akerstrom terracotta frieze
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The Proceedingsof the
Xth International Congress
of Classical Archaeology
Vol. I
Ankara-izmir 23 -30 jIXj1973
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Edited by E K REM A K U R GAL
Published by T UR K TAR i H K U RUM U
Printed in Turkey
T U R K TARtH K U R U M U BASIMEVi
Ankara, 1978
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IONIA AND ANATOLIA-IONIA AND THE WEST
THE FIGURED ARCHITECTURAL TERRACOTTA FRIEZE: ITS
PENETRATION AND TRANSFORMATION IN THE EAST AND
IN THE WEST IN TIlE ARCHAIC PERIOD
AKE AKERSTROM
( Sweden) Plates 35 - 9()
One of several questions upon which interest has been focused as
a consequence of the extensive archaeological activity in Asia Minor
in recent years is the problem of the penetration of Greek ideas and
Greek artistic forms in the interior of Anatolia in the Archaic period 1 .
W c shall follow this penetration in a special category of finds, namely
the Greek terracotta roof and specifically the figmcd frieze, which is
the speciality of the East Greek roof. As we shaH see, the penetration
proceeded in Anatolia over a wide geographic area with varying eth
nographic and cultural conditions, which resulted in differing practices
in the use of types and representations. But the same kind of figured
frieze was current also in the West, in central Etruria, w-here it had
been transmitted from Ionia. There it met different conditions. The
subject of this pap er is to study th e changes in and use of frieze decoration
in these two parts of the ancient world where it played a role in archi
tectural decoration. These reactions seem to me significant.
The practice of pl'otecting u huilding -with a roof of terracotta
tiles, laid according to a planned system, is one of the most successful
inventions of the Greek spirit. In its basic form it is still in use today.
The invention occurred in the 7th century B. C. and the place was
Corinth 2. Being a product of the Greek spirit it soon developed embel
lishing accessories, such as the sima, the revetment tile, the antefix and
others. On the mainland this roof reached ils fully developed form in
1 On the new situation in Anatolian archaeology see JiiI. JiiIellink, Anatolia: Old
and New Perspectives (Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. llO, No.2, 1966, p. 111 ff.).
" Author, Archit. Terr. Kleinasiens, p. 257ff.
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320 AKE AKERSTROM
th e late 6th century. The type was taken over for th e marble roof of the
Greek temple in th e Classical pel'iod - which, of course, does not mean
that th e production of terracotta roofs ceased.
In th e meantime th e Corinthian roof spread north of th e Corinthian
Gulf, where it developed certain local features. Through Corfu, via
th e old sea route to the West, th e practice passed to South Italy an d
Sicily. In Sicily this resulted in th e impressive an d colourful terracotta
roofs which adorned th e Doric temples of the flourishing island, in Syra
cuse, Selinus an d elsewhere.
Less spectacular was th e result in South Italy, including Campania.
From Campania certain types of antefixes spread to Latium and southern
Etruria, bu t to Etruria we shall return later. This is what happened
m th e West.
What happened in th e East? Th e earliest terracotta roof so far
found in Ionia is a Corinthian roof from th e naiskos of th e Archaic
Didymaion, dating around 575-550 B. C. 3. I t left no descendants. The
following development took another course. In Ionia the idea arose,
presu.mably prompted by intercourse with the Near East, to decorate
a sima or revetment with a figured representation. Th e figured frieze,
never met with on th e mainland, is th e distinguishing mark of the East
Greek terracotta roof.
The practice of making a terracotta roof became popular in th e
cities of the Ionian coast. At first sight th e finds ma y seem richer today
in northern Ionia. This depends mainly on th e fact that Larisa hap
pens to have been excavated. The early centre, however, was no doubt
southern Ionia. Finds from later years seem to confirm this.
From the cities on th e coast th e terracotta roof penetrated to th einterior of Anatolia. Th e distribution seems to have followed two main
routes: one started from South Ionia, presumably th e district of Miletus,
an d followed th e Meander valley, with a branch over the Karabel pass.
Besides this there was another route from th e district of Smyrna, fol
lowing th e Hermus valley eastwards. These tw o passages touched Sardis
in Lydia, Midas City in western Phrygia an d Gordion in central Phrygia.
This is what I call th e Lydian-Phrygian or inland route. The penet-
3 Op.cit. p. 204.
IONIA AND ANATOLIA - IONTA AND THE WEST 321
ration also took another way: from th e cities on th e coast, in the North
as well as in the South, th e Greeks transmitted the practice of the
terracotta roof by sea through th e Hellespont an d th e Black Sea to th e
com,t and hinterland of Pontus. This I call th e Pontic-Anatolian or
sea route (Pl. 85, Fig. 1).
I t is no t possible here to follow in detail th e eastward distribution
of the terracottas. I t ma y suffice to point out the main features. Sardis,
our fil'st station, on th e inland route, is still entirely Greek, bu t th e
repertOl"Y of types is more limited compared to nearby Lal'isa. Modelling
an d colours ar e infel'iol' in quality •Midas City further east on the route
has left only a dozen fragments of terracottas. Their chaxactel', how
ever, is still essentially Greek. The great change comes with Gordion,
th e en d station on th e inland mute.
Ou r first question is to what extent Greek types, an d which of them,
have accompanied us on the way. From Midas City thel'e is a fragment
with a procession of birds. This I'epresentation is known from Miletus,
Mylasa an d Euromos; it is no dou.bt of South Ionian origin (Pl. 86, Figs.
2-4). In Gordion thel'e was a pair of simae, consisting of a raking cornice
decoxated with "lyre and star" (PI. 86, Figs. 5-6). an d a lateral sima
with a lotus £lowel' on either side of the waterspout . This pair of simae
is likewise of South Ionian origin. I t seems to have been popular at
Sardis. Th e Gordian pieces are provincial in execution 4. From Gordion
should also be mentioned a low raking cornice of Greek type decorated
with two chains of diamonds; an d finally, for th e sake of completeness,
Ill. 1. "Anatolian" types. a) Revetment tile ("Schenkelplatte");
b) "Sima". (Author, Die archil. Terr. Kleinasiens, fig, 73).
4 Op.cit. p. 75, 77; pI. 44 : 2; 45 : 2-4; 49; 50 : 1 (Sardis); 147f.; pI. 83 (Gordion).
F.21
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322 AKE AKERSTROM
an "Anatolian" tile (type "Schenkelplatte") showing together with
diamonds a chain of "lyre&" 5. This seems to be all.
The Greek terracottas in Sardis, Midas City an d Gordion are
useful, because they help us to stake out the route. But they also reveal
how limited a repertory of true Greek types has followed us all th e way.
Gordion is our most interesting site. Two types dominate th e
picture, or rather two versions of one type which we have no t me t before
in Anatolia (Ill. 1 a-b) I t is a rectangular or square shaped tile with an
attached "leg" bent backwards at right angles. I f the "leg" is attached
to th e upper edge, th e tile serves for revetment, if attached to th e bot
tom, it serves as a sort of sima. These two types have no t been foundon th e sites of th e coast bu t similar types are known from th e West,
especially from Sicily. They are derived from ordinary Greek types to
serve special needs, in this case in Phrygian architecture.
Their decoration is ornamental or figured. Several series of tiles
show a diamond or chequerboard decoration, ornaments which ar e
familiar to us from Phrygian vase-painting bu t above all from th e
sculptured rock facades in the district of the Midas City 6. These facades
reflect in their decoration to a large extent the use of terracotta tile",
in ordinary Phrygian architecture.
More interesting, an d more intriguing, is th e figured decoration in
Gordion. There are four representations: 1) chariot scene with deer
hunt; 2) Theseus killing th e Minotaur; 3) antithetic bull an d lion in
upright position; an d 4) antithetic goats rearing up against a tree (PI. 87).
Th e figure types are all ultimately Oriental. One is used for a Greek
theme, Theseus and the Minotaur. They ma y all have been transmitted
through th e Greek islands (Rhodes ?). This seems fairly certain for
Theseus an d th e Minotaur and for th e goats with th e tree.
The strange thing about these representations is their old-fashioned
character. Th e chariot scene, well known from North Syrian monuments
from th e earlier 1s t millennium B. C., could easily mislead us as to
its date were it not for th e Greek hoplite calmly walking before th e
horses (PI. 87, Figs. 7-8). Our version of the bull-lion group (PI. 87, Fig. 11 )
never entered· th e repertory of Greek orientalizing art. The figure types
5 Op.cit. pI. 82 : 3; 85 : 1-2.
8 Op.cit. p. 156f.; pI. 80; 84 : 1-3.
IONIA AND ANATOLIA - IONIA AND THE WEST 323
of Theseus an d of th e goa1 s and tree are both attested in Rhodian vase
painting of th e early 7t h century (PI. 87, Fig. 9, 10, an d 12). Bu t all
four representations in Gordion should be dated no t earlier than th e
6t h century 7.
Before we consider th e significance of th e situation at Gordion it
seems suitable to examine first the terracottas which have come to
light in th e Pontus district.
On the Pontic coast there is th e Milesian-Phocaean colony Amisus.
In th e near hinterland there were found at Akalan, in what was presu
mably a local chieftain's citadel, a quantity of architectural terracottas,
certainly products of a Greek workshop at Amisus 8.
I f we move further inland, to Pazarh in Cappadocia, also presu
mably th e site of a local ruler, we are faced with an entirely different
situation 9. There is here no single example of a true Greek terracotta
type (except for th e plain roof which is of the usual "hybrid" type).
The types used are th e tw o prevailing at Gordion, which we have just
described.
As- to th e decoration it should be observed that whereas Gordion
ha d several sets of tiles decorated with diamond and chequerboard,
there is in Pazarli only one such set, decorated with diamonds 10. Bu t
there are several figured representations to be considered here 1) marching
soldiers 2) bull-lion walking, confronted 3) antithetic goats standing at a
a tree; an d 4) griffins an d centaurs, respectively walking an d confronted
in two registers. All these representations belong to the 6th century
(PI. 88).
I t seems quite obvious that this stock of themes cannot be derived
from Gordion. I f we examine th e motifs, it appears that they ar e all
Greek. The two griffins can be followed back to Lampsakos an d Sardis
an d are, of course, a standard motif in Greek orientalizing art. Th e
same is th e case with th e bull-lion walking, which was immensely popu
la r in early Greek art. The centaurs used in an antithetic pattern seem
to be a North Ionian invention. The goats belong to the standard stock
7 Op.cit. p. 151 : "Sporadica" and "Sonstige Friesreihen".
8 Op.cit. p. 121£f.; pI. 61£f.
9 Op.cit. p. 161£f.; pI. 87ff.
10 Op.cit. pI. 93 : 2.
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324 AKE AKERSTROM
of orientalizing motifs. There can be no doubt that they have all heen
transmitted by th e Greeks via th e Pontic coast. I t also appears that
Pazarh is more Greek than Gordion.
Our examination of th e situation in Gordion an d Pazarli respec
tively permits us to draw some conclusions concerning th e penetration
of Greek architectural terracottas in Anatolia. I f we ask why Gordion
still adopts for architectural decoration in the 6th or even 5t h century
such old-fashioned them('ls as those referred to abo'Ve whilst Larisa on
th e coast excelled in a variety of representations of ripe Archaic charac
ter, such as the chariot races, horsemen, banquet scenes, Herakles an d
the centaurs an dornamental
friezes (PI. 89),th e answer
isthat th e
Greeks did no t colonize th e interior. From the point of view of Gordion
it is no t a matter of the later arrival of the motifs they used since these
ha d been transmitted on earlier occasions. They were at hand, an d
presumably th e Gordions felt content to use them. One of the results,
of course, is that we have in Larisa a series of individual roofs, whereas
in Gordion we have a rather monotonous mass-production of th e
prevailing subjects.
In Pazarh the situation is different. The ungainly figures are puzz
ling, still more so because they are painted in Phrygian technique,
whence their Harlequin-like appearance. Another striking feature is
that all th e motifs are antithetic groups, either originally antithetic
or secondarily used as such - with one exception, th e marching soldiers.
They chose these motifs partly because of their general suitability for
architectural decoration, partly also, I think, because they were in con
formity with those two old inherited compositional principles with
which the decorators were familiar, namely th e antithetic group an d
th e procession. An d yet, as already mentioned, Pazarh is more Greek
than Gordion. There seem to be two explanations. Greek influences
worked quicker oversea on distant Pazadi in Cappadocia than over
land on Gordion in Phrygia. Secondly, Pazarli seems to have enjoyed
a settled cultural standard to a lesser degree than Gordion, an d therefore,
it was comparatively less resistent to Greek influences.
I should like to ad d here a note on th e roof itself. The plain roof we
are faced with in Anatolia is th e same as that prevailing in th e West,
a Greek provincial roof which I call th e "hybrid" roof, using plain rain
tiles an d semi-circular cover tiles (except for a gabled type used in
IONIA AND ANATOLIA - IONIA AND THE WEST 325
Gordion). On th e Greek sites th e sima, th e revetment tile and other
clements grew as organic decorative additions to the roof. The two
"Anatolian" types, described above one used for revetment, th e other
for sima-like application, presumably ha d a looser relation to the roof
construction itself. Thus, they could be used more freely. To what
extent this plain Greek roof was in general use in Anatolia, is difficult
to say. An d it must be remembered that the flat roof was always th e
traditional roof in the East. However, th e Greek roof for a gabled buil
ding was presumably found useful. An almost pathetic tail-piece to th e
story of its march towards the East is a plain Greek roof of the type
described which was foun.d in th e Phrygian levels on the Biiyiik kale,
th e acropolis of Bogazkoy. And with this we leave th e East 11.
In th e West th e plain roof described above was current in all parts
of Italy. Etruria seems to have been affected by th e practice of making
a terracotta roof in th e earlier part of the 6th century, in logical succession
to the introduction of the terracotta roof in South Italy an d Sicily 12.
It should also be noticed that th e architectural terracottas played a
special role in Etruria. For whereas in other parts of the ancient world
architectural terracottas were mainly a matter fo r th e Archaic period,
th e practice in Etruria went on from th e Archaic down to th e beginning
of ou r era.
The centre of early production in Etruria was certainly Caere 13,
no t Veii, in spite of the publicity its school and master Vulca enjoy in
th e early Roman tradition. From southern Etruria th e ar t spread to
inner an d northern Etruria and over Latium as well.
Typical of the early development in Etruria in th e first period,
which, according to my dating, means roughly the second half of the
6t h century, is th e figured frieze, used for decorating revetment tiles
an d th e raking cornice 14. Th e idea of the figured frieze was no doubt
11 Op.cit. p. 190f.
12 Op.cit.p. 268f.
13 Op.cit. p. 272.
14 Andren's chronology cf. Architect. Terr. from Etrusco·ltalic Temples, 1940, p.
CXXX, CLI and CCXI. My own dating cf. Die architekt. Terr. Kleinasiens, 1966, p.
274. Andren's revised dating cf. Opusc. Rom. VIII, 1974, p. Iff. As to th e beginning
of th e practice of architectural terracottas in Etruria Andren adheres to his belief
that those pieces which he considers th e earliest should be dated to the last quarter
of the 7th century B.C. I find no vaHd reason for such a date, nOr is there much likeli·
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326 AKE AKERSTROM
introduced by East Greek immigrants in Etruria around or slightly
before 550 B. C. The subjects represented ar e partly East - Greek,
partly borrowed from th e Corinthian an d Attic black-figured vases
which were at that time imported to Etruria in quantity. The coro
plasts preferred subjects suitable for a procession, chariot scenes, hor
semen, soldiers, animals. A typical specimen of this sort is a set with
chariot scenes an d horsemen from Caere, datable around 550 B. C.
(PI. 90, Fig. 24) 15.
Th e following period is sub-Archaic in character an d covers th e late
6t h century an d a large part of th e 5th, marking th e zenith of terracotta
production in Etruria 16. During th e 5t h century th e figured frieze goesout of fashion. There ma y be several reasons for this. I t ma y be the
result of a decrease in the Attic import, or more probably because th e
decorative ar t in general gave up th e old repertory of suitable
motifs, processions etc.
No less striking is another tendency. Whereas in th e previous
period th e size of the crowning member in relation to th e figured field
was in what could be called normal proportions, th e same crowning part
now starts growing higher an d higher (PI. 90, Fig. 25). As if this
were not enough, it is provided with a high crest inserted in its upper
edge (PI. 90, Fig. 26). One might well ask how these daring constructions
could stand wind an d weather. Pari passu th e main field is steadily
shrinking an d tolerably filled, no more with figures bu t with a painted
meander 01' guilloche. On th e revetment tiles th e figured field likewise
decreases in height while th e crowning member increases. In addition
th e lower part of he tile grows to form a hanging curtain (PI. 90, Fig. 27).
The same tendency is also reflected in th e eaves-tiles an d th e head an
tefixes with a framing tongue-pattern, the latter growing to an enormousshell 17.
hood for it, considering the over-all situation, i.e. the origin of th e art in Greece and
its spread to the East and the West, and th e accepted dates for these events. In my
opinion Etruria in this respect is no isolated phenomenon bu t only one member of
several in a family whose actions in Greece, in the East and in the West are otherwise
fairly well known to us.
15 Andren, Archit. Terr., pI. 4-5.
16 Andren, Archit. Terr., p. CLIff.; Author, Archit. Terr. Klainasiens, p. 272ff.
17 Andren, op.cit. p. CLVIIIf.; CLXX and pIs. 1-2; 17.
IONIA AND ANATOLIA - IONIA AND THE WEST 327
This general phenomenon,. a residual vegetating archaism, is a
symptom of lack of inventiveness. This luxuriation, which could be
compared with a pathological growth of cellular tissue, has th e effect
that th e original balance between th e different parts of the tile is
destroyed. I t should at once be admitted that th e coroplasts display
great skill in choosing ornaments and comhinations of them to make
curtains an d crests attractive 18. I t should also be mentioned that in
the Late Classical - Hellenistic period it became a widespread fashion
in Etruria to adorn th e temples with pedimental sculptures created
under fresh impulse from th e Greek world 19. These are often of high
artistic standard. What interests us here, however, are th e changes in
the old, inherited set of terracotta types. The tendencies which we have
followed continue in the Hellenistic period in the progressive growth
of the crowning memhers, th e crests and curtains eventually swallowing
up what was originally th e main part of the terracotta, th e figured
field. I t is consumed hy its own outgrowths (PI. 90, Fig. 28).
The penetration of architectural terracotta types, an d specifically
th e figure frieze, thus was achieved in Anatolia with, as it were, a strugg
le. There was resistence on the part of those lands where there had
always been kept alive old eastern artistic t raditions, in Cappadocia
an d still more in Phrygia. Therefore, th e terracottas in Anatolia, in
shape an d decoration, had to make concessions an d modifications to
survive. In Etruria th e conditions ~ e r e entirely different, and this is
dramatically shown in the development of the traditional types, th e
raking sima an d th e revetment tile. Once introduced they lived on in
what could be called unrestricted freedom, unhindered by an y indi
genous artistic tradition, in a capricious, often entertaining luxuriance.
18 Op.cit. p. CCVIf.
19 Op.cit. p. CCXIVf.
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Akerstrom Plate 85
SCtl'-"AKLES MEER
. ~ . Fig. I - Map of Asia Minor. The "Lydian-Phrygian" and "Pontic
Anatolian" routes of distribution.
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Plate 86
Bird procession :
Fig. 2 - Mylasa (Mylasa);
Fig. 3 - Midas City Fig. 4 - Miletus (Smyrna).
(Istanbul).
"Lyre and star" sima :
Fig. 5 - Sardis (Istanbul).
Fig. 6 - Go rd io n (Ankara).
Akerstrom Akerstrom
Fig. 7 - Orthostat relief from
Zinjirli (Sendschirli III, pI.
XXXIX).
Fig. 9 - Gordion, Theseus slaying
the Minotaur (Drawing Marian
Welker).
Fig. 11 - G or di on , Antithetic bull
and lion (Photo th e author).
Plate 87
Fig. 8 - G or di on , chariot scene
(Reconstruction, Gordion
Expedition).
Fig. 10 - Rhodian vase-painting.
Centaur grasping tree. Brit.
Mus. A 439 (Photo Mansel).
Fig. 12 - G ord io n, Antithetic goats
(Photo 'the author).
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Plate 88
Pazarh:
Fig. 13 - Warriors.
Fig. 15 - Attithetic goats.
.Akerstrom
Fig. 14 - Bull-lion antithetic,
in two registers.
Fig. 16 - Griffins an d centaurs confronted,
in two registers (Photos the author).
Akerstrom Plate 89
Larisa:
Fig. 17-18 - Chariot scenes.
Fig. 19 - Herakles and the centaurs. Fig. 20 - Horsemen, antithetic.
Fig. 21 - Banquet scene.
Fig. 22-23 - Ornamental friezes (Larisa am Hermos n, figs. 7; 12;
16; 15; 20; 35; 32).
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Plate 90
Etruria and Latium:
Fig. 24 - Caere, warrior's departure.
Akerstrom
Fig. 25 - Palestrina, chariot
procession.
Fig. 26 - Satricum, raking cornice with crest.
Fig. 27 - Civita Castellana,
revetment tile.
Fig. 28 - Caere, revetment tile (Andren
Archit. Terr. from Etrucso- Italic
Temples, pIs. 4; U5; 39; 43; 19).