all surface empty bottle inspection(asebi) full documentation

OPTIMAL GLASS BOTTLE INSPECTION WITH ASEBI

DEPT OF ECE, CREC 1

1. INTRODUCTION

The Filtec Omnivision All Surface Empty Bottle Inspector (ASEBI), with a

modular design that makes expandable functionality possible through available

technology upgrades, meets the needs of small to medium size bottling facilities.

Operating at speeds of up to 700 bottles per minute, the standard ASEBI comes

equipped with a high resolution Camera Base Inspection system. Optional functions

include inspection of the finish, thread, outer sidewall, inner sidewall, as well as the

detection of residual liquid by infrared and RF techniques.Transparent films are

detected with a special optical technique known as the Bright Field Analyzer.

Reject verification, test bottle verification, rotating self-cleaning diffuser glass,

serial interface port (MODBUS Protocol), isolated PLC outputs, and enclosure

doors are also available as options. All of these options can easily be upgraded in

the field, which assures maximum adaptability of the Filtec Omnivision.

Filtec Omnivision is appropriate for bottling operations that fill returnable

plastic or glass bottles for soft drinks, beer, and other products.The production

conveyor powers the automatic starwheel drive system; this assures that the

starwheel is always synchronized with bottle flow. Upstream sensors control the

starwheel drive system and regulate gap closure of bottles entering the starwheel to

provide smooth stops and starts which minimize breakage, jams, and noise.

Handling bottles up to 104-mm-dia, the Filtec Omnivision improves

productivity by reducing changeover related downtime to less than five min. The

Filtec Omnivision offers a touchpad control panel and LCD color monitor that are

both mounted on a swing arm that rotates for easy operator viewing.


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 2

2. INTRODUCTION TO ASEBI

2.1. ASEBI

All Surface Empty Bottle Inspector (ASEBI), with a modular design that makes

expandable functionality possible through available technology upgrades, meets the needs

of small to medium size bottling facilities. Operating at speeds of up to 700 bottles per

minute, the standard ASEBI comes equipped with a high resolution Camera Base

Inspection system. Optional functions include inspection of the finish, thread, outer

sidewall, inner sidewall, as well as the detection of residual liquid by infrared and RF

techniques.Transparent films are detected with a special optical technique known as the

Bright Field Analyzer. Reject verification, test bottle verification, rotating self-cleaning

diffuser glass, serial interface port (MODBUS Protocol), isolated PLC outputs, and

enclosure doors are also available as options..

Figure 2.1: All Surface Empty Bottle Inspector (ASEBI)


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 3

2.2 ASEBI DETECTION POINTS

All Surface Empty Bottle Inspector (ASEBI) having following detection points

They are:

1. OSW Detection

2.ISW Detection

3.Base detection

4.IR Residual Detection

5.RF Residual Detection

6.Finish Detection

7.Thread Detection

2.3 APPLICATIONS OF ASEBI

It is used in these areas like

1) Drug Companies

2) Beverages Companies

3) Water bottle companies

4) Pharmaceutical companies

5) Liquor companies


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 4

3. DETECTION TYPES IN ASEBI

3.1 Inner side wall

The bottle's inner sidewall is made up of all the inside surfaces from the base up

through the neck. Damages in these surfaces can be difficult to see with the human eye,

but can easily grow mold internally or shed glass into the product after it has been filled.

Figure 3.1: Inner side wall

The bottle's inner sidewall is made up of all the inside surfaces from the base up through

the neck. Damages in these surfaces can be difficult to see with the human eye, but can

easily grow mold internally or shed glass into the product after it has been filled. The

CCD is a special integrated circuit consisting of a flat, two dimensional array of small

light detectors referred to as pixels. The CCD chip is an array of Metal-Oxide-

Semiconductor capacitors (MOS capacitors), each capacitor represents a pixel. Each pixel

acts like a bucket for electrons. A CCD chip acquires data as light or electrical charge.

During an exposure, each pixel fills up with electrons in proportion to the amount of light


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 5

that enters it.The CCD takes this optical or electronic input and converts it into an

electronic signal. The electronic signal is then processed by some other equipment and/or

software to either produce an image or to give the user valuable information.

3.2 Outer side wall

Outer sidewall refers to the outside surface of a container, usually below

the thread and above the base. This outer surface can often become visibly

scuffed or chipped, especially in returnable glass or PET.

Figure 3.2: Outer side wall

Outer sidewall refers to the outside surface of a container, usually below the thread and

above the base. This outer surface can often become visibly scuffed or chipped, especially

in returnable glass or PET. While outer sidewall damages are unlikely to corrupt the

product itself, external container flaws are the indications of low quality standards most

obvious to the end consumer.


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 6

15 independent inspection zones

ACL detection

Adjustable illumination

360 degree outer surface inspection

6000k LED panel strobe

Cellophane / brightfield detection

Adjustable illumination

3.3 Base detection

The base of a bottle receives the most amount of wear during the container's life,

and easily sustains scuffing or chips. Thorough inspection of both the inside and outside

of an empty container's base prevents flawed packaging and contaminated product from

reaching the market

Figure 3.3: Base detection

The CCD is a special integrated circuit consisting of a flat, two dimensional array of

small light detectors referred to as pixels. The CCD chip is an array of Metal-Oxide-



DEPT OF ECE, CREC 7



that enters it.The CCD takes this optical or electronic input and converts it into an



As stated, CCD cameras are useful in scientific imagery, especially in astronomy, where,

with the help of a telescope, they allow for high resolution images of stars, galaxies, and

other celestial bodies that human eye cannot detect. CCD cameras can also be used in a

laboratory to image in finer detail than a regular camera. The fact that CCDs are

extremely sensitive to light makes them useful in experimentation where faint light

detection is needed.

3.4 Thread Inspection

A bottle's thread refers to the molding at the top of the neck where the cap may be

screwed in place. Incorrectly formed or damaged thread can result in capping failures,

spillage, and contaminated product. with proper capping and sealing.

Figure 3.4: Thread Inspection


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 8

3.5 finish Inspection

finish of a bottle or container is the very top surface where the cap is applied. For

returnable glass especially, this surface can easily chip while in the market or during the

washing process and cause problems with proper capping and sealing. If a chipped finish

does make its way back out into the market, sharp edges can harm the end consumer. The

CCD is a special integrated circuit consisting of a flat, two dimensional array of small

light detectors referred to as pixels. The CCD chip is an array of Metal-Oxide-




that enters it.1 The CCD takes this optical or electronic input and converts it into an


software to either produce an image or to give the user valuable information. As stated,

CCD cameras are useful in scientific imagery, especially in astronomy, where, with the

help of a telescope, they allow for high resolution images of stars, galaxies, and other

celestial bodies that human eye cannot detect. CCD cameras can also be used in a

laboratory to image in finer detail than a regular camera. The fact that CCDs are

extremely sensitive to light makes them useful in experimentation where faint light


For example, the 8-inch shutter pictured below leaks about 1/10,000ths of incident

light. Even in a dark room, the leaked light was imperceptible to experimenters. Though,

a 10 second integration time CCD exposure can resolve all the details of the leaked light

as shown in the picture. By applying IRAF image processing (to be described later), we

removed extraneous lighting by subtracting a dark image from the signal image.

It have:

• 1)High resolution CCD camera

• 2)Up to 720 degree inspection tracking

• 3)Adaptable for Press, Roll, and Twist finishes


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 9

Figure 3.5: final Inspection

3.6 CAUSTIC DETECTION(RF-RLD)

Without additional inspection, leftover caustic and objects (like mold, cigarette butts, or

straws) not shaken out during the washing process can remain inside of returnable

containers through the filler and get sent back out to the market. Detects smallest amounts

of caustic, even once it has dried.

Figure 3.6: Caustic Detection


DEPT OF ECE, CREC 10

4.CCD CAMERA OPERATION AND THEORY

4.1 INTRODUCATION

A CCD, or charged coupled device, is a device used in digital photography that converts

an optical image into electrical signal. CCD chips can detect faint amounts of light and

are capable of producing high resolution images needed in scientific research and

applications thereof. CCDs are particularly useful in astronomical imagery due to their

great sensitivity to light. In theory, CCDs are linear-producing accurate images,

transmitting the value they detect in a 1:1 ratio. This is usually not the case. Various

factors, such as dark noise, readout noise, saturation, along with the fact that each pixel

on a CCD is unique and varies from its neighbors, require that in-depth testing, analysis,

and data reduction be implemented when using a CCD for any type of scientific imagery.

Other variables, including the effects of a lens before a CCD and shutter speed of the

camera being used, along with others, must be taken into consideration and dealt with

accordingly in order to obtain a true image. There are various methods of testing for the

above factors, a few of which will be described, along with the appropriate data reduction

procedure.

4.2 Basic Theory of a CCD

The CCD is a special integrated circuit consisting of a flat, two dimensional array

of small light detectors referred to as pixels. The CCD chip is an array of Metal-Oxide-




that enters it. The CCD takes this optical or electronic input and converts it into an





4.3 Practical Applications of the CCD Camera

As stated, CCD cameras are useful in scientific imagery, especially in astronomy,

where, with the help of a telescope, they allow for high resolution images of stars,

galaxies, and other celestial bodies that human eye cannot detect. CCD cameras can also

be used in a laboratory to image in finer detail than a regular camera. The fact that CCDs

are extremely sensitive to light makes them useful in experimentation where faint light


For example, the 8-inch shutter pictured below leaks about 1/10,000ths of incident

light. Even in a dark room, the leaked light was imperceptible to experimenters. Though,

a 10 second integration time CCD exposure can resolve all the details of the leaked light

as shown in the picture. By applying IRAF image processing (to be described later), we

removed extraneous lighting by subtracting a dark image from the signal image.

4.4 Use of a CCD in a Controlled Environment

For the purposes of this essay and the description of CCD operation, functionality, test

methods, and data reduction, it will be assumed that all CCD use is in a controlled

environment such as an indoor laboratory or dark room. A procedure for operation in this

type of environment will be described. Keep in mind that CCD usage in different

situations call for other procedures than the ones described below, although many of the

same principles still apply.

The CCD that was used for the actual data that will be represented is a product of

SBIG, Santa Barbara Instrumentation Group. The model used was the ST-8300M/C.

Table B. Specifications for the ST-8300

CCD Kodak KAF-8300

Pixel Array 3326 x 2504 pixels

Total Pixels 8.3 Megapixels

Pixel Size 5.4 x 5.4 microns

Shutter Type Electromechanical

Exposure 0.1 to 3600 seconds

Dimensions 4 x 5 x 2 inches



When operating a CCD camera of these sorts, software must be used to acquire,

view, and edit images. CCDOps is the software that was used in the acquisition of all

images pictured. CCDOps is a free SBIG camera control software for Windows provided

with the purchase of an SBIG camera. While simple to operate, CCDOps effectively

controls all camera functions and is useful for basic image processing, although

limitations may exist.

When further image processing and data reduction is necessary, many other useful

programs exist, one of which is IRAF. IRAF stands for Image Reduction and Analysis

Facility, and is a general purpose software system for the reduction and analysis of

astronomical data. IRAF is written and supported by the IRAF programming group at the

National Optical Astronomy Observatories (NOAO) in Tucson, Arizona. NOAO is

operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc.

under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Basic IRAF

operations will be explained in further detail later on in this report.

4.5 Basic CCDOps Usage

1)The following process describes operation of CCDOps from a Windows XP

environment along with a few useful commands included in the program:

2)Install CCDOps onto a computer that runs Windows before connecting the camera to

the computer.

3)The process is simple and detailed instructions accompany the software package.

4)Make sure that the proper drivers for specific camera are installed.

5)SBIG cameras come equipped with a USB cable that connects the camera to the

computer.

6)Plug the camera‟s power supply into the wall and note that the internal fan comes on.

7)Connect the USB to the computer and follow instructions provided in the manual and

the “Found New Hardware Wizard” prompts.

Once CCDOps is installed and the camera is successfully connected to the computer, run

CCDOps. Once the temperature is reached, the percent capacity should be no more than

60-80 percent, and should never be operating at 100 percent.



4.6 Conclusion

The CCD, charged coupled device, is an amazing piece of technology that is very

useful in science, particularly in Astronomy, as well as in everyday life. High resolution

CCD images have allowed scientists to observe realms of the universe that the human eye

had never seen. Using various means of imaging and data reduction, one can correct

variances and imperfections exhibited by a CCD, and obtain a very accurate image.



5. WORKING AND OPERATION OF ASEBI

5.1 Working Principle

This machine works on the principle of empty bottle inspection.

Figure 5.1: Parts of ASEBI

Applications

Inspection of empty glass and PET containers

Output

Rated output: 72,000 containers per hour



5.2 Inspection modules in overview



5.3 POWER SUPPLY

5.3.1 AC POWER SUPPLY

Figure 5.3.1: AC POWER BLOCK DIGRAM



5.3.2 DC POWER SUPPLY

Figure 5.3.2: DC POWER BLOCK DIGRAM

FIGURE 5.3.1 shows the circuit diagram for AC power supply in ASEBI

FIGURE 5.3.2 shows the circuit diagram for DC power supply in ASEBI

.

UPS Battery:

The Lead-Acid 24VDC UPS battery is charged with the 30VDC power supply

that is mounted in the Base Cabinet. CB-11, the breaker for this supply, is connected

directly to the in-coming 220VAC line to allow charging to take place regardless of the

state of the main power switch. The power for this circuit is not subordinate to the main

Power Switch.



Theory/Functionality:

The OV-II UPS is not a typical AC UPS.

The OV-II UPS is a DC UPS whose sole purpose is to switch 24VDC from the power

supply in the Base Cabinet (which is killed when the main power switch is thrown) to the

24VDC battery for a period of one minute to allow Windows to have time to properly

shut down

1)Monitor The operating unit is a high-resolution 15" TFT colour touch-screen, which is

integrated in the machine head

2)Current display of all relevant operating data including rejection trend analysis with

possibility for display of all camera images

3)Access to user interface via individual passwords - optional as number code or with

coded transponders

4)Different access levels for individual operators, depending on the assigned

authorisation +

Documentation of production

1) data Recording of all relevant operating data such as production data, parameter

changes, the results of the test bottle programme, and special occurrences with the

machine function

2)Use of these data e. g. for quality management, or storing in a longtime memory

3)Saving of these data with exact time indications, operator names, and the respective

valid parameter values

4)Transfer possibility of defined operating data to an operating data acquisition system,

to the customer's network, or to an external PC (customer)

5)Different printout representations of production and test container data



Automatic maintenance programme

1.Automatic information on display for machine operator or service technician about

upcoming maintenance tasks

2.Display of maintenance tasks by priorities and resetting jobs after termination

3.Interactive graphical malfunctions diagnostics system to support troubleshooting

Remote visualisation

1.Display of the machine’s operating condition through the company-own network to

several PCs by using an additional software

2.Monitoring of e.g. counter readings, malfunctions, test bottle programme runs

Change ovwe

1)Test container programme Semi-automatic function monitoring in regular intervals, as

well as every time after switching on the machine, and when changing over to a new

container type

2)Infeed of a prepared assortment of test containers to the machine in any sequence

3)Examination of the individual inspection units by error detection with the test container

4)Data indication on the display, and recording of results

5)Data transfer to operating data acquisition system, to a network, or to a printe



6. LCD DISPLAY AND SETUP

6.1 Introducation

By using CCD camaras the detection of bottles seen in disply screen.It requires

windows 7 os with detection software.Below figure 6.1 shows the LCD display with

touchpad

Figure 6.1 LCD Display

Screen have:-

15-inch pivoting touch-screen

Display of all relevant operating data including a rejection trend analysis with

display of all camera images

Operation and adjustments via individual access levels with userdefined

transponders



6.2 Base inspection setup

A camera takes an image of the container base, which is evenly illuminated by an

LED flash. The high grey-scale resolution guarantees consistently high image quality

even in containers with different levels of permeability to light.

In glass bottles, it detects

Contamination and damage on the base

Foreign objects

With an additional filter: film residues and glass splinters in the bottle

In returnable PET containers, it detects

Contamination and damage on the base

Foreign objects

Tension cracks on the base



Figure 6.2 Base inspection setup

6.3 Inner side-wall inspection setup

Uses a CCD camera to inspect theinside of the container through itsopening

Utilises the LED illumination ofthe base inspection unit

Detects protruding dirt on theinner side-wall

This means that it inspects theinner side-wall precisely, even ifthere is a large-area

ACL label onthe container



Figure 6.3 Base Inner side-wall inspection setup

6.4 Side-wall inspection setup

The side-walls of returnable PET and glass containers are inspected in two or four

modules, each with a CCD camera. An LED light box evenly illuminates the entire bottle

height. Using special optical components, each camera produces three images per

container. By overlapping the image sections, each millimetre of the bottles is recorded.

For gap-free, all-around inspection, the bottles are rotated between the infeed and

discharge of the machine.



6.5 Infrared residual liquid detection setup

Residual liquid in the container is detected by two independently operating

systems: the infrared system detects all liquids, such as for example, cooking oil. As a

team, these two detection systems achieve a maximum degree of safety.

Figure 6.5 Infrared residual liquid detection setup



6.6 Finish setup

The finish of a bottle or container is the very top surface where the cap is applied.

For returnable glass especially, this surface can easily chip while in the market or during

the washing process and cause problems with proper capping and sealing. If a chipped

finish does make its way back out into the market, sharp edges can harm the end

consumer.

Figure 6.6 Finish setup



7. Troubleshooting and Benefits

7.1 Reasons of Heavy rejection of Bottle’s through EBI

Rejection due to Vacuum Drop.

Rejection due to Inspection.

Figure 7.1 vacuum drop in ASEBI



Figure 7.2 vacuum valve plate

7.1.1 Problems for above the valve plate:

Port get Blocked due to dirt's.

Due to damaged/loose sucker cup.

Due to damaged Valve plate.

Due to damaged Seal ring.

Due to damaged/loose of spring or o-ring.Due to loose Registry plate

7.1.2 Problems for below the valve plate:

Due to chock-up of vacuum filter.

Due to chock-up of Host pipe/Distributor Assy

Due to failure of Reject valve.

Failure of Vacuum pump

7.1.3 Rejection due to Inspection:

Improper entries of bottles in starwheel.

Object/dirt on inspection surface.

Heavy soap on conveyor.

Improper selection of bottle type during changeover.

Improper selection/alignment of starwheel/Dead plate.

Inspection head is not been kept on mention h.t.

7.2 While looking at the bottles being rejected see if there is an unusual

bottle characteristic which could be interpreted as a defect. Typical false

reject problems to look for include

7.2.1On the Base:

• Heavy embossed lettering or molding

• Extreme wedges

• Extreme color variations



• Prominent seams

• Large air bubbles

• Thin spots in the heel

7.2.2On the Inner Sidewall:

• Protruding glass knobs

• Extreme variation in thickness

• Birdswings

7.2.3 On the Plugged Neck/Color Sort:

• Extreme bottle color variations

7.2.4 For Residual Liquid:

• High levels of rinse carryover

• Extreme bottle color variations

• Bottles made from contaminated glass (such as recycled glass

which have blended multiple glass colors in it)

7.2.5 On the Finish:

• Heavy scuffing

• Large molding ridges

• Prominent seams

7.2.6 On the Outer Sidewall:

• Heavy scuffing

• Extreme color variations

• Large air bubbles

• Heavy embossed lettering or molding

• Prominent seams

If u find rejection due to above reason then make the adjustment in the respective

Inspection parameters accordingly.

7.3 Daily Maintenance checklist

1)Clean the machine with wet cloth.



2)Clean the Lens of camera by tissue paper or soft cloth.

3)Clean Diffuser glass by soft cloth.

4)Clean the base strobe lamp cover which is below the DEAD plate.

5)Clean the vacuum pump filter.

(one is in the machine and other is at the vacuum pump)



7.4 Our Benefits

7.4.1 Modular design

There is a range of different inspection modules and detection systems available for the

omnivision. Our product specialists can help you decide exactly which options are right

for you. Should your inspection requirements change at a later date, the omnivision can

be simply upgraded with additional modules.

7.4.2 Large processing spectrum

The omnivision can be flexibly adapted to very different con tainer types. This means that

both glass and returnable PET bottles can even be handled on the same machine.

7.4.3 Protection against operator errors

Parameters, cameras and belts are automatically adjusted and changed. Thus the

omnivision is perfectly protected against operator errors.

7.4.4 Slight wear-related costs

All modules are equipped with long-lasting LED illumination units.

7.4.5 Hygienic design

To create optimal hygienic conditions, the omnivision was designed in a completely

hygienic manner: it makes do without a table plate and dirt deposits do not stand a chance

on its slanted exterior surfaces. Container lubricants, fragments and other types of

contamination are removed immediately.

7.4.6 Excellent inspection results

The highly sensitive inspection modules have a 99.9% success rate when it comes to

detecting faults and contamination. Simultaneously, they keep the number of faulty



rejections down to an absolute minimum. This is made possible by intelligent inspection

software; the side-wall inspection system, for example, does not even become confused

by water droplets on the bottle. The side-wall and base inspection units can be optionally

upgraded with a 1.3 megapixel camera.

7.4.7 Quick and simple change-over

When changing over to other container types, no change parts need to be exchanged.

Furthermore, the parameters are changed over and the heights of the camera and of the

conveyor belts are adjusted automatically. This allows the entire change-over to be

performed in the record time of just two to five minutes.

7.4.8 Long-lasting and dirt repellant conveyor belts

Durability and microbiological safety are the two most important features of the conveyor

belts: their enclosed surfaces protect them against traces of wear and prevent them from

absorbing lubricants and liquids.

7.4.9 Uniform operating concept

All omnivision machines are equipped with a uniform operating concept for maximum

user friendliness.

7.5 Safety devices and other additional equipment

7.5.1 Safety devices:-

The machine is stopped if containers which are too high or have fallen down are

fed into it

Safety switch if containers with a diameter which is too small are fed into the

machine

Electronic function monitoring of the inspection and lighting units, all P.E. sensor

assemblies and all rejection systems



Tracking of the container position in the machine according to the fail-safe

principle

7.5.2 Additional equipment:-

Special filter for detecting glass splinters and film residues with the base

inspection unit

Special filter for detecting film residues with the side-wall inspection unit

Transponder for the test container program

Container pool statistics

1.3 megapixel camera for inspecting the base and side-wall

Ejection chute to avoid glass fragments in the bottle

Machine network connection and remote visualisation

Electronic Bloc connection with the filler



8.ULTRA SONIC SENSORS

8.1 FUNDAMENTALS AND ITS APPLICATION

This chapter provides the fundamentals of ultrasonic sensing techniques

that can be used in the various fields of engineering and science. It also includes

some advanced techniques used for non-destructive evaluations. At first, basic

characteristics of ultrasonic waves propagating in media are described briefly.

Secondly, basic concepts for measuring ultrasonic waves are described with

introductory subjects of ultrasonic transducers that generate and receive

ultrasonic waves. Finally, specialized results demonstrating the capabilities of

using a buffer rod sensor for ultrasonic monitoring at high temperatures are

presented.

Ultrasonic sensing techniques have become mature and are widely used in

the various fields of engineering and basic science. Actually, many types of

conventional ultrasonic instruments, devices and sophisticated software are

commercialized and used for both industrial and medical applications. One of

advantages of ultrasonic sensing is its outstanding capability to probe inside

objectives nondestructively because ultrasound can propagate through any kinds

of media including solids, liquids and gases except vacua. In typical ultrasonic

sensing the ultrasonic waves are travelling in a medium and often focused on

evaluating objects so that a useful information on the interaction of ultrasonic

energy with the objects are acquired as ultrasonic signals that are the wave forms

variations with transit time. Such ultrasonic data provides the fundamental basis

for describing the outputs of ultrasonic sensing and evaluating systems.

In this chapter the fundamentals of ultrasonic sensing techniques are described.

What is ultrasound, how to produce and capture ultrasound, what kinds of

methods and equipments can be used to measure ultrasound, and what kinds of

information can be obtained from ultrasonic measurements? These questions are

addressed in the following sections and the answers to the questions are briefly

explained from the viewpoint of industrial applications. In addition, some

specialized results using a buffer rod sensor that is an effective means for high



temperature ultrasonic measurements are introduced to demonstrate its

applicability for nondestrucive evaluations and monitoring. For further studies

on ultrasonic sensing, it is recommended to refer to some books, for basic

theories of ultrasound propagations. for transducers and instruments, and for

ultrasonic measurements, evaluations, applications and others.

It is known that frequency range of sound audible to humans is

approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz (cycles per second). Ultrasound is simply sound

that are above the frequency range of human hearing. When a disturbance occurs

at a portion in an elastic medium, it propagates through the medium in a finite

time as a mechanical sound wave by the vibrations of molecules, atoms or any

particles present. Such mechanical waves are also called elastic waves.

Ultrasound waves or ultrasonic waves are the terms used to describe elastic

waves with frequency greater than 20,000 Hz and normally exist in solids,

liquids, and gases. A simple illustration of the ultrasonic waves produced in a

solid is shown in Fig. 1, where distortion caused depending on whether a force is

applied normal or parallel to the surface at one end of the solid can result in

producing compression or shear vibrations, respectively, so that two types of

ultrasonic waves, i.e. longitudinal waves or transverse waves, propagate through

the solid. The energy of the wave is also carried with it.

In a continuous medium, the behaviour of ultrasonic waves is closely

related to a balance between the forces of inertia and of elastic deformation. An

ultrasonic wave moves at a velocity (the wave velocity) that is determined by the

material properties and shape of the medium, and occasionally the frequency.

The ultrasonic wave imparts motion to the material when it propagates. This is

referred to as particle motion, to distinguish it from the wave motion. This

particle motion is usually specified as a particle velocity v. It is noted in

ultrasonic measurements that the particle velocity is much smaller than wave

velocity. Also, one can understand that no ultrasonic wave propagates in vacua

because there are no particles that can vibrate in vacua.

The balance between inertia and elasticity develops into a linear relationship

between stress σ and particle velocity v, σ =zv. The proportional factor z is

called the specific acoustic impedance of an ultrasonic wave



z = σ/v = ρ c

where, ρ is the density, and c is the wave velocity. The acoustic impedance

characterizes the ability of a material to vibrate under an applied force and can

be considered as the resistance of the material to the passage of ultrasonic waves.

There is an analogy between impedance in electrical circuits and the acoustic

impedance. The acoustic impedance is useful for treating the transmission of

ultrasonic waves between two media, just like that the electrical impedance is

effective to characterize a resistance in an alternating electric current circuit. For

example, the transmission of an ultrasonic wave from one medium to another

becomes maximum when the acoustic impedances of the two media are equal.

The concept of using the acoustic impedance plays an important role in

determining of acoustic transmission and reflection at a boundary of two media

having different material properties and therefore, the acoustic impedance is an

important parameter in designing ultrasonic sensors and sensing systems.

ultrasonic waves propagating across the material is simply shown in terms

of the displacement of the layers from their equilibrium position and its

amplitude. At a fixed position in the material, the displacement changes

sinusoidally with time t, where the time required for the wave to propagate the

distance between successive maxima is the period T. At any time, the amplitude

of the displacement decreases periodically with increasing propagation distance

because of its attenuation by the material. The distance between successive

maxima in the amplitude variation is equal to the wavelength λ.

8.2. FEATURES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

It is important to understand the behaviour and properties of ultrasonic

waves in media, to design ultrasonic sensors and develop ultrasonic sensing

systems. Some basic features of ultrasonic waves are introduced here.

Types of Wave (Modes of Propagation)

What types of ultrasonic waves can exist? The answer to this question can

basically be given from solutions of the wave equations that predict wave

behaviours by showing that material properties and body shape dictate the

vibrational response to the applied forces that drive the wave motion. Details of

wave types obtained by solving wave equations and their characteristics are



shown in .In short, there are two types of ultrasonic waves: bulk (fundamental)

waves that propagate inside of an object, and guided waves that propagate near

the surface or along the interface of an object

Waves that propagate wholly inside an object, independent of its boundary

and shape, are called bulk waves. Two types of bulk waves can exist in an

isotropic medium: longitudinal (or dilatational, compression, primary), and shear

(or distortional, transverse, secondary) waves as shown schematically in Fig. 1.

As mentioned in Section 2.1, ultrasonic wave propagations are usually described

in terms of the direction of particles motion in relation to the direction in which

the wave propagates. The longitudinal waves can be defined on this basis as

waves in which the particle motion is parallel to the direction of the wave

propagation. The shear waves are defined as waves in which the particle motion

is perpendicular to the direction of the propagation. Both waves can exist in

solids because solids, unlike liquids and gasses, have rigidity that is a resistance

to shear as well as compressive loads. However, the shear waves cannot exist in

liquids and gasses because of no resistance to shear roads in such media.

When the influences of the boundaries or shape of an object are considered,

other types of waves called the guided waves are produced. There are three types

of guided waves depending on geometry of an object: surface acoustic waves

(SAWs), plate waves, and rod waves.

SAW are defined as waves that propagate along a free surface, with

disturbance amplitude that decays exponentially with depth into the object. There

are many kinds of SAWs such as Rayleigh, Scholte, Stoneley, and Love waves

and the wave propagation characteristics of SAWs strongly depend on material

properties, surface structure, and nature at the interface of the object. When an

SAW propagates along a boundary between a semiinfinite solid and air, the wave

is often called Rayleigh wave in which the particle motion is elliptical and the

effective penetration depth is of the order of one wavelength. Among many types

of SAWs, Rayleigh wave is the most common and well-known wave so that

many researchers often call any SAWs Rayleigh wave.

When an ultrasonic wave propagates in a finite medium (like a plate),

the wave is bounded within the medium and may resonate. Such waves in an



object of finite size are called plate waves if the object has a multilayer structure,

and called Lamb waves if it has a single layer. Also, when a force is applied to

the end of a slender rod, an ultrasonic wave propagates axially along it. Wave

propagations in rodlike structures such as a thin rod and hollow cylinders have

been studied extensively. Further information on the guided waves and their

characteristics can be obtained in In general, the wave propagation

characteristics of guided waves strongly depend on not only material properties

but also the plate thickness, the rod diameter, and the frequency. The frequency

dependence of the wave velocity of guided waves is called frequency dispersion.

While the frequency dispersion often makes wave propagation behaviour

complicated, it also provides unique materials evaluations using guided waves. It

is noted that similar types of bulk and guided waves can exist for anisotropic

materials and in general, their behaviours become much more complicated than

those for isotropic materials

Ultrasonic velocity is probably the most important and widely used

parameter in ultrasonic sensing applications. Each medium has its own value of

the velocity that usually depends on not only propagation medium but also its

geometrical shape and structure. The theoretical values can be obtained from

wave equations and typically determined by the elastic properties and density of

the medium. For example, the wave equations for an isotropic solid give the

following simple formulae for the longitudinal and shear wave velocities

V l = ρ E (1+ν1)(−1ν− 2ν) (2) V S = ρ E 2(11+ν) = Gρ

where, vl and vs are the longitudinal and shear wave velocities, respectively, E

is Young’s modulus, ν is Poisson’s ratio, G is shear modulus and ρ is the density.

For most of solid materials the longitudinal wave velocity is faster than the shear

wave velocity because the shear modulus is lower than the Young’s modulus. It

is noted that Poisson’s ratio is not a dominant factor affecting the velocities. As a

rule of thumb, the velocity of the shear wave is roughly half the longitudinal

wave. Although the velocities can be determined theoretically if material

properties such as the elastic moduli and density are kno wn precisely, these

material properties are not always available for the determination because they



change depending on mechanical processing and heat treatments. Therefore, it is

important and necessary to make a calibration measurement for the velocities

when one wants to know the correct values for velocities.

8.3. ATTENUATION

When an ultrasonic wave propagates through a medium, ultrasonic

attenuation is caused by a loss of energy in the ultrasonic wave and other

reasons. The attenuation can be seen as a reduction of amplitude of the wave.

There are some factors affecting the amplitude and waveform of the ultrasonic

wave, such as ultrasonic beam spreading, energy absorption, dispersion,

nonlinearity, transmission at interfaces, scattering by inclusions and defects,

Doppler effect and so on. To characterize the ultrasonic attenuation

quantitatively, attenuation coefficient α is defined as follow.

Where A is the peak amplitude of the wave at propagation distance x, A0 is

the initial peak amplitude. The attenuation coefficient α is experimentally

determined from the variation of the peak amplitude with the propagation

distance, and it can be given in decibel per metre (dB/m) or in neper per metre

(Np/m). In general, the attenuation coefficient highly depends on frequency.

Since this frequency dependence reflects microstructures of materials, it can be

used for characterizing microscopic material properties relating to chemical

reactions and mechanical processes. Further information on the attenuation can

be obtained

Wavelength λ is the distance over which one spatial cycle of the wave

completes and the following expression can be given, λ=v/f

where V is the ultrasonic velocity and f is the frequency. Wavelength is a useful

parameter in ultrasonic sensing and evaluations. In ultrasonic detection of a

small object, the smallest size that can clearly be detected must be larger than

half a wavelength at the operating frequency. If the critical size of an object to be

detected is known, such prior information on size is helpful for selecting an

appropriate frequency for measurements.

When an ultrasonic wave perpendicularly impinges on an interface between

two media as shown in Fig.2, a part of the wave is reflected back to the medium

1 and the remainder is transmitted to the medium 2. The ratio of the amplitude of



the reflected wave AR to that of the incident wave AI is called reflection

coefficient R, and the ratio of the amplitude of the transmitted wave AT to that

of the AI is called transmission coefficient T. Considering a valance of stresses

and a continuity of velocities on both sides of the interface, the reflection and

transmission coefficients, R and T can be given as follows

R = AARI = zz1 1 +−zz22

T = AATI = 2 z1 z+1 z2

where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the medium 1 and 2, respectively, and z is the

acoustic impedance defined as Eq. (1). It can be seen from these equations that

the maximum transmission of ultrasonic wave occurs when the impedances of

the two media are identical, and most of ultrasonic wave is reflected when the

two media have very different impedances. The reflection and transmission at

interface play an important role in designing ultrasonic sensing systems and

understanding experimental results with the ultrasonic systems.

8.4 REFRACTION AND MODE CONVERSION

When an ultrasonic wave obliquely impinges on an interface between two

media as shown in Fig.3, several things happen depending on the incident angle

of the wave as well as the material properties of the two media. One of important

things is refraction in which a transmitted wave has a different angle from the

incident. The refraction is basically caused by the velocity difference on either

side of the interface. The refraction angle can be calculated from Snell’s law if

the velocities of the two media and the incidence angle are known.

Another important phenomenon is mode conversion that is a generation of

one type of wave from another type in refraction as shown in Fig. 3. For

example, a longitudinal wave incident on an interface between liquid and solid is

transmitted partially as a refracted longitudinal wave and partially as a mode

converted shear wave in the solid.

Mode conversion can also take place on reflection if the liquid shown in

Fig. 3 is a solid. It is noted that any types of waves can be converted to another

type, e.g. from a shear wave to a longitudinal wave, and from a longitudinal

wave to a surface wave. The angles of reflection and/or refraction by mode

conversion can be calculated from Snell’s law.



a simulation result for refraction and mode conversion, calculated by a

finite difference method. We can see that an incident plane wave

(longitudinal wave) of 10º in water is refracted at the refraction angle of 43º in

steel and simultaneously converted to shear wave at refraction angle of 22º.

Refracted longitudinal wave Mode converted shear wave

TRANSDUCERS

Ultrasonic sensors are often called transducers. The function of the

transducers is to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy which directly

corresponds to ultrasonic vibration, and vice versa. The most common way of

generating and detecting ultrasonic waves utilizes the piezoelectric effect of a

certain crystalline material such as quartz. Since the piezoelectric effect is

reciprocal, it produces a deformation (a mechanical stress) in a piezoelectric

material when an electrical voltage is applied across the material, and

conversely, it produces an electrical voltage when a deformation (a mechanical

stress) is applied to the material. Thus, the piezoelectric materials can be used for

generating and detecting ultrasonic waves that are related to the mechanical

stresses.

Appropriate cuts and directions of quartz are utilized for two types of

waves, longitudinal and shear, Nowadays, many piezoelectric materials besides

quartz are available, such as barium titanate (BaTiO3), lead metaniobate

(PbNb2O3) and lead zirconate titanate (PZT), etc. The size and shape of

piezoelectric transducers have to be precisely designed depending on the desired

frequency. For industrial applications, solid-state transducers are usually used,

because of their robustness. A piezoelectric transducer consists of a piezoelectric

element, electrical connections, backing materials, front layers and a casing.

The typical construction The front layer is to protect the piezoelectric

element against external stresses and environmental influences, and also must

function as an impedance matching layer with which the transfer of ultrasonic

energy to the target medium is optimized. The backing material functions as a

damping block that alters the resonance frequency of the piezoelectric element



and deletes unwanted ultrasonic waves reflected from the back wall. The

electrical line is connected AC or DC voltage supplies that are often operated at

the resonant frequency of the piezoelectric element.

Depending on applications, other types of transducers can be available.

Piezoelectric polymers that can exhibit the piezoelectric effect, often called

PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride), have some advantages owing to polymer

characteristics such as its low acoustic impedance and softness. Magnetostriction

effect that occurs in ferromagnetic materials is also utilized as transducers in

industries.

It should be noted that the piezoelectric and magnetostrictive effects

generally decrease with a rise in temperature and disappears at the Curie

temperature. This is a crucial limitation in use of the ultrasonic transducers.

When ultrasonic measurements are conducted at high temperatures near the

Curie temperature, precautions are necessary so that the ultrasonic transducer

does work properly. One of methods for high temperature measurements and its

applications are presented in Section 4. It is also noted in the use of the

transducers mentioned above that it is necessary to use some coupling medium

for making an effective ultrasonic energy transmission between the transducer

and specimen, as shown in Fig. 6. Gels, liquids or grease are often used as a

coupling medium. It is extremely difficult to conduct the ultrasonic

measurements without such coupling medium because of any air gap or large

acoustic impedance between the transducer and specimen surface. This is

another disadvantage of using contact-type transducers. Further information on

transducers can be obtained in

Non-contact ultrasonic measurements are of great practical interests in the

many fields of engineering. There are three kinds of non-contact methods for

generation and detection of ultrasonic waves: optical method, electromagnetic

method, and air-coupled method. Although each method has advantages and

disadvantages, they have the potential to be powerful diagnostic tools for

advanced ultrasonic sensing.



Optical methods for measuring ultrasonic waves are called laser ultrasonics

in which ultrasonic waves are generated and detected by using lasers. Laser

generation of ultrasonic waves can be recognized as exciting the waves with an

optical hammer. When a high energy pulsed laser beam is irradiated onto a

specimen surface, an interaction of the laser beam with the specimen occurs in

one or both of two distinct processes, thermoelastic and ablative. By controlling

the laser irradiation conditions, it is possible to generate any types of ultrasonic

waves such as longitudinal, shear and guided waves at a desired frequency. To

detect ultrasonic waves, a laser beam is illuminated onto the specimen surface

for the duration sufficiently long to capture the ultrasonic signal of interest.

Ultrasonic waves are then detected by measuring surface displacements caused

by ultrasonic disturbance, using a laser-assisted interferometer or other device.

Mickelson, Confocal Fabry-Perot or Photorefractive Two-wave mixing

interferometers are often utilized. The ability of laser-ultrasonics to operate at

large standoff distances provides big advantages in industrial applications such

as materials process monitoring at high temperatures. Further information on

laser ultrasonics can be obtained

Electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) is an alternative technique for

generating and receiving ultrasonic waves, with which the ultrasonic

measurements are conducted without any coupling medium between the

transducer and specimen. The EMAT consists of a stack of coils and magnets to

generate and receive ultrasonic waves in an electrically conductive material as

shown in Fig. 7. When a coil that is placed near to the surface of a specimen is

driven by a pulse current with a desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will

be induced by electromagnetic induction in near surface region of the specimen.

Since a static magnetic field is present, the eddy currents will experience Lorentz

forces F of the following form

F =J×B

where J is the induced eddy currents and, B is the static magnetic field.

Interactions of the Lorentz forces with the specimen produce high frequency

vibrations resulting in generating ultrasonic waves. Since these processes are

reciprocal, the same mechanisms work to allow the ultrasonic energy to be



converted into electromagnetic energy, so that the EMAT works as a receiver as

well as a generator. The EMAT eliminates the problems associated with the

coupling medium because the electro-mechanical conversion takes place directly

within the electromagnetic skin depth of the specimen surface. Thus, EMATs

allow non-contact ultrasonic sensing for moving specimens, rough surfaces, in

vacuum and also in hazardous locations. Further information on

EMATs can be obtained

Another method for non-contact ultrasonic sensing is air-coupled

ultrasonics. In aircoupled ultrasonics, air is used as a coupling medium between

the transducer and specimen. Although air-coupling is very attractive, it has

some difficulties because of high attenuation coefficient of air and high

impedance mismatch between a transducer and air. To overcome such problem, a

specially designed transducer with an optimal impedance matching layer is

required for air-coupled ultrasonic measurements. Some piezoelectric-type air-

coupled transducers have been commercialized and used for noncontact

inspections. However, most of them have relatively low and narrow band

frequency response with which it may not be sufficient to be used in a wide

variety of applications. Recently, micro electromechanical systems (MEMS)

technology has applied to ultrasonic sensors. A capacitive type air-coupled

transducer, consisting of a metallized insulating polymer film placed upon a

contoured conducting backplate, is developed using semiconductor

manufacturing techniques [24]. This provides effective air-couple measurements

with a higher and wider band frequency, in the range 100 kHz to 2 MHz.

Utilizing such advantage, a novel noncontact method for characterizing surface

roughness of materials by air-coupled ultrasound is developed



4.5 Basics of Instrumentation

Basic construction of an ultrasonic measurement system used to generate

and detect ultrasonic waves in a specimen. The synchronization generator gives

trigger signals with high repetition rate (e.g. 1000 repetitions per second) to the

pulse generator (pulser). Using these triggers, the pulser provides electrical

voltage to the transducer so that the transducer generates ultrasonic waves at the

same repetition rate. The reflected ultrasonic waves through the specimen are

received by the same transducer and the resulting voltage of the received waves

goes to the display through the amplifier. The computer is often used to analyze

the acquired ultrasonic data.

Figure 9 shows typical configurations for transducers used to launch and

receive ultrasonic waves for ultrasonic measurements. Pulse-echo configuration

with a single transducer shown in Fig. 9(a) is most commonly used to measure

reflected waves from a flaw or the opposite side of the specimen. Through-

transmission with a two transducers shown in Fig. 9(b) is probably the second

most commonly used configuration. The third one is so-called pitch-catch

configuration in which two transducers are placed on the same side of the

specimen as shown in Fig. 9(c). This can be useful in the cases that the back wall

is not parallel to the front wall or there is difficulty to use normal incidence

ultrasonic beams.

In general, an ultrasonic transducer operating at a high frequency radiates a

narrow ultrasonic beam into a medium, which results in sensing over a narrow

spatial region. To cover a wider region in ultrasonic sensing, scanning techniques

are often used. Another have been applied to various nondestructive evaluations

such as inspections of industrial structures, quantitative characterizations of

materials and structural health monitoring it is still required to develop new and

more effective techniques that are applicable to advanced nondestructive

evaluations. One of industrial demands is to realize ultrasonic in-line monitoring

in a hazardous environment such as high temperatures. In this section, recent

advances showing the capabilities of using buffer rod sensors as nondestructive

tool for high temperature monitoring are presented.



Buffer Rod Sensors for High Temperature Monitoring

There are several ways for ultrasonic sensing at high temperatures: laser

ultrasonics, EMATs, high temperature transducers and buffer rod method

(known as delay-lines or waveguides). Since each technique has advantages and

disadvantages, one has to select the appropriate technique to suit the objective

depending on the application. Among the techniques, buffer rod method is a

classical and still an attractive approach because of its simplicity and low cost.

For high temperature applications of the buffer rod method, a long buffer rod is

often employed as a waveguide. A conventional piezoelectric transducer is

installed to the one end of the buffer rod and the other end is in contact with the

material to be measured.

The difficulty in ultrasonic measurements using a buffer rod is, in most

cases, caused by spurious echoes due to interference of mode converted waves,

dispersion, and diffraction within the rod of finite diameter. These spurious

echoes deteriorate the signal to noise ratio (SNR) because of their possible

interference with desired signals to be measured. To overcome such difficulty,

tapered and clad buffer rods are developed for various applications in materials

evaluations and monitoring [26]-[31]. Fig. 11 shows the exterior of one of the

developed buffer rod sensors, consisting of a tapered clad buffer rod, a cooling

pipe and a conventional ultrasonic transducer (UT). The transducer end of the

buffer rod is air cooled so that conventional room temperature UTs can be used

while the other end (probing end) is in contact with a hot medium at 800ºC.

Because of a taper shape of the buffer rod and a cladding layer of the outer

surface, the buffer rod provides high performance pulse-echo measurements with

high SNR at high temperatures. The length of the rod is possible to be up to 1000

mm.

To provide high spatial resolution measurements, a spherical concave surface

is machined at the probing end of the rod . This is expected to function as an

acoustic lens for generating and receiving focus Ultrasonic transducer Air

cooling pipe



Caused ultrasonic waves. Shows a contour plot of the acoustic field in the

vicinity of a focal zone in molten aluminium at 800ºC, where the acoustic field is

numerically examined by finite difference method. We can see that the ultrasonic

wave can be focused onto a small area comparable to a wavelength (460 µm) so

that it is expected to make high resolution measurements using the focused

buffer rod sensor. It is experimentally verified that the developed focused sensor

can successfully detect alumina particles of about 160 µm suspended in molten

aluminum Fig. 13 shows ultrasonic images obtained in molten zinc at 650ºC, by

scanning of a focused buffer rod sensor .This is probably the first ever image in a

molten metal. Surprisingly, this kind of imaging is possible even using a long

buffer rod of 1 m length. Fig. 14 shows the images obtained in water using a

short rod of 75 mm and a long rod of about 1000 mm Although the resolution of

the image using the long rod deteriorates because of an attenuation of higher

frequency components of the guided wave in the rod, it can be seen that the

ultrasonic wave can be focused onto a small spot of about one wavelength.

Using the buffer rod sensor, an attempt has been made to monitor a

solidliquid interface of aluminium alloy during unidirectional solidification at

700ºC . A solid-liquid interface of aluminium alloy is produced using a

directional solidification furnace and then the interface behaviour is monitored

during heating and cooling as the location of the interface determined from the

transit time of ultrasonic pulse echo. The growing rate of the solidification front

is estimated to be 0.12 mm/s by time-differentiating the location. The amplitude

change of the interface echo is also We can observe periodical

Oscillations in the amplitude during heating and cooling. It is tentatively

considered that these oscillations are related to the feature of solidification

instabilities such as variations in cellular structure and/or mushy zone consisting

of solid and liquid phases.

In many fields of science and engineering, there are growing demands for

measuring internal temperature distribution of heated materials. Recently, an

ultrasonic method has been applied to internal temperature monitoring [32]. The

principle of the method is based on temperature dependence of ultrasonic



velocity in materials. A single side of a silicone rubber plate of 30 mm thickness

is heated by contacting with a hot steel plate as shown in Fig. 16(a) and

ultrasonic pulse-echo measurements are then performed during heating. A

change in the transit time of ultrasonic wave in the heated rubber is monitored

and used to determine the transient variation of internal temperature gradient in

the rubber, where an inverse analysis is used to determine one-dimensional

temperature gradient. Fig. 16(b) shows the internal temperature distributions in

the silicone rubber and their variations with elapsed time. The temperature

gradient determined ultrasonically agrees well with both obtained using

commercial thermocouples installed in the rubber and estimated theoretically.

Thus, recent demonstrations shown in this section reveal that even a

classical method such as a pulse-echo method using a buffer rod sensor has the

high potential to be applicable to a novel sensing in an unexplored field.

In this chapter a brief overview of fundamentals in ultrasonic sensing is

presented. Some advanced techniques and applications to nondestrucve

evaluation are also introduced. The essentials of ultrasonic sensing are how to

drive an ultrasonic wave into an object and how to capture the ultrasonic wave

from the object. In addition, another essential is how to extract the information

we want from the captured ultrasonic wave. To accomplish these and to create a

useful sensing technique, it is indispensable to make an effective collaboration

among researchers in different fields of engineering and science such as

electrical, electronics, information, mechanical and materials. Actureally,

progress is being made in ultrasonic sensing technology. but, it should be noted

that classical techniques and methods are still attractive .



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all surface empty bottle inspection(asebi) full documentation

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