intensity or

quality of the light stimulus. The eye adapts itself to the

color of the illumination as well as to its intensity.

Therefore, "when the eye is exposed to a given illumination

level for a sufficient length of time it comes to accept

this level as normal,. . .and all other intensities are seen

relative to the given level."1 This phenomenon of the eye

1Ralph M. Evans, An Introduction to Color (New York:

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948), p. 105.

78

is called pronouncedness or brightness constancy and is a

dimension of color over andeuxmnehue, value, and chroma.

This means that our eye—brain combine tends to see objects

in terms of their actual reflecting power rather than in

the amount of light which they are really reflecting. For

example, people tend to see white paper as white in both

bright and dim light. Within the boundaries of light from

5 to 1,000 footcandles color constancy is "on the Job"

and the eye sees objects and colors as uniform and normal.

If the eye is exposed to a stimulus for a short

period of time there is a rather rapid recovery but if the

exposure is extended for quite a while, the recovery takes

longer. Thus, the rate of recovery of the lost sensitivity

of the eye after the termination of the stimulus depends

upon the exposure time and upon the level of sensitivity

reached.

The eye will be able to focus normally on white,

yellow, and purple; but with other colors the eye is

either near or far sighted. The cool colors such as blue

and green make the eye near sighted (myopic) because they

focus in front of the retina. The warm colors such as red

and orange make the eye far sighted (hyperopic) because

they focus behind the retina.

The eye has its greatest sensitivityftm*yellow; but

the eye is also particularly sensitive to the yellow-green

middle of the spectrum. This sensitivity decreases however,

79

as the colors go out towards either end of the spectrum.

In the eye the field of perception of red and green is

less extensive than the field of perception of blue and

yellow.

All eyes do not see color in the same proportion.

Sometimes this is due to color blindness. There are

three types of color blindness. The two most common forms

are the confusion of red or blue with green. The third,

and rarest kind, is the inability to distinguish yellow

from blue.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIE

III III IIIIIII IIII II I