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Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic

DEFENCE DÉFENSE&

Alternative Power and Energy Options for

Reduced-Diesel Operations at CFS ALERT

Gisele Amow

Technical Memorandum

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080

May 2010

Copy No. _____

Defence Research andDevelopment Canada

Recherche et développementpour la défense Canada

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Alternative Power and Energy Options for Reduced-Diesel Operations at CFS ALERT

G. Amow

Defence Research and Development Canada Air Vehicles Research Section

Air Sustain Thrust 13pz

Defence R&D Canada – AtlanticTechnical MemorandumDRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080May 2010

Principal Author

Gisele Amow

Defence Scientist/Air Vehicle Research Section

Approved by

Ken McRae

Section Head/Air Vehicle Research Section

Approved for release by

Calvin Hyatt

Chair Document Review Panel/DRDC Atlantic

© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of National Defence, 2010

© Sa Majesté la Reine (en droit du Canada), telle que représentée par le ministre de la Défense nationale, 2010

Original signed by Gisele Amow

Original signed by Ken McRae

Original signed by Ron Kuwahara for

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 i

Abstract ……..

This report was tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for CFS ALERT to reduce diesel-use for its electricity and heat demands. This report focuses specifically on renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclear power and consider their use within the context of the climate, geology and geography of CFS ALERT. Geothermal (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps), wave and tidal (barrage) systems were found to be unviable options. Modular nuclear reactors appear attractive for use; however, their targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently under development exceed the requirements of CFS ALERT by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Solar, wind and tidal-current systems may have a role to play in future reduced-diesel operations at CFS ALERT; however, further investigation and careful planning is required prior to implementation. Recommendations for future work in these areas are provided.

Résumé ….....

Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner des options en matière d’énergies de substitution pour la SFC Alert afin de réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour répondre aux besoins de la station en électricité et en énergie de chauffage. Ce rapport porte principalement sur les technologies des énergies renouvelables (énergie solaire, énergie éolienne, énergie géothermique, énergie marémotrice, énergie des vagues) et sur l’énergie nucléaire, ainsi que sur leur utilisation potentielle dans les conditions climatiques, géologiques et géographiques de la SFC Alert. Les systèmes fonctionnant à l’énergie géothermique (forage en profondeur et pompes géothermiques), à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (barrages) se sont révélés non viables. L’utilisation de réacteurs nucléaires modulaires semble être une option intéressante, mais la puissance thermique et électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en cours dépasse les exigences de la SFC Alert par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Les systèmes qui fonctionnent à l’énergie solaire, éolienne ou marémotrice pourraient quant à eux être utilisés pour réduire la quantité de diesel consommé dans le cadre des activités de la SFC Alert. Des études supplémentaires et une planification minutieuse sont cependant nécessaires avant la mise en œuvre de tels systèmes. Nous présentons des recommandations au sujet des travaux à entreprendre dans ces domaines.

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DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 iii

Executive summary


G. Amow; DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080; Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic; May 2010.

Introduction or background: This report has been tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for reduced-diesel operations at CFS ALERT, specifically renewable energy technologies and nuclear energy. This is driven primarily by a desire to decrease operational costs as well as to decrease the environmental impact of diesel-use in alignment with DND’s policy on the environment[1, 2].

Located on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island, CFS ALERT experiences extremely cold temperatures throughout the majority of the year. To sustain activities this far north requires a significant energy budget that is largely driven by thermal demands. To meet these demands, fuel and supplies are delivered bi-annually from the US Air Force Base in Thule, Greenland via Operation BOXTOP.

With Arctic sovereignty issues being a focus of the 2008 Canada First Defence Strategy, the Air Force is expected to play an increased role in supporting and maintaining operations in the North. On April 1st, 2009, the command responsibility of CFS ALERT was assigned to the Canadian Air Force. With this transfer of responsibility the Air Force has inherited a site that is notorious for consuming massive amounts of JP-8 fuel to sustain its operations. In 2009, approximately 1.78 million litres of JP-8 diesel were used for electricity and heat generation alone. At a cost of approximately $11.4M ($6.38/L which includes fuel and transportation cost[3]), this represents a significant portion of the operational budget at this station, which is now assumed by the Air Force. In a recent document, “Projecting Power: Trends Shaping the Canadian Air Force in the Year 2019”[1], energy security, in the context of peak oil and the geopolitical influence of petroleum costs, was identified as a threat to future Air Force operations that must be addressed.

The present study is devoted to exploring the various alternative power and energy options such as renewable energy and nuclear power within the context of climate, geological and geographical conditions at CFS ALERT. It considers technologies that are being used today such as solar, wind and geothermal, as well as other technologies in the developmental stage such as wave and tidal energy and modular nuclear reactors. The topics of biomass and methane gas hydrates were not considered for this study as these resources are constrained by the limitations that plague diesel-use today.

Results: From this study, it is clear that the relatively mature technologies of solar and wind can play a role at CFS ALERT and although in the developmental stages, tidal current technologies should not be ruled out. It must be recognized that with the intermittent nature of solar, wind and tidal current resources, renewable energy technologies may never completely supplant diesel-use and it may be necessary to have hybrid-generator designs, which include energy storage systems such as batteries, flywheels, hydrogen generation and storage systems among others that are available.

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Geothermal technologies such as deep drilling and ground source heat pumps are not considered viable as CFS ALERT is not located along geological features amenable to thermal wells (such as tectonic plate boundaries) and has a permafrost layer that extends to 600m in depth. Wave and tide technologies (such as barrage systems) are not feasible options due to the low tide heights recorded (< 1m). Finally, while modular nuclear reactors offer an attractive solution for supplying both electricity and process heat, targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently in development exceeds today’s requirements at CFS ALERT by one to two orders of magnitude. If and when matured for deployment, its use is anticipated to be further complicated by the requirement of a specially designed containment building for the reactor core, satisfying federal regulatory requirements for health, safety, security and environmental protection, Government of Canada’s uncertain policy on the use of nuclear sources in Arctic regions as well as being in conflict with environmental groups and existing Arctic Treaties and Agreements.

Significance: Renewable energy offers opportunities for the sustainable exploitation of natural resources for electricity generation, which reduces the use of finite resources such as diesel. CFS ALERT consumes massive quantities of JP-8 fuel each year (over 1.5 million litres) to meet its electricity and thermal demands. As challenging as it may be, integration of renewable energy technologies will help mitigate diesel use and costs, which poses a future threat to energy security. Furthermore, the inherent positive environmental benefits associated with renewable energy technologies align well with the environmental stewardship policies of the Department of National Defence.

Future plans: With solar, wind and tidal current technologies in mind, the following recommendations are made. It is proposed that these recommendations be formulated as an Applied Research Project (ARP) under the Air Sustain Thrust.

1). Systems analysis study: As indicated previously, renewable energy is likely never to supplant diesel-use completely at CFS ALERT. Consequently, it will be necessary to determine the optimum level of technology mix that can effectively sustain operations while reducing diesel consumption. This study will include optimum system design, cost/benefit analysis in terms of $/kWh as well as the amount of CO2 reduced, amount of fuel saved and corresponding reduction of fuel delivery payloads. For this study, knowledge of how electricity and heat are being used at CFS ALERT is essential, which is described in the following activity.

2). Electricity and Energy/Inventory Audit: Prior to the use of renewable energy technologies, and arguably, any alternative electricity and heat generation interim schemes (such as the ‘right-sizing’ of generators), it is imperative to understand how electricity and heat are being used at the various buildings including those not connected to the main power plant. This will require electricity monitoring at each building on the site at fixed continuous time periods throughout the year. The collection of such information will give invaluable insight into daily and seasonal load variances, which can lead to more efficient power and thermal management schemes.

3). Resource Assessments: the implementation of any renewable energy technology at CFS ALERT will require careful analysis and planning. Detailed resource assessments particularly for wind and tidal currents must be carried out. In the case of wind, prospective turbine installation sites must be identified along with data collection for temperature, humidity and wind speeds at various heights at these sites. In the case of tidal currents, measurements at Dumbell Bay, the Narrows and Alert inlet should be collected to determine the mean potential power that can be generated.

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 v

4). On-site Technology Evaluation: The small sizes of solar photo-voltaic (PV) panels and collectors lend themselves to a number of technology evaluations that can be done at CFS ALERT. These include (a). solar collectors for domestic hot water heating and (b). Solyndra thin-film solar PV panels for electricity generation. With more effort, consideration should also be given to the evaluation of the Solarwall with PV at this site. For these evaluations, it will be necessary to identify a suitable building that can be used for such evaluations and, which will cause the least disruption to everyday operations.

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Sommaire .....


G. Amow; DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080; R & D pour la défense Canada – Atlantique; Mai 2010.

Introduction ou contexte : Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner les options en matière d’énergies de substitution afin réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour les activités de la SFC Alert, particulièrement les technologies d’énergie renouvelable et l’énergie nucléaire. Cette initiative découle d’une volonté de réduire les coûts opérationnels ainsi que les répercussions de l’utilisation du diesel sur l’environnement conformément à la politique du MDN sur l’environnement[1, 2].

Située à la pointe nord-est de l’île d’Ellesmere, la SFC Alert est confrontée à des températures extrêmement basses pendant la majeure partie de l’année. Maintenir les activités dans cette région nordique demande un important budget, dont la majeure partie est utilisée pour répondre aux besoins en énergie thermique. Le carburant et les marchandises nécessaires pour répondre à ces besoins sont livrés deux fois par année à partir de la base aérienne américaine de Thule, au Groenland, dans le cadre de l’opération BOXTOP.

Les questions liées à la souveraineté dans l’Arctique étant l’une des priorités de la stratégie de défense « Le Canada d’abord » de 2008, la Force aérienne devrait participer davantage au soutien et au maintien des activités dans le Nord. Le 1er avril 2009, la responsabilité du commandement de la SFC Alert a été confiée à la Force aérienne du Canada. Avec ce transfert de responsabilité, la Force aérienne a hérité d’un site reconnu pour consommer de très grandes quantités de carburant JP-8 pour le maintien ses activités. En 2009, environ 1,78 million de litres de carburant JP-8 ont été utilisés pour la production d’électricité et de chaleur seulement. Le coût s’élève à environ 11,4 millions de dollars pour cette station (6,38 $/l pour le carburant et les frais de transport[3]), ce qui représente une partie importante du budget de fonctionnement, dont la Force aérienne est maintenant responsable. Selon la récente étude Projecting Power: Trends Shaping the Canadian Air Force in the Year 2019 [1], dans un contexte de pic pétrolier et alors que les coûts du pétrole ont une influence importante sur le plan géopolitique, la sécurité énergétique menace les activités futures de la Force aérienne, qui se doit de réagir.

Cette étude est consacrée à l’examen de diverses sources d’énergie de substitution, notamment les énergies renouvelables et l’énergie nucléaire, adaptées aux conditions climatiques, géologiques et géographiques de la SFC Alert. Elle évalue les technologies qui sont utilisées actuellement, comme l’énergie solaire, l’énergie éolienne et l’énergie géothermique, ainsi que les technologies qui en sont encore au stade expérimental, comme l’énergie des vagues, l’énergie marémotrice et les réacteurs nucléaires modulaires. Cette étude n’a pas tenu compte de la biomasse et des hydrates de méthane, car ces ressources sont soumises aux contraintes et aux limitations associées à l’utilisation du diesel à l’heure actuelle.

Résultats : Selon cette étude, il est clair que les technologies relativement bien établies comme l’énergie solaire et l’énergie éolienne peuvent être utilisées à la SFC Alert. Il ne faudrait pas non

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 vii

plus écarter les technologies liées aux courants des marées, bien qu’elles en soient encore au stade expérimental. Il faut toutefois reconnaître que, étant donné la nature intermittente des ressources comme le soleil, le vent et les marées, il est possible que les technologies d’énergie renouvelable ne remplacent jamais complètement le diesel. Il pourrait donc être nécessaire de concevoir des génératrices hybrides qui comprendraient entre autres des systèmes de stockage d’énergie comme des batteries, des volants d’inertie et des systèmes de production et de stockage d’hydrogène.

Les technologies géothermiques comme le forage en profondeur et les pompes géothermiques ne sont pas considérées comme des options viables, car la SFC Alert est située dans un endroit qui ne possède pas les caractéristiques géologiques nécessaires à l’installation de puits géothermiques (p. ex. limites de plaques tectoniques) et où le pergélisol atteint 600 m d’épaisseur. Les technologies liées à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (comme les systèmes de barrages) ne sont également pas des options réalisables en raison de la faible hauteur des marées enregistrée (< 1 m). Enfin, même si les réacteurs nucléaires modulaires offrent une solution intéressante pour produire à la fois de l’électricité et de la chaleur, la puissance thermique et électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en cours dépasse les exigences actuelles de la SFC Alert par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Si, à l’issue de ces projets, de tels réacteurs étaient mis en place, leur utilisation entraînerait des complications. Il faudrait satisfaire aux exigences réglementaires fédérales en matière de santé, de sûreté, de sécurité et de protection de l’environnement et construire une enceinte de confinement pour le cœur des réacteurs. De plus, il faudrait composer avec la politique incertaine du gouvernement du Canada quant à l’utilisation de l’énergie nucléaire dans les régions arctiques et gérer les conflits avec les groupes environnementaux, sans compter que l’on violerait les accords et les traités existants sur l’Arctique.

Signification : Les énergies renouvelables offrent des possibilités d’exploiter de façon durable les ressources naturelles pour la production d’électricité, réduisant ainsi l’utilisation des ressources limitées comme le diesel. La SFC Alert consomme de très grandes quantités de carburant JP-8 (plus de 1,5 million de litres annuellement) afin de répondre à ses besoins en matière d’électricité et de chauffage. Bien que cela pose un défi de taille, l’intégration de technologies d’énergie renouvelable contribuera à réduire l’utilisation du diesel et les coûts associés, ce qui représente d’ailleurs une menace pour la sécurité énergétique. De plus, les avantages pour l’environnement associés aux technologies d’énergie renouvelable s’alignent bien sur les politiques de gérance de l’environnement du ministère de la Défense nationale.

Plans futurs : Les technologies solaire, éolienne et marémotrice ont été prises en considération pour la formulation des recommandations suivantes. Il est proposé que ces recommandations soient présentées en tant que projet de recherche appliquée (PRA) sous le vecteur « Maintien en puissance ».

1) Étude des analyses des systèmes : Comme nous l’avons mentionné précédemment, il est peu probable que les énergies renouvelables remplacent complètement l’utilisation du diesel à la SFC Alert. Par conséquent, il est nécessaire de déterminer la combinaison optimale de technologies qui permettra de maintenir efficacement les activités tout en réduisant la consommation de diesel. Cette étude comprendra la conception d’un système optimal, une analyse coûts-avantages en termes de $/kWh ainsi qu’une analyse de la réduction des émissions de CO2, de la quantité de diesel économisé et de la diminution correspondante des charges utiles pour la livraison du

viii DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080

carburant. Pour réaliser cette étude, il est essentiel de savoir comment l’électricité et le chauffage sont utilisés à la SFC Alert. Cette information est décrite dans l’activité suivante.

2) Vérification de la consommation d’électricité et d’énergie : Avant de recourir aux technologies d’énergie renouvelable ou à tout autre système provisoire de remplacement pour la production d’électricité et de chaleur (comme le « rajustement » des génératrices), il est impératif de comprendre comment l’électricité et la chaleur sont utilisées dans les bâtiments, y compris ceux qui ne sont pas reliés à la centrale électrique principale. Il faudra alors procéder à une surveillance périodique de la consommation d’électricité pour chaque bâtiment au cours de l’année. Une telle collecte d’information nous permettra d’obtenir de précieux renseignements quant aux variations quotidiennes et saisonnières de la consommation d’électricité afin de concevoir des systèmes de gestion de l’énergie et de la chaleur plus efficaces. 3) Évaluations des ressources : La mise en œuvre de technologies d’énergie renouvelable à la SFC Alert demandera une analyse et une planification minutieuse. Des évaluations détaillées des ressources doivent être effectuées, particulièrement pour le vent et les courants de marée. En ce qui concerne le vent, il faudra repérer des sites où l’on pourrait installer des turbines et recueillir des données sur la température, l’humidité et les vitesses du vent à différentes hauteurs. Dans le cas des courants de marée, il faudra recueillir des données dans la baie Dumbell, dans le chenal The Narrows et dans le ruisseau d’Alert afin de déterminer l’énergie potentielle moyenne qui pourrait être produite. 4) Évaluation de la technologie sur le terrain : Les panneaux et capteurs photovoltaïques solaires de petite taille se prêtent bien à la réalisation de nombreuses évaluations à la SFC Alert, notamment a) les capteurs solaires pour la production d’eau chaude domestique et b) les panneaux photovoltaïques solaires à couche mince de Solyndra pour la production d’électricité. L’évaluation du SolarWall associé à un module photovoltaïque pourrait aussi être envisagée, mais cela serait plus difficile. Il faudra choisir un bâtiment approprié, dans lequel on pourra effectuer ces évaluations en perturbant le moins possible les activités quotidiennes.

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 ix

Table of contents

Abstract …….. ................................................................................................................................. i Résumé …..... ................................................................................................................................... i Executive summary ........................................................................................................................ iii Sommaire ....................................................................................................................................... vi Table of contents ............................................................................................................................ ix List of figures ................................................................................................................................. xi Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... xii 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Previous work................................................................................................................ 1 1.3 Aim and Scope of Study................................................................................................ 2 1.4 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 2

2 Electricity and Heat Generation at CFS ALERT...................................................................... 3 3 Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................. 5

3.1 Technology Description ................................................................................................ 5 3.1.1 Solar Thermal.................................................................................................. 5 3.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) .................................................................................. 8

3.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT ............................................................................................ 8 4 Wind Energy........................................................................................................................... 10

4.1 Technology Description .............................................................................................. 10 4.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 11

5 Geothermal Energy ................................................................................................................. 15 5.1 Technology Description .............................................................................................. 15

5.1.1 Geothermal Plants ......................................................................................... 15 5.1.2 Ground Source Heat Pumps .......................................................................... 16

5.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 17 6 Wave and Tidal Energy .......................................................................................................... 19

6.1 Technology Description .............................................................................................. 19 6.1.1 Wave Energy................................................................................................. 19 6.1.2 Tidal Energy.................................................................................................. 19

6.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 20 7 Nuclear Energy ....................................................................................................................... 22

7.1 Technology description ............................................................................................... 22 7.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 23

8 Energy Storage........................................................................................................................ 25

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8.1 Technology Description .............................................................................................. 25 8.1.1 Thermal Energy Storage ............................................................................... 26 8.1.2 Batteries ........................................................................................................ 26 8.1.3 Hydrogen....................................................................................................... 26 8.1.4 Flywheels ...................................................................................................... 26

8.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 27 9 Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 28 10 Recommended Work .............................................................................................................. 29 11 References .............................................................................................................................. 30 12 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 32 Distribution list.............................................................................................................................. 33

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 xi

List of figures

Figure 1 Monthly fuel consumption and generating capacity of the main power plant in 2009. .... 3 Figure 2 Illustration of flat plate collectors (left) and evacuated tube collectors (right) ................. 6 Figure 3 Illustration of the Solarwall (left) and Solarwall with integrated PV (right)..................... 6 Figure 4 Illustration f (i). linear-solar troughs, (ii). heliostats and (iii). Stirling CSP systems........ 7 Figure 5 Global solar radiation values at CFS ALERT (Source: Environment Canada) ................ 9 Figure 6 Illustration of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines. ............................................. 10 Figure 7 Monthly average wind speeds at CFS ALERT obtained from Environment Canada

at 10 m and NASA at 50 m. Dashed line at 3.5 m/s represent typical cut-in speeds of commercial wind turbines....................................................................................... 12

Figure 8 Weibull distribution plots based on data from EC (blue) at 10 m and NASA at 50 m (pink); the solid vertical lines represent median values. ............................................. 13

Figure 9 Illustration of the operating principles of (a) flash steam (b) dry steam and (c) binary cycle power plants....................................................................................................... 16

Figure 10 An example of open loop and closed loop systems in a ground source heat pump system.......................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 11 Tectonic structure of Canada, showing the main structural units. The central craton is indicated by shading. ............................................................................................... 17

Figure 12 Temperature profile down to 60 m of permafrost (center) taken at borehole sites (left). Ground composition shown on right. ................................................................ 18

Figure 13 Illustration of the narrow geographical features of Alert inlet, the Narrows and Dumbell Bay at CFS Alert (Scale 1:20000.). © Department of Natural Resources Canada. All rights reserved. ........................................................................................ 20

Figure 14 Bathymetry modeling for the Arctic region. ................................................................. 21 Figure 15 Illustration of a nuclear power plant. ............................................................................ 22 Figure 16 Conceptual illustration of Hyperion Power Generation power plant. ........................... 24 Figure 17 Illustration of energy storage systems to store excess capacity during low demand

and supplying this during peak demands. ................................................................... 25

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Acknowledgements

The author thanks Mr. George Stewart for sharing his knowledge of CFS ALERT, as well as personnel from 8 Wing Trenton and Mike Lubun and Mark Douglas of Natural Resources Canada for candid discussions.

DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080 1

1 Introduction

1.1 Background

Established in 1951, CFS ALERT (82°28'N, 62°30'W) continues to serve as a remote communications site for the Canadian Forces. Throughout the years, there has been a decrease in the number of personnel stationed there and today approximately fifty personnel remain during the winter, which can increase to over one hundred in the summer. Located on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island, CFS ALERT experiences extremely cold temperatures throughout the majority of the year. To sustain activities this far north requires a significant energy budget that is largely driven by thermal demands. To meet these demands, fuel and supplies are delivered bi-annually from the US Air Force Base in Thule, Greenland via Operation BOXTOP.

With Arctic sovereignty issues being a focus of the 2008 Canada First Defence Strategy, the Air Force is expected to play an increased role in supporting and maintaining operations in the North. On April 1st, 2009, the command responsibility of CFS ALERT was assigned to the Canadian Air Force. With this transfer of responsibility the Air Force has inherited a site that is notorious for consuming massive amounts of JP-8 fuel to sustain its operations. In 2009, approximately 1.78 million litres of JP-8 diesel were used for electricity and heat generation alone. At a cost of ~ $11.4M ($6.38/L which includes fuel and transportation cost)[3], this represents a significant portion of the operational budget at this station, which is now assumed by the Air Force. In a recent document, “Projecting Power: Trends Shaping the Canadian Air Force in the Year 201” [1], energy security, in the context of peak oil and the geopolitical influence of petroleum costs, was identified as a threat to future Air Force operations that must be addressed.

This report has been tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for reduced-diesel operations at CFS ALERT, which is primarily driven by a desire to decrease operational costs as well as to decrease the environmental impact of diesel-use in alignment with DND’s policy on the environment [2].

1.2 Previous work

Two previous studies were conducted in 2004 and 2007 by the Royal Military College (RMC) and Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN), respectively to find ways to mitigate diesel consumption at CFS ALERT[4, 5]. Both of these reports highlighted significant compromises to the building envelopes, the electricity and heat delivery infrastructure of the main power plant and the buildings connected to/supplied by it; observations, which were again echoed by a recent contractor’s report[3]. As a result of this, significant amounts of fuel are being consumed inefficiently. Furthermore, generator inefficiencies are exacerbated by the recognition that the diesel generators at the main power plant were installed circa 1992, which at that time would have had a larger number of personnel stationed there. Today, with a smaller number of personnel occupying less space, these generators are now oversized and are, thus, being used inefficiently.

2 DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080

1.3 Aim and Scope of Study

The present study is devoted to exploring the various alternative power and energy options, such as renewable energy and nuclear power within the context of climate, geological and geographical conditions at CFS ALERT. It specifically considers renewable energy technologies that are being used today such as solar, wind and geothermal as well as other technologies in the developmental stage such as wave and tidal energy and modular nuclear reactors. The topics of biomass and methane gas hydrates were not considered for this study as these resources are constrained by the limitations that plague diesel-use today (delivery logistics, finite resource, carbon emissions).

1.4 Methodology

A comprehensive literature survey was undertaken for each of the technologies described in this report as well as to understand the unique climate, geological and geographical conditions at ALERT. Resources were used from published scientific literature, books, government organizations as well as professional associations. Discussions were also undertaken with Mr. George Stewart (1 Canadian Air Division), Natural Resources Canada, Royal Military College, Mark Overby (Canadian Base Operators) and personnel from 8 Wing Trenton.


2 Electricity and Heat Generation at CFS ALERT At present, significant amounts of JP-8 fuel are being consumed each year at CFS ALERT to provide electricity and heat for its operations and personnel. In 2009, maintenance logs indicate 1,783,696 L of JP-8 fuel were consumed at a cost of $6.38/L for purchase and delivery[3]. To meet these demands, a main power plant is used, which houses four 600V 800kW (Caterpillar 3512) generators with two 1.5 MW (Caterpillar 3516) backup generators. Together they provide the majority of the electricity and heat consumed at the base and operates constantly throughout the year. In place since circa 1992, these generators are coupled electrically to over a dozen other buildings. During operation, when peak loads are < 750 kW, electrical power generation is usually provided by one of the four Caterpillar 3512 generators. When this value is exceeded, a second 3512 generator comes online to supplement the excess amount; this may occur, for example, during the winter months when thermal demands are higher. In this two-generator mode, the load is shared equally; an 800 kW load means each generator supplies 400 kW, which is significantly below the optimum efficiency of each generator (40% versus 75%). The generating capacity and monthly fuel consumption for 2009 are shown in Fig. 1, which reflect the seasonal variations of the warmer summer and colder summer months.

Figure 1 Monthly fuel consumption and generating capacity of the main power plant in 2009.

To provide heat a heat recovery system (HRS) is used for space heating. The HRS is also connected to the main generators, which utilize heat recovered from the plant generators’ cooling jackets and exhaust (cogeneration) via three heat exchangers. The HRS, like the electricity delivery system, is also connected to a series of buildings. These buildings may also have separate boiler/furnace systems (either oil-fired, electric and oil fired furnaces, electric space heating, electric and indirect oil fired boilers) to provide further heat for space heating if enough is not supplied by the HRS or are required for additional purposes. For example, steam boilers are used


in the Haps building for domestic hot water (DHW) and steam for the kitchen as well as humidification for the building. Buildings that are not connected to the main power plant, which also require electricity and heat, are supplied by standalone generators[4].

As discussed previously in the 2004 and 2007 reports, significant reductions in diesel can be achieved by improvements made to the building envelopes and more efficient use of the generators[4, 5]. Interestingly, there has not been a history of recording electricity or heat use at each of the buildings on site. Having such information is invaluable in understanding the daily and seasonal load variances for each building, which is quite different than what is currently being recorded i.e. the generating capacity. Such information can lead to effective power management schemes such as peak shaving or load levelling strategies.


3 Solar Energy

3.1 Technology Description

Solar energy is, in general, exploited in two ways to produce either heat (solar thermal) or electricity (solar photovoltaic) and is discussed separately below.

3.1.1 Solar Thermal

In solar thermal, the sun’s radiation is converted into heat, which can be used directly (passively) to provide heat for space heating or domestic hot water. Solar thermal can also be concentrated also known as concentrating solar power (CSP), and can then be used indirectly to operate a steam generator to produce electricity.

For direct heating applications, solar panels/collectors are used to convert the solar radiation into heat and transfer this heat to a medium such as water, other liquids (such as propylene glycol), or air. The heated liquid flows through a manifold within the collectors, either under the action of a pump to warm the main hot water tank, or by a thermo-siphoning action to warm a solar water storage tank that then feeds a hot water tank. Various types of collectors are used for the conversion depending on the application and temperature requirements. Flat plate and evacuated tube collectors are typically used for domestic hot water heating or space heating.

Flat plate collectors consist of a metal box with a glass or plastic cover with an absorber at the bottom. The absorber plates are usually painted with selective coatings that absorb and retain heat better than ordinary black paint. This type of collector heats liquid or air at temperatures less than 82 °C. In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized at approximately 0.5 to 1 square foot per gallon of daily hot water use.

Evacuated tube collectors can achieve extremely high temperatures (~77 oC-177 oC). They are usually made of parallel rows of transparent glass tubes with absorber plates that are metal strips running down the center of each tube. Air is removed, or evacuated, from within the glass tube itself or from the space between two glass tubes, if so made, to form a vacuum, which eliminates conductive and convective heat loss, see Fig. 2.

Solar thermal collectors are usually roof-mounted and, interestingly, solar thermal collector tubes are more efficient in colder conditions and areas of low sunshine. In very cold climates, such as CFS ALERT, these units must use an anti-freeze fluid (such as food grade propylene glycol) through the insulated pipes, and release the collected heat through the use of a heat exchanger. The number of collectors required for a site depends on a number of factors, such as the quantity of hot water to be heated, the efficiency of the unit, the amount of solar radiation at the site, the amount of storage available, etc. Collectors should be aimed as south as possible, and installations require unobstructed access to the sun's path in all four seasons. Systems can be designed to provide 100 percent of hot water heating or to use the solar energy as a supplement to a conventional heating facility.


Figure 2 Illustration of flat plate collectors (left) and evacuated tube collectors (right)

In solar air heating, air passes through an area heated by the sun. This can be a black wall, with venting behind it. This is also called solar convection. Sometimes a fan is used to circulate the air in which case, it is called active solar thermal heating. An example of this is the Solarwall[6], which has been discussed in detail in previous reports, see Fig. 3[4, 5]. Industry trends point to the development of integrated air heating systems with electricity generation.

Figure 3 Illustration of the Solarwall (left) and Solarwall with integrated PV (right)

For concentrating solar power, large reflectors are used to concentrate the sun’s energy to a receiver tower (the absorber). The heat generated is normally used to power stream turbines or heat engines (e.g. Stirling engines) for electricity generation. For effective use, the reflectors must track the sun. One of the consequences of focusing the sun’s radiation is the requirement for large amounts of water for parabolic and trough systems. There have been three competing configurations that have been pursued for CSP: parabolic dish systems with Stirling engines, linear solar-trough systems and heliostats (mirrors) reflecting light onto a power tower, see Fig. 4. CSP configurations are typically designed for normal incident radiation of 800-900 W/m2.


Linear trough CSP collectors capture the sun's energy with large mirrors that reflect and focus the sunlight onto a linear receiver tube. The receiver contains a fluid that is heated by the sunlight and then used to create superheated steam that spins a turbine that drives a generator to produce electricity. Alternatively, steam can be generated directly in the solar field, eliminating the need for costly heat exchangers. In power tower systems, numerous large, flat, sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats, focus sunlight onto a receiver at the top of a tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam, which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity. Some power towers use water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid. Other advanced designs are experimenting with molten nitrate salt because of its superior heat-transfer and energy-storage capabilities. Solar thermal CSP plants based on linear troughs and heliostats tend to be very large capable of generating tens to hundreds of megawatts electric power. Stirling dish engine systems produce relatively smaller amounts of electricity, typically in the 3 to 25 kW range. The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming directly from the sun. The resulting beam of concentrated sunlight is reflected onto a thermal receiver that collects the solar heat. The dish is mounted on a structure that tracks the sun continuously throughout the day to reflect the highest percentage of sunlight possible onto the thermal receiver.

Figure 4 Illustration f (i). linear-solar troughs, (ii). heliostats and (iii). Stirling CSP systems


3.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV)

In solar PV, semiconductors are used to convert solar radiation into electric energy via the photoelectric effect. When sunlight strikes a cell, electrons in the semiconductor are excited to generate an electric voltage and current that is provided to an electric circuit. There are several types of solar cells available (single crystal, polycrystalline and thin-film). The first generation of solar cells based on single-crystalline silicon can attain conversion efficiencies of 10–15%; solar cells made from cadmium telluride (CdTe) can attain even higher efficiencies, around 20%. Multi-junction thin films, with several layers matched to capture different wavelengths of light, can achieve 40% conversion efficiency[7, 8].. Most cells produce approximately 0.5 V, which when connected to other cells into modules can provide anywhere from 5 W to over 200 W of power. PV cell performance is influenced by several factors such as intensity of sunlight, temperature, and precipitation. The more intense the sunlight, the greater the output of the module while, less sunlight results in lower current outputs (with voltage unchanged) and performance is improved with colder temperatures. Like larger concentrated solar thermal collector systems, concentrated solar PV systems with tracking systems may also be used. However, with the recent development of thin-film solar cells, cylindrical solar PV cells can be fabricated, which mitigate the need for costly tracking systems; an example of this are the cylindrical solar PV cells made by Solyndra[9].

3.2 Relevance to CFS ALERT

CFS ALERT experiences periods of full (24 hours) darkness (October-March) and full daylight (April-September). During the summer months, the sun is positioned no more than 30o above the horizon at midday then dips to about 16o above the horizon at midnight[10]. Mean daily global insolation values at ALERT are shown in Fig. 5. [11]. These values can be used to gauge the size of solar collector needed to efficiently provide adequate levels of hot water or for PV electricity generation. Geographic locations with low insolation levels require larger collectors than locations with higher insolation levels. The mean daily insolation values in Fig. 5 expressed as kWh/m2/day is quite high (Miami, Florida for example has a value of ~5.26 kWh/m2/day), making solar a viable option for CFS ALERT during the summer months.

With that said, however, there are limitations on what can be achieved. The use of solar thermal collectors and active solar air heating on a small scale is possible for domestic hot water and space heating respectively during the summer months. Thermal energy storage solutions on a larger scale such as aquifers, boreholes, caverns etc. will not be viable options for deferring heat stored in the summer to the winter given that the permafrost at CFS ALERT extends 600 m in depth[12].

Concentrated solar power systems based on linear troughs and heliostats are also not likely to be practical for electricity or thermal energy generation given the large physical size and permanence of such installations; maintenance issues during the winter months as damage due to icing is likely.


For electricity generation by solar PV, complete replacement of the conventional generators is also likely to be impractical or realistic. At the very least, for complete self-sufficiency, the array would have to be sized to meet the demands during the April-September months. In 2009, this demand amounted to 2,782,840 kWh. Thus, for a solar panel producing 200 W, this would require a minimum of over 4,500 panels coupled to a large energy storage system to respond to the intermittent nature of the resource due to cloud cover or precipitation. Consequently, solar power is expected to be part of the solution in mitigating diesel-use at CFS ALERT.

Figure 5 Global solar radiation values at CFS ALERT (Source: Environment Canada)


4 Wind Energy


In contrast to solar power, wind power technology is relatively more mature. Compared to solar energy, wind energy has a more variable and diffuse energy flux. For electricity generation, several types of wind turbines designs are available. The most prevalent type in use today is the three-blade horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT), which has a rotor with blades, mounted in an approximately vertical plane with a horizontal axis of rotation and usually facing the wind, see Fig. 6. Two-blade designs are also available; however, the three blade design is more common. Relatively few vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) have been built. Although VAWTs can achieve efficiencies similar to horizontal axis types (typically 20%), in practice, they tend to have lower efficiencies with larger footprints. Furthermore, the blades are susceptible to resonant vibration, are not inherently self starting and because the tower rotates with the blades, the bearings are subject to having very large loadings on them.

Figure 6 Illustration of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines.

In addition to these axial turbines, which are used in on-shore and off-shore environments, aerial wind turbines (kites and sails) are actively being developed. Such turbines are being designed to fly in high speed winds at high altitudes. These are essentially wind turbines tethered to the ground by a transmission line, Such turbines are in the very early ages of development and demonstration and there is some uncertainty as to whether they will be deployed in the coming decades. These designs are challenged with the deployment and retraction of such systems as well as having to control their behaviour in variable and gusty wind speeds.

For HAWTs, recent developments in the industry have centered upon enlarging the size of turbines in order to be more efficient and there is a shift from land-based to offshore locations.


Offshore sites offer very high wind speed exposure levels combined with large areas of utilization, while often having limited environmental impacts. The main challenges concern foundations and supporting structure, which can be either fixed or floating. However, the corrosive marine environment does impose additional requirements on the turbines themselves including the blades and their attachments.


Wind energy is increasingly being used in colder climates and efforts have been ongoing to address the inherent challenges involved in such harsh environments (specifically, ice-riming, foundation issues)[13, 14].

At CFS ALERT, the average yearly wind speed has been reported as 2.5 m/s based on a 29-year dataset collected at 10 m[11]. This Class 1 category of wind speed is low compared to the cut-in speeds required for the vast majority of commercial wind turbines, which are typically around 3.5 m/s. However, it is important to note that wind speeds are affected by a number of factors including topography, air density (a function of temperature) as well as altitude. For the latter, wind speed generally increases with height according to:

)(1

2

1

2

hh

UU

(1)

where U1,2 is the wind speed at heights, h1,2 respectively and is an exponent (typically follows 1/7th power law applies from 10m to 150m, however, maybe higher for wind speeds < 5 m/s[15]. A 10-year dataset obtained by NASA at 50 m for CFS ALERT shows higher wind speed values[16], see Fig. 7.

Although mean wind speed values can be useful for assessing the viability of wind power in an area, the statistical distribution is more important. The statistical distribution of wind speeds varies from place to place, depending upon local climate conditions, topography and its surface. Consequently, to maximize the exploitation of this resource, it is important to understand this distribution at any given site considered for electricity generation. This is normally achieved with the use of a probability density distribution function called the Weibull distribution. Typically, a generalized two-parameter Weibull distribution is used given by:

kk

CU

CU

CkUf exp)(

1

(2)

where f(U) is the frequency of occurrence of wind speed U, k is the Weibull shape factor and C is the Weibull scale factor. The parameters k and C is usually determined experimentally with highly time-resolved data, and in cases where it is not possible to do so, a simplified case of this equation is used. This special case occurs when k =2, which reduces the above equation to the


common Rayleigh distribution. Wind turbine manufacturers often give standard performance figures for their turbines using the Rayleigh distribution, shown below:

k

U

UUUUf 2

22

.4

.exp2

)(

(3)

where U is the annual average wind speed. Using equation X, a rough approximation of the probability distribution function for the wind resource at CFS ALERT is plotted in Fig. 8 with the

average annual wind speeds, U , of 2.5 m/s and 5.82 m/s obtained from the Environment Canada and NASA datasets respectively and with k = 2. Not surprisingly, Figure 2 shows a skewed distribution with median values of 2.30 m/s and 5.5 m/s for the data from Environment Canada and NASA respectively.

Figure 7 Monthly average wind speeds at CFS ALERT obtained from Environment Canada at 10 m and NASA at 50 m. Dashed line at 3.5 m/s represent typical cut-in speeds of commercial wind

turbines.

It is also possible to calculate the probability of occurrence that a given wind speed is greater than a certain value. For Rayleigh statistics, this is expressed by[17]:

kUUeUF )/()( (4)

Thus, using the Environment Canada dataset with an annual average wind speed U = 2.5 m/s at 10m. the probability that wind speeds will occur above the cut-in speed of 3.5 m/s is F(3.5) =


Figure 8 Weibull distribution plots based on data from EC (blue) at 10 m and NASA at 50 m (pink); the solid vertical lines represent median values.

0.214 or 21.4% while for the NASA dataset at 50 m with U = 5.82 m/s, the probability is determined to be F(3.5) = 0.696 or 69.6%, which is significantly higher. This preliminary calculation highlights that wind may be a viable option and warrants very detailed assessment at CFS ALERT. Such detailed assessments should include the collection of highly time-resolved wind speed measurements at various heights (typically 10m. 25m, 40m, 50m) as well as temperature, humidity, precipitation and the suitability of the topography at the site. In addition to having viable wind speeds and terrain, other considerations must be taken into account for CFS ALERT given the severe climate and environment this far north as well as having a military presence. These are:

(a). Ice Riming – Icing plays a significant role in the operation and accessibility of turbines. Icing events, which occur a few times a year that melts off quickly, should not be a major concern. However, reports of hoar frost and riming are known to occur at ALERT

(b). Wind turbine foundation design – The terrain at ALERT consists of permafrost, which at 600m depth, exists year round[12]. During the spring thaw cycle, the ground level may deplete by as much as 1 metre[18].

(c). Wind Turbine Installation Policy – Current DND regulations require consultations with any planned wind turbine installation within 10 km of a major military airfield, a 100 km radius of any DND Air Defence Radar and within a 60 km radius of any DND Air Traffic Control Search Radar[19].


(d). Radar interference – Wind turbine blades, when in operation, can negatively impact radars, especially ground-based air defence radars and air traffic control systems (particularly Doppler systems). For communications, a six station ground based microwave system at CFS ALERT is used to relay the communication signals to satellite uplink. Technological advancements are being made to mitigate the negative impact of spinning turbine blades with radar use, such as the use of radar absorbing coatings, the use of transponders on aircraft and the location and distribution of turbines

(e). Logistical challenges – Depending on the size of turbine chosen, large lengths of turbine blades will pose transport challenges for construction also requiring the use of heavy-lift cranes.

.


5 Geothermal Energy


Geothermal energy refers to heat derived from the earth, which is contained in the rock and fluid in the earth’s crust. In most cases, this heat reaches the surface in a very diffuse state. However, due to a variety of geological processes, some areas reside upon varying degrees of geothermal resources. These resources are classified as low temperature (< 90°C), moderate (90°C), and high temperature (> 150°C). The highest temperature resources are primarily used for electricity generation while moderate and low temperature resources are used for heating purposes.

5.1.1 Geothermal Plants

For electricity generation geothermal plants have largely been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries[20-22]. To exploit this resource for electricity generation, standard engine cycles are used such as the flash steam cycle, dry steam cycle and the binary cycle; the type of conversion used depends on the state of the fluid (whether steam or water) and its temperature.

Flash steam cycles utilize by temperature hydrothermal fluids which are sprayed into a tank that is held at a much lower pressure causing the fluid in the tank to vaporize and drive the turbine, see Fig. 9(a). This type of plant is the most common type of geothermal power generation plants in operation today. They use water at temperatures >182°C that is pumped under high pressure to the generation equipment at the surface.

Dry steam power plants use hydrothermal fluids (primarily steam). Instead of burning fossil fuel, the steam goes directly to a turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity, see Fig. 9(b). This has the advantage of eliminating the need to transport and store fuels. Steam technology is used today at The Geysers in northern California, the world's largest single source of geothermal power. These plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.

Binary cycle plants are relatively new and capable of accessing lower quality heat, however, at lower efficiencies. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a heat exchanger. The heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapour, which is then used to drive a turbine, Fig. 9(c). As the system is closed-loop, virtually nothing is emitted to the atmosphere. Moderate-temperature water is by far the more common geothermal resource, and most geothermal power plants in the future are expected to be binary-cycle plants.


Figure 9 Illustration of the operating principles of (a) flash steam (b) dry steam and (c) binary cycle power plants.

5.1.2 Ground Source Heat Pumps

Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) (aka geothermal heat pumps or geo-exchange systems) are used to transfer heat to and from the earth, ground water or other source of water body (lake, river or well) to provide heat in the winter and cooling in the summer. In cool weather, heat is collected through a series of pipes, which form an open or closed loop system, for example, see Fig. 10. An open system takes advantage of the heat retained in an underground body of water while closed loop systems collect heat from the ground by means of a continuous loop of piping buried underground (up to 100m if using a vertical loop system). For space heating or domestic water heating, a fluid such as water or antifreeze circulates in the loop, which takes heat from one location and moves it to another location via a heat pump. A recognizable form of heat pump is an air conditioner as it takes heat out of the interior space and rejects it outdoors. True heat pumps, however, work in either direction; it can take heat out of an interior space, or it can put heat into an interior space. In warmer weather, GSHPs are used in the opposite manner for cooling applications. Ground source heat pumps have been used to great practical advantages for residential use to reduce the cost of energy to supply heat in the winter and cooling power in the summer.

Figure 10 An example of open loop and closed loop systems in a ground source heat pump system.



Alert is situated on a pericratonic belt away from any close plate boundaries[12]., which makes the prospect of extracting heat for electricity and heat generation from viable thermal wells less likely, see Fig. 11. To accomplish such, it will be necessary to drill very deeply into the Earth’s crust (at least, several kilometres) to reach any moderate and high thermal wells, which will require very large and expensive drilling rigs.

Figure 11 Tectonic structure of Canada, showing the main structural units. The central craton is indicated by shading.

The general terrain at Alert consists of year-round permafrost, which can extend to depths of 600m. In and around CFS ALERT itself, the ground is composed largely of overburden and shattered rock for the first 3-4m depth, while down to 60m either greywacke (a type of sandstone) and/or argillite (sedimentary rock) can be found[12]. The ground temperature profile of the permafrost from the surface near the site has been shown to decrease from < 0 oC to -15 oC at depths of 60 m[23], see Fig. 12. Since the heat delivered by a heat pump is theoretically the sum of the heat extracted from the heat source and the energy needed to drive the cycle, it is unlikely that GSHPs are a viable option for heat generation given the demand that will be placed on the heat pump leading to very low efficiencies.


Figure 12 Temperature profile down to 60 m of permafrost (center) taken at borehole sites (left). Ground composition shown on right.


6 Wave and Tidal Energy


Covering over 70% of the earth’s surface there is a vast amount of energy stored in the ocean. However, like other forms of renewable energy, this energy is diffuse and, thus, difficult to harness. Several technologies are used in this regard to harness the kinetic/potential energy produced by waves and tides as well the stored thermal heat from the sun (for obvious reasons, the latter will not be described here).

6.1.1 Wave Energy

Waves are generated by the force of the wind blowing over the ocean's surface. Wave energy systems convert the kinetic energy of the waves into electrical energy with the use of a generator. There are three basic systems; however, they all rely on the periodic nature of the waves. Tapered channel systems funnel the waves into reservoirs; float systems drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water column systems use waves to compress air within a container. The mechanical power created from these systems either directly activates a generator or transfers to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine and generator.

6.1.2 Tidal Energy

Tidal energy exploits the natural rise and fall of coastal tidal waters caused principally by the interaction of the gravitational fields of the earth, moon and sun. Although intermittent, tidal energy is predictable. The technology required to convert tidal energy into electricity is very similar to that used in traditional hydroelectric power plants (called tidal-barrage systems). Gates and turbines are installed along a dam or barrage that goes across a tidal bay or estuary. When there is an adequate difference in the height of water on either side of the dam, the gates are opened and the hydrostatic head that is created causes water to flow through the turbines, turning a generator to produce electricity. Electricity can be generated by water flowing either way. As there are two high and two low tides each day, electrical generation from tidal power plants is characterized by periods of maximum generation every six hours.

A variant of tidal energy is tidal stream (or marine current) technology, which exploits fast sea currents created by tides. They are often magnified by topographical features, such as headlands, inlets and straits, or by the shape of the seabed when water is forced through narrow channels. The technology used for tidal streams is slightly different to that used in tidal barrages, and is still in its infancy. Tidal stream devices are similar to submerged wind turbines and are used to exploit the kinetic energy in tidal currents.



Recent annual tidal level information collected at CFS ALERT indicates very small height differences between high and low tides of < 1 m[24], which makes tidal barrage systems impractical. Furthermore, seasonal ice formation (January-May, October-December) also makes wave energy systems unlikely for use. However, CFS ALERT is fortunate to be sited near attractive narrow passages such as Alert Inlet, the Narrows as well as Dumbell Bay, which may allow the use of tidal stream systems for electricity generation, see Fig. 13. Bathymetric models indicate water depths to be 100 m or more[25], see Fig. 14, which may yield very large cross-sectional area flows. Unfortunately, however, measurements of tidal currents at this site are unknown. It is worth pointing out, however, that in a 2006 study to determine Canada’s inventory of marine renewable energy sources, Nunavut ranked No. 1 for having the highest potential resource of this type[25]. Princess Royal Islands (73.37o N -115.28 o W), for example, has an average passage depth of 10 m while being 2,000 m wide. With a mean maximum average depth current speed of 0.88 m/s, the mean potential power was determined to be 2 MW.

Figure 13 Illustration of the narrow geographical features of Alert inlet, the Narrows and Dumbell Bay at CFS Alert (Scale 1:20000.). © Department of Natural Resources Canada. All

rights reserved.


Figure 14 Bathymetry modeling for the Arctic region.


7 Nuclear Energy

7.1 Technology description

Nuclear power is derived from heat generated from nuclear fission reactions. The resulting heat from such reactions is used to produce steam, which is then used to drive turbines and generators for electricity generation, see Fig. 15. There are many different types of nuclear reactors and the distinction is made amongst them based on their fuel (e.g. uranium-235 and plutonium-239), coolant (used to remove heat from the core to the turbine), and moderator (controls the fission chain reactions).

Figure 15 Illustration of a nuclear power plant.

Nuclear reactor designs are also categorized as Generation I, II, III (III+) or IV. Generation I reactors are those that matured in the 1960s with typical electrical capacities of < 200 MW; most of these are now shut down. Generation II reactors are those most are familiar with today having matured in the 1990s and represent all the reactors now in operation. These reactors are physically larger with electrical generating capacities ranging from several hundred to over 1000 MW. Generation III and III+ reactors are ‘next stage’ designs; those whose designs that have been recently completed and are, in principle, ready to enter the commercial market. However, the only model that has already done so is the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR). Lastly, Generation IV reactors are based on designs intended to provide improved safety and economy, which differ substantially from previous generations. Such designs are only conceptual at this time and are not anticipated to be developed until 2020 or later.


At present, there is renewed interest in the nuclear power industry, in particular, in the form of modular nuclear reactors (considered Generation III), which are intended for a variety of applications such as seawater desalination plants, distributed generation and off-grid operations. Russia, for example, is actively pursuing floating nuclear reactors for use in the Russian Arctic, which are capable of providing 70MW of electricity and 300 MW of heat.

Modular nuclear reactors are intended to be smaller both in physical size and power generation capacity (megawatts versus gigawatts), scalable, and feature passively or inherently safe features. Instead of relying on traditional pumps and pipes to deliver water to an overheated core, a passive design may, for example, take advantage of gravity to cool and control the reactor; cooling water may be stored in tanks directly above the reactor vessel whereby in an emergency, valves would open and the water would be dumped directly to cool it. Another concept is to bury the core in a cavity underground.

Not surprisingly, there is a plethora of modular reactor designs being pursued. These include: innovative high temperature gas cooled reactors (which includes the well-publicized pebble bed modular reactors e.g. Eskom), liquid metal-cooled fast neutron reactors (e.g. Hyperion Power Generation Inc.) and pressurized and light water reactors (Nuscale, Babcock and Wilcox)[26]. Targeted power and thermal generation capacities vary, however, are often tens to several hundreds of MW in electricity and thermal generation.

Of the various reactor-types mentioned above, the liquid metal-cooled fast neutron reactor being pursued by Hyperion Power Generation Inc. seems particularly suited to remote locations. At the core of their technology is the Hyperion Power Generation module (HPM), which measures ~ 1.5 m across and 2.5 m in height; its small size allows it to be easily transported. The sealed HPM modules, which will contain the uranium nitride fuel, are to be buried underground to provide a layer of protection from tampering, see Fig. 16 [27]. Additionally, the system is being designed so that it never goes supercritical or overheats. The HPM module will be capable of providing electricity and heat for approximately 7-10 years. After this period of time, the module can be replaced or refuelled at the factory. The targeted capacity is 25 MW electricity and 75MW thermal generation. The HPM is still several years from being realized. According to the World Nuclear Association, in March 2010, Hyperion notified the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission that it planned to submit a design certification application in 2012. The initial price of this system is $50 million USD [27].


Modular nuclear reactors such as that from Hyperion Power Generation Inc. appear to be quite attractive to meet the sustained electricity and thermal needs of remote places with challenging climate and geography such as CFS ALERT. However, the use of nuclear power sources at this site presents its own unique set of challenges, which include:

(i). satisfying all federal regulatory requirements for health, safety, security and environmental protection. This will likely involve a rigorous and lengthy licensing and approval process through the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC)


Figure 16 Conceptual illustration of Hyperion Power Generation power plant.

(ii). recognizing that the target generating electricity and thermal capacities of reactors being developed currently far exceeds the requirements that are needed at CFS ALERT by at least one to two orders of magnitude

(iii). constructing a containment building to house the nuclear reactor. In the case of the reactor core being placed above ground, specially designed concrete-lined containment structures must be built in the event the core goes supercritical. With the severe cold temperatures at Alert, this may present some challenges for construction and maintaining the integrity of such structures over long periods of time. In the event the core is buried underground, there is a knowledge gap of how the cold permafrost will affect or influence the design of the reactor, which may complicate the licensing and certification process

(iv). having a nuclear power source at CFS ALERT will require a dedicated core group of highly trained and certified personnel to manage day to day issues, which will increase the ownership costs of the technology

(v). there is no clear policy by the Government of Canada on the use of nuclear power sources in the Arctic. Severe criticism of the 1987 Defence White Paper, which proposed the acquisition of a nuclear powered submarine fleet suggests there likely opposition to this. In addition to the objections of cost, the 1987 proposal was perceived as undermining support for the non-proliferation treaty. While CFS ALERT is expected to be converted to civilian use in the future, similar resistances can be expected by environmental groups, as well as being in conflict with current Arctic Treaties and Agreements.


8 Energy Storage


Renewable energy resources such as solar and wind are highly intermittent producing electricity and heat (in the case of solar thermal) when the resource is available. In practice, it is not uncommon to find wind turbines or solar PV panels hybridized with diesel generators and may further be coupled to energy storage systems. An energy storage strategy generates electricity when the resource is plentiful and stores it for later use demand is up and supplies are short, see Fig. 17. The use of energy storage systems has several advantages such as ensuring power quality, bridging power (when, for example, switching from one source of generation to another), and energy management such as load levelling.

Figure 17 Illustration of energy storage systems to store excess capacity during low demand and supplying this during peak demands.

For electricity generation, the idea of such systems is that when the resource (solar or wind) is supplying more power than is needed by the load, the diesel engine generators can be shut down. During interruptions in the resource supply, the energy storage device can be discharged to the load to provide the required power. If the duration of the interruption is prolonged or the energy storage system becomes discharged, the engine generator can be started to take over supplying the load. Studies have indicated that most interruptions in power from the wind are of limited duration, and using energy storage to cover these short time periods can lead to significant reductions in the consumption of fuel, generator operational hours, and reduced generator starts.

Several variations of energy storage systems are available with varying levels of maturity; the choice of which to use is dependent on the application. They can be divided in terms of thermal, electrical, mechanical, chemical and biological. For the purposes of this report, energy storage systems commonly used with solar and wind turbine systems are briefly discussed here. These include thermal energy storage systems, batteries, flywheels and hydrogen storage.


8.1.1 Thermal Energy Storage

Thermal energy storage technologies can store heat from active solar thermal collectors for later use for space and hot water heating or to generate electricity. Heat can be stored in different ways, which is determined by the thermodynamics of the storage process. If a storage medium is heated up or cooled down the storage is called sensible. If a phase change of the medium occurs in the temperature change (e.g. liquid to vapour), the thermal energy storage is called latent. Latent thermal storage systems can provide higher storage capacities and a constant discharging temperature. The use of hot water tanks is one of the best known sensible TES technologies. Other variants of sensible TES systems include boreholes, cavern storage, pit storage and underground aquifers, which use a natural underground layer as a storage medium for the temporary storage of heat or cold. The transfer of thermal energy is realized by extracting groundwater from the layer and then re-injecting it at the different temperature level at another location nearby when needed. Latent TES system may use molten eutectic salts and salt hydrates such as sodium sulphate decahydrate or calcium (II) chloride hexahydrate. The main advantages of latent TES systems are the high thermal energy storage capacities per unit mass and a small temperature range of operation since the heat interaction occurs at constant temperature [28] Thermal energy storage systems can be divided based on the duration of storage: short (few hours to a day), medium (few weeks to months) and long term (seasonal e.g. from summer to winter). Practical active solar heating systems typically have storage to satisfy a few hours to 1-2 days of thermal demand.

8.1.2 Batteries

Batteries chemically store energy and release it as electrical energy. They are the most common form for storing electrical energy and can achieve high energy and power densities. For most solar PV systems, lead-acid batteries are typically used for storage while for wind turbine applications, nickel-cadmium (NiCad) and vanadium flow batteries have also been used. Although batteries are commonplace and are prevalently used, they can be present challenges with their limited lifetimes and need for maintenance.

8.1.3 Hydrogen

Energy can also be stored chemically in the form of hydrogen. Most commercially available hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons such as methane or similar fossil fuels. However, hydrogen can also be produced by the electrolysis of water using solar PV or wind turbines. The hydrogen produced can be stored and later combusted to provide heat or provide electricity with the use of fuel cells. An example of a recent wind-diesel generator-hydrogen system can be found on Ramea Island, Newfoundland [29].

8.1.4 Flywheels

Flywheels store energy through accelerating a rotor up to a very high rate of speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational (kinetic) energy. As the flywheel releases its energy, the flywheels rotor slows down until it is completely discharged. For efficiency, flywheel


systems are operated in low vacuum environments and use magnetic bearings to reduce losses by drag. The energy stored in a flywheel is defined as,

(5)

where I is the moment of inertia (kg/m2) and is the angular momentum, (1/s2). As energy is proportional to the momentum, there is a desire to develop high-speed flywheels for higher energy densities. Typically, very high speeds (~ 20,000-100,000 rpm) are used. Unlike batteries, flywheels consume energy when fully charged approaching a loss of ~ 10% per hour and, as such, are suited for short-term storage.


The use of solar or wind energy at CFS ALERT will require the use of energy storage systems. For solar thermal collectors, it is unlikely that large thermal energy storage systems based on underground storage will be feasible and that only short-term thermal storage for space and domestic hot water heating may be possible. For electricity storage, either batteries, flywheels and hydrogen storage is possible. However, there will be limitations placed on these systems such as cold temperature performance of batteries and flywheels. The choice of which electrical energy system will be suitable at CFS ALERT depends on several factors, which will require further investigation.


9 Summary and Conclusions

This report was tasked to investigate alternative power and energy technologies to reduce diesel fuel consumption at CFS ALERT for electricity and heat generation. Specifically, this report focuses on renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclear power. In addition to the environmental benefits, renewable energy technologies offers the sustainable exploitation of natural resources and reduces the use of finite resources such as diesel.

Situated on the north eastern point of Ellesmere Island, the energy budget at CFS ALERT is largely driven by thermal demands. Its geographical location presents significant challenges for renewable energy technologies, which are easily adapted in more temperate and forgiving environments. Solar energy for electricity and thermal generation are restricted for use during the summer months. Wind energy, which may be used throughout the year, faces challenges with icing, potentially low wind speeds and Canadian Air Force policies intended to mitigate interference with communication radars. Also, given the site is not located along geological features amenable to thermal wells (such as tectonic plate boundaries) and the extensive depth of the permafrost to 600m, geothermal technologies (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps) are not perceived as viable options. Wave and tide technologies (such as barrage systems) are not feasible options due to the low tide heights recorded (< 1m). However, with the location of narrow inlets and proximity of Dumbell Bay, it may be possible to take advantage of tidal current technologies although these are in the developmental stage. Modular nuclear reactors, offer an attractive solution for supplying both electricity and process heat. These are currently being developed for distributed and off-grid applications, however, their targeted electricity and thermal outputs exceeds today’s requirements at CFS ALERT by one to two orders of magnitude. Furthermore, there are other challenges presented such as the requirement of a specially designed containment building for the reactor as well as satisfying federal regulatory requirements for health, safety, security and environmental protection. This situation is likely to be further complicated by the absence of clear policy from the Government of Canada regarding the use of nuclear sources Arctic regions, expected objections from environmental groups and potential conflict with existing Arctic Treaties and Agreements.

From this study, it is clear that the relatively mature technologies of solar and wind may have a role to play at CFS ALERT and although in the developmental stages, tidal current technologies should not be ruled out. Technological advances are constantly being made in these fields. For example, for solar PV, new thin-film panel designs have recently been realized, which allow more efficient use of solar radiation without the need for tracking systems. For wind power systems, radar-absorbing materials are being developed to address interference issues with communication radars and efforts are on-going with cold-temperature protection systems. Finally, with the intermittent nature of solar, wind and tidal current resources, it must be recognized that renewable energy technologies may never completely supplant diesel-use and it may be necessary to have hybrid-generator designs, which include energy storage systems such as batteries, flywheels, hydrogen generation and storage systems among others that are available.


10 Recommended Work

With solar, wind and tidal current technologies in mind, the following recommendations are made. It is proposed that these recommendations be formulated as an Applied Research Project (ARP) under the Air Sustain Thrust.

1). Systems analysis study: As indicated previously, renewable energy is never likely to supplant diesel-use completely at CFS ALERT. Consequently, it will be necessary to determine the optimum level of technology mix that can effectively sustain operations while reducing diesel consumption. This study will include optimum system design and integration, cost/benefit analysis in terms of $/kWh as well as the amount of CO2 reduced, amount of fuel saved and corresponding reduction of fuel delivery payloads. For this study, knowledge of how electricity and heat is being used is essential, which is described in the following activity.

2). Electricity and Energy/Inventory Audit: Prior to the use of renewable energy technologies, and arguably, any alternative electricity and heat generation interim schemes (such as the ‘right-sizing’ of generators), it is imperative to understand how electricity and heat is being used at the various buildings including those not connected to the main power plant. This will require electricity monitoring at each building on the site at fixed continuous time periods throughout the year. The collection of such information will give invaluable insight into daily and seasonal load variances, which can lead to more efficient power and thermal management schemes.

3). Resource Assessments: the implementation any of renewable energy technology at CFS ALERT will require careful analysis and planning. Detailed resource assessments particularly for wind and tidal currents must be carried out. In the case of wind, prospective turbine installation sites must be identified along with data collection for temperature, humidity and wind speeds at various heights at these sites. In the case of tidal currents, measurements at Dumbell Bay, the Narrows and Alert inlet should be collected to determine the mean potential power that can be generated.

4). On-site Technology Evaluation: The small sizes of solar PV panels and collectors lend themselves to a number of technology evaluations that can be done at CFS ALERT. These include (a). solar collectors for domestic hot water heating and (b). Solyndra solar PV panels for electricity generation. With more effort, consideration should also be given to the evaluation of the Solarwall with PV at this site. For these evaluations, it will be necessary to identify a suitable building that can be used for such evaluations and, which will cause the least disruption to everyday operations.


11 References .....

[1] Projecting Power: Trends Shaping Canada's Air Force in the Year 2019. (2009). Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre.

[2] NDHQ Policy Directive P5/92: Canadian Forces and National Defence Policy on the Environment. (1999). Department of National Defence.

[3] Accutech Engineering Inc. (2010).Building Envelope Upgrade CFS Alert. (2010).

[4] Energy Systems and Renewable Energy Technologies Evaluation For CFS Alert – Final Report (2004). Royal Military College.

[5] Energy Usage and Project Implementation Study (2007). Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN).

[6] Conserval Engineering Inc. http://solarwall.com. Access Date February 2010.

[7] Surek, T. (2005). J. Cryst. Growth, 275 (292).

[8] Green, M. A. (2004). Third Generation Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy Conversion., Germany: Springer-Verlag.

[9] Solyndra. http://solyndra.com. Access Date March 2010.

[10] University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory. http://solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html. Access Date March 2010.

[11] Environment Canada. http://weatheroffice.gc.ca. Access Date March 2010.

[12] Taylor, A., Brown, R., Pilon, J. and Judge, A. (1982). Permafrost and the Shallow Thermal Regime at Alert, N.W.T. In Fourth Canadian Permafrost Conference: National Research Council, Ottawa.

[13] Baring-Gould, I., Corbus, D. (2007). Status of Wind-Diesel Applications in Arctic Climates. In The Arctic Energy Summit Technology Conference. : Anchorage, Alaska.

[14] Maissan, J. F. (2001). Wind Power Development in Sub-Arctic Conditions with Severe Rime Icing. In Circumpolar Climate Change Summit and Exposition: Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada.

[15] NREL. AWS Scientific Ltd. Wind Resource Assessment Handbook: Fundamentals for Conducting a Successful Monitoring Program (1997). (NREL Subcontract No. TAT-5-15283-01).

[16] NASA Atmospheric Science Data Center. http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/. Access Date March 2010.


[17] Masters, G. M. (2004). Renewable and Electric Efficient Power Systems, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

[18] Johnson, K. (September 2006). J. Northwest Territories Water and Waste Association., 6-9.

[19] Royal Canadian Air Force. ATESS-Wind Turbines. http://airforce.forces.gc.ca/8w-8e/units-unites/page-eng.asp?id=692. Access Date March 2010.

[20] Geothermal Resources Council. http://geothermal.org/. Last accessed April 2010.

[21] Acharya, H. (1983). Influence of Plate Tectonics on the Locations of Geothermal Fields. Pageoph, 121 (5/6), 853-867.

[22] Jessop, A. M., Ghomeshi, M.M. and M.J. Drury (1991). Geothermal Energy in Canada. Geothermics, 20 (5/6), 369-385.

[23] Smith, S. L., Burgess, M.M. and Taylor, A.E. (2003). High Arctic Permafrost at Alert, Nunavut - Analysis of a 23-year Dataset., In Permafrost. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.

[24] Environment Canada (Canadian Ice Service). http://ice-glaces.ec.gc.ca. Access Date March 2010.

[25] Inventory of Canada's Marine Renewable Energy Resources (2006). (CHC-TR-041). Canadian Hydraulics Center (National Research Council).

[26] World Nuclear Association. http://world-nuclear.org. Access Date March 2010.

[27] Hyperion Power Generation. http://hyperionpowergeneration.com Access Date March 2010.

[28] Dincer, I., and Rosen, M.A. (2002). Thermal Energy Storage Systems and Applications, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.

[29] Wind-Hydrogen-Diesel on Ramea Island. CanMet Energy. http://canmetenergy-canmetenergie.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/eng/renewables/wind_energy/ramea_island.html Access Date March 2010.


12 Bibliography

[1] Arunachalam, V. S., Crabtree,G.W., Ginley, D.S.,Humphreys, C.J., Ishihara, K.N.,Taylor, K.C., Tongia, R. (2008). Harnessing Materials for Energy. MRS Bulletin, 33 (4).

[2] Bowditch, N. (2010). Tides and Tidal Currents., In The American Practical Navigator.

Paradise Cay Publications. [3] Charlier, R. H., Justus. J.R. (1993). Ocean Energies: Environmental, Economic, and

Technological Aspects of Alternative Power Sources., Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

[4] Charlier, R. H., Finkl, C.W. (2009). Ocean Energy: Tide and Tidal Power., Heidelberg:

Springer-Verlag. [5] Hudson, E., Aishoshi, D., Gaines, T., Simard, G. and Mullock, J. (2001). Weather

Patterns of Nunavut and the Arctic., In The Weather of the Nunavut and the Arctic. Graphic Area Forecast 36 and 37. pp 49-93, NAV Canada.

[6] Ibrahim, H., et al. (2008). Energy storage systems--Characteristics and comparisons.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12 (5), 1221-1250. [7] Johnson, K. (September 2006). J. Northwest Territories Water and Waste Association., 6-

9. [8] Kreith, F., Goswami, D.Y. (2007). Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy., Florida: Taylor and Francis Group. [9] Luque, A., Hegedus, S. (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering West

Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. [10] Smith, S. L., Burgess, M.M., Riseborough, D. and Nixon, F.M. (2005). Recent Trends

from Canadian Permafrost Thermal Monitoring Network Sites. . Permafrost and Periglacial Processes., 16, 19-30.

[11] Stiebler, M. (2008). Wind Energy Systems for Electric Power Generation. Green Energy

and Technology., Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. [12] Wenham, S. R. (2007). Applied Photovoltaics., London: ARC Centre for Advanced

Silicon Photovoltaics and Photonics.


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This report was tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for CFS ALERT toreduce diesel-use for its electricity and heat demands. This report focuses specifically onrenewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclearpower and consider their use within the context of the climate, geology and geography of CFSALERT. Geothermal (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps), wave and tidal (barrage)systems were found to be unviable options. Modular nuclear reactors appear attractive for use,however, their targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently under development exceed therequirements of CFS ALERT by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Solar, wind andtidal-current systems may have a role to play in future reduced-diesel operations at CFSALERT, however, further investigation and careful planning is required prior toimplementation. Recommendations for future work in these areas are provided.

Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner des options en matière d’énergies de substitutionpour la SFC Alert afin de réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour répondre aux besoins de lastation en électricité et en énergie de chauffage. Ce rapport porte principalement sur lestechnologies des énergies renouvelables (énergie solaire, énergie éolienne, énergiegéothermique, énergie marémotrice, énergie des vagues) et sur l’énergie nucléaire, ainsi que surleur utilisation potentielle dans les conditions climatiques, géologiques et géographiques de laSFC Alert. Les systèmes fonctionnant à l’énergie géothermique (forage en profondeur etpompes géothermiques), à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (barrages) se sontrévélés non viables. L’utilisation de réacteurs nucléaires modulaires semble être une optionintéressante, mais la puissance thermique et électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en coursdépasse les exigences de la SFC Alert par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Les systèmes quifonctionnent à l’énergie solaire, éolienne ou marémotrice pourraient quant à eux être utiliséspour réduire la quantité de diesel consommé dans le cadre des activités de la SFC Alert. Desétudes supplémentaires et une planification minutieuse sont cependant nécessaires avant la miseen œuvre de tels systèmes. Nous présentons des recommandations au sujet des travaux àentreprendre dans ces domaines.

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Arctic, power and energy, CFS ALERT, Renewable Energy, Solar, Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, Nuclear, Energy Storage

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