alkyl halide
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 6Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination
Organic Chemistry
Chapter 6 2
Classes of Halides Alkyl: Halogen, X, is directly bonded to sp3
carbon. Vinyl: X is bonded to sp2 carbon of alkene. Aryl: X is bonded to sp2 carbon on benzene
ring. Examples:
C
H
H
H
C
H
H
Br
alkyl halide
C CH
H
H
Cl
vinyl halide
I
aryl halide
=>
Chapter 6 3
Polarity and Reactivity
Halogens are more electronegative than C. Carbon-halogen bond is polar, so carbon has
partial positive charge. Carbon can be attacked by a nucleophile. Halogen can leave with the electron pair.
=>
CH
HH
Br
δ+ δ-
Chapter 6 4
Classes of Alkyl Halides
Methyl halides: only one C, CH3X
Primary: C to which X is bonded has only one C-C bond.
Secondary: C to which X is bonded has two C-C bonds.
Tertiary: C to which X is bonded has three C-C bonds. =>
Chapter 6 5
Classify These:
CH3 CH CH3
Cl
CH3CH2F
(CH3)3CBr CH3I =>
Chapter 6 6
Dihalides
Geminal dihalide: two halogen atoms are bonded to the same carbon
Vicinal dihalide: two halogen atoms are bonded to adjacent carbons.
C
H
H
H
C
H
Br
Br
geminal dihalide
C
H
H
Br
C
H
H
Br
vicinal dihalide
=>
Chapter 6 7
IUPAC Nomenclature
Name as haloalkane. Choose the longest carbon chain, even if the
halogen is not bonded to any of those C’s. Use lowest possible numbers for position.
CH3 CH CH2CH3
Cl CH3(CH2)2CH(CH2)2CH3
CH2CH2Br
2-chlorobutane 4-(2-bromoethyl)heptane=>
Chapter 6 8
Systematic Common Names
Name as alkyl halide. Useful only for small alkyl groups. Name these:
CH3 CH CH2CH3
Cl
(CH3)3CBr
CH3 CH
CH3
CH2F =>
Chapter 6 9
“Trivial” Names
CH2X2 called methylene halide. CHX3 is a haloform. CX4 is carbon tetrahalide. Examples:
CH2Cl2 is methylene chloride
CHCl3 is chloroform
CCl4 is carbon tetrachloride.
=>
Chapter 6 10
Uses of Alkyl Halides Solvents - degreasers and dry cleaning fluid Reagents for synthesis of other compounds Anesthetic: Halothane is CF3CHClBr
CHCl3 used originally (toxic and carcinogenic)
Freons, chlorofluorocarbons or CFC’s Freon 12, CF2Cl2, now replaced with Freon 22,
CF2CHCl, not as harmful to ozone layer.
Pesticides - DDT banned in U.S. =>
Chapter 6 11
Dipole Moments µ = 4.8 x δ x d, where δ is the charge
(proportional to ∆EN) and d is the distance (bond length) in Angstroms.
Electronegativities: F > Cl > Br > I Bond lengths: C-F < C-Cl < C-Br < C-I Bond dipoles: C-Cl > C-F > C-Br > C-I
1.56 D 1.51 D 1.48 D 1.29 D
Molecular dipoles depend on shape, too!
=>
Chapter 6 12
Boiling Points
Greater intermolecular forces, higher b.p. dipole-dipole attractions not significantly different for
different halides London forces greater for larger atoms
Greater mass, higher b.p. Spherical shape decreases b.p.
(CH3)3CBr CH3(CH2)3Br 73°C 102°C =>
Chapter 6 13
Densities
Alkyl fluorides and chlorides less dense than water.
Alkyl dichlorides, bromides, and iodides more dense than water. =>
Chapter 6 14
Preparation of RX
Free radical halogenation (Chapter 4)produces mixtures, not good lab synthesisunless: all H’s are equivalent, orhalogenation is highly selective.
Free radical allylic halogenationproduces alkyl halide with double bond on the
neighboring carbon. =>
Chapter 6 15
Halogenation of Alkanes All H’s equivalent. Restrict amount of
halogen to prevent di- or trihalide formation
Highly selective: bromination of 3° C =>
+ HBr
H
BrhνBr2+
H
H
90%
+ HBrCH3 C
CH3
CH3
Brhν
Br2+CH3 C
CH3
CH3
H
Chapter 6 16
Allylic Halogenation Allylic radical is resonance stabilized. Bromination occurs with good yield at the
allylic position (sp3 C next to C=C). Avoid a large excess of Br2 by using
N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) to generate Br2 as product HBr is formed.
N
O
O
Br + HBr N
O
O
H + Br2 =>
Chapter 6 17
Reaction Mechanism
Free radical chain reaction initiation, propagation, termination.
H H
BrH
+ HBrBr
Br
H Br
+ Br
=>
2 BrBr2hν
Chapter 6 18
Substitution Reactions
The halogen atom on the alkyl halide is replaced with another group.
Since the halogen is more electronegative than carbon, the C-X bond breaks
heterolytically and X- leaves.
The group replacing X- is a nucleophile. =>
C C
H X
+ Nuc:-C C
H Nuc
+ X:-
Chapter 6 19
Elimination Reactions
The alkyl halide loses halogen as a halide ion, and also loses H+ on the adjacent carbon to a base.
A pi bond is formed. Product is alkene. Also called dehydrohalogenation (-HX).
=>
C C
H X
+ B:- + X:- + HB C C
Chapter 6 20
SN2 Mechanism
Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Concerted reaction: new bond forming
and old bond breaking at same time. Rate is first order in each reactant. Walden inversion.
=>
CH
Br
HH
H O CHO Br
H
HH
CHO
H
HH
+ Br-
Chapter 6 21
SN2 Energy Diagram
One-step reaction. Transition state is highest in energy. =>
Chapter 6 22
Uses for SN2 Reactions Synthesis of other classes of compounds. Halogen exchange reaction.
=>
Chapter 6 23
SN2: Nucleophilic Strength Stronger nucleophiles react faster. Strong bases are strong nucleophiles, but
not all strong nucleophiles are basic.
=>
Chapter 6 24
Trends in Nuc. Strength
Of a conjugate acid-base pair, the base is stronger: OH- > H2O, NH2
- > NH3
Decreases left to right on Periodic Table. More electronegative atoms less likely to form new bond: OH- > F-, NH3 > H2O
Increases down Periodic Table, as size and polarizability increase: I- > Br- > Cl-
=>
Chapter 6 25
Polarizability Effect
=>
Chapter 6 26
Bulky Nucleophiles
Sterically hindered for attack on carbon, so weaker nucleophiles.
CH3 CH2 O ethoxide (unhindered)weaker base, but stronger nucleophile
C
CH3
H3C
CH3
O
t-butoxide (hindered)stronger base, but weaker nucleophile
=>
Chapter 6 27
Solvent Effects (1)Polar protic solvents (O-H or N-H) reduce
the strength of the nucleophile. Hydrogen bonds must be broken before nucleophile can attack the carbon.
=>
Chapter 6 28
Solvent Effects (2)
Polar aprotic solvents (no O-H or N-H) do not form hydrogen bonds with nucleophile
Examples:
CH3 C Nacetonitrile C
O
H3C CH3
acetone =>
dimethylformamide (DMF)
CH
O
NCH3
CH3
Chapter 6 29
Crown Ethers
Solvate the cation, so nucleophilic strength of the anion increases.
Fluoride becomes a good nucleophile.
O
O
O
O
OO
K+
18-crown-6
CH2Cl
KF, (18-crown-6)
CH3CN
CH2F
=>
Chapter 6 30
SN2: Reactivity of Substrate
Carbon must be partially positive. Must have a good leaving group Carbon must not be sterically hindered.
=>
Chapter 6 31
Leaving Group Ability Electron-withdrawing Stable once it has left (not a strong base) Polarizable to stabilize the transition state.
=>
Chapter 6 32
Structure of Substrate
Relative rates for SN2: CH3X > 1° > 2° >> 3°
Tertiary halides do not react via the SN2 mechanism, due to steric hindrance. =>
Chapter 6 33
Stereochemistry of SN2
Walden inversion
=>
Chapter 6 34
SN1 Reaction
Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. Two step reaction with carbocation
intermediate. Rate is first order in the alkyl halide,
zero order in the nucleophile. Racemization occurs.
=>
Chapter 6 35
SN1 Mechanism (1)Formation of carbocation (slow)
(CH3)3C Br (CH3)3C+
+ Br-
=>
Chapter 6 36
SN1 Mechanism (2) Nucleophilic attack
(CH3)3C+
+ H O H (CH3)3C O H
H
(CH3)3C O H
H
H O H+ (CH3)3C O H + H3O+
=>
• Loss of H+ (if needed)
Chapter 6 37
SN1 Energy Diagram
Forming the carbocation is endothermic
Carbocation intermediate is in an energy well.
=>
Chapter 6 38
Rates of SN1 Reactions
3° > 2° > 1° >> CH3X Order follows stability of carbocations (opposite to
SN2)
More stable ion requires less energy to form
Better leaving group, faster reaction (like SN2)
Polar protic solvent best: It solvates ions strongly with hydrogen bonding. =>
Chapter 6 39
Stereochemistry of SN1Racemization:
inversion and retention
=>
Chapter 6 40
Rearrangements
Carbocations can rearrange to form a more stable carbocation.
Hydride shift: H- on adjacent carbon bonds with C+.
Methyl shift: CH3- moves from adjacent
carbon if no H’s are available.
=>
Chapter 6 41
Hydride Shift
CH3 C
Br
H
C
H
CH3
CH3CH3 C
H
C
H
CH3
CH3
CH3 C
H
C
H
CH3
CH3CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
H
CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
HNuc
CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
H Nuc
=>
Chapter 6 42
Methyl Shift
CH3 C
Br
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3
NucCH3 C
H
C
CH3
CH3
CH3 Nuc
=>
Chapter 6 43
SN2 or SN1?
Primary or methyl Strong nucleophile
Polar aprotic solvent
Rate = k[halide][Nuc] Inversion at chiral
carbon No rearrangements
Tertiary Weak nucleophile (may
also be solvent)
Polar protic solvent, silver salts
Rate = k[halide] Racemization of optically
active compound
Rearranged products
=>
Chapter 6 44
E1 Reaction
Unimolecular elimination Two groups lost (usually X- and H+) Nucleophile acts as base Also have SN1 products (mixture)
=>
Chapter 6 45
E1 Mechanism
Halide ion leaves, forming carbocation. Base removes H+ from adjacent carbon. Pi bond forms. =>
H C
H
H
C
CH3
CH3
Br
C
H
H
H
C CH3
CH3
O
H
H
C
H
H
H
C CH3
CH3
C C
H
CH3
CH3
H+ H3O+
Chapter 6 46
A Closer LookO
H
H
C
H
H
H
C CH3
CH3
C C
H
CH3
CH3
H+ H3O+
=>
Chapter 6 47
E1 Energy Diagram
Note: first step is same as SN1=>
Chapter 6 48
E2 Reaction
Bimolecular elimination Requires a strong base Halide leaving and proton abstraction
happens simultaneously - no intermediate.
=>
Chapter 6 49
E2 Mechanism
H C
H
H
C
CH3
CH3
Br
C C
H
CH3
CH3
H
O
H+ H2O Br
-+
=>
Chapter 6 50
Saytzeff’s Rule If more than one elimination product is possible,
the most-substituted alkene is the major product (most stable).
R2C=CR2>R2C=CHR>RHC=CHR>H2C=CHR tetra > tri > di > mono
C C
Br
H
C
H
CH3
H
H
H
CH3
OH-
C CH
HC
H H
CH3
CH3
C
H
H
H
C
H
CCH3
CH3
+
=>minor major
Chapter 6 51
E2 Stereochemistry
=>
Chapter 6 52
E1 or E2? Tertiary > Secondary Weak base Good ionizing solvent
Rate = k[halide] Saytzeff product No required geometry
Rearranged products
Tertiary > Secondary Strong base required Solvent polarity not
important Rate = k[halide][base] Saytzeff product Coplanar leaving
groups (usually anti) No rearrangements
=>
Chapter 6 53
Substitution or Elimination? Strength of the nucleophile determines
order: Strong nuc. will go SN2 or E2.
Primary halide usually SN2.
Tertiary halide mixture of SN1, E1 or E2
High temperature favors elimination. Bulky bases favor elimination. Good nucleophiles, but weak bases,
favor substitution. =>
Chapter 6 54
Secondary Halides?
Mixtures of products are common.
=>
Chapter 6 55
End of Chapter 6