air pollution with exhaust particles at four metro construction sites in copenhagen

Air pollution with exhaust particles

at four metro construction sites in Copenhagen

Project manager: Dr. Kaare Press-Kristensen, senior advisor, air quality. Danish Ecocouncil, Blegdamsvej 4B, 2200 Kbh. N, Denmark.

November, 2012

1

Background To investigate potential air pollution from metro construction sites CMT (Copenhagen Metro Team)

decided to hire the Danish Ecocouncil to measure and assess work related exposure of employees to

ultrafine exhaust particles from construction equipment and to measure and assess possible pollution

of the external environment outside four metro construction sites in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Exhaust particles are mainly ultrafine particles (PM0.1) i.e. particles with diameter less than 0.1 micro

metres measured in numbers of particles per cm3. Exhaust particles can be removed by particulate

filters. Equipment arriving without particulate filters are (as a main principle) retrofitted with filters

or denied access to the construction sites. About 80 % of construction equipment (> 75 kW) at the

sites are retrofitted with filters. However, two types of construction equipment (secant piles rig: SR-

100/480kW and Hydromill Equipment: SC-120/600kW) are not retrofitted with particulate filters

due to technical aspects. This equipment is estimated to use around 50 % of the diesel at the sites.

Objectives The main objectives were to measure and assess work related exposure of employees to ultrafine

particles from construction equipment and to measure and assess possible pollution of the external

environment outside four metro construction sites in Copenhagen.

Measurements Ultrafine particles were measured with P-Trak’s (Model 8525 Ultrafine Particle Counter).

Wind data was measured with a Speetech WindMate 350 and based on local observations.

The following measurements were performed:

1) Four employee exposure measurements each of about four hours i.e. about 16 hours in total at

two sites: Aksel Møllers Have and Sønder Boulevard.

2) One measurement close to and 20, 25, 35 and 40 metres from the closest of two secant piles

rigs without particulate filters at the site: Aksel Møllers Have.

3) Measurements just above/outside the fence and 5 metres from the following four sites: Aksel

Møllers Have, Sønder Boulevard, Marmorkirken and Frederiksberg Allé (screening on each

side and detailed measurements in the wind direction).

4) Background measurements next to the nearest larger street, next to nearest larger street but

100 metres from the construction site and at the unpolluted (upwind) side of the sites: Aksel

Møllers Have, Sønder Boulevard, Marmorkirken and Frederiksberg Allé.

As reference, measurements of employee exposure are compared to employee exposure in

Copenhagen Airport. Measurements of possible pollution of the external environment outside the

sites are compared to background pollution from local traffic and on streets with heavy traffic in

Copenhagen. This provides a clear indicator of the pollution levels.

2

Variables Wind direction and speed is complex at construction sites in cities and emissions from construction

equipment are fluctuating significantly depending on the actual load of the equipment. The resulting

uncertainties were reduced by mapping local wind data before and during pollution measurements

and by performing more measurements and using longer measuring intervals than originally planned.

Furthermore, measurements were only performed during local wind speeds below 5 metres per

second. The results are thereby believed to give a good overall picture of air pollution from the sites

and employee exposure. These uncertainties could be reduced further by more measurements.

Results Overview of the four metro construction sites and an equipment list is in appendix 1. Abbreviations,

AMH: Aksel Møllers Have, SBV: Sønder Boulevard, MMK Marmorkirken and FBA: Frederiksberg

Allé, CPH: Copenhagen Airport, m/s: metres per second and part.: Particles.

Employee exposure Four employee exposure measurements each of about four hours i.e. about 16 hours in total at two

sites: Aksel Møllers Have and Sønder Boulevard were performed 19th October 2012. The official

wind data from the city Kastrup near the sea (and close to Copenhagen) were 4-5 m/s from south and

south-east. The local wind speed at the sites was significant lower.

The employee exposure measurements were performed as close to the employees as possible without

disrupting their work. Table 1 shows results from the employee exposure measurements at the sites

compared to similar exposure measurements from employees working inside Copenhagen Airport.

Table 1

Location / Function Date Time Total time (Hours: Min.)

Average (Part./cm3)

Max. ½-hour (Part./cm3)

SBV / Workman 19.10.2012 09.38 – 13.23 03:45 36,800 104,700

AMH, Workman 19.10.2012 11.23 – 14.15 02:52 24,200 45,900

AMH, Workman 19.10.2012 14.42 - 17.39 02:57 23,700 56,500

AMH, Workman 19.10.2012 14.46 – 17.32 02:46 17,000 32,300

Average of metro site measurements 25,400 59,900

CPH / Baggage handler 21.01.2011 10:55 - 14:24 03:29 40,400 75,000

CPH / Baggage handler 27.01.2011 10:55 - 14:24 03.29 82,800 140,200





CPH / Workman 25.01.2011 08:00 - 13:46 05:46 52,500 120,800

Average of airport measurements 65,700 132,800

Rush hour on larger city streets 40-45,000 50-60,000

SBV: Metro site at Sønder Boulevard, AMH: Metro site at Aksel Møllers Have, CPH: The yard in Copenhagen Airport.

3

From Table 1 it can be seen that the employees at the metro sites on average are exposed to well

below half the ultrafine particles when compared to employees in CPH. The average exposure at the

metro sites is significantly lower than the rush hour pollution on a larger city street. However, the

measurement taken at SBV reached a high maximum half hour peak of 104,700 particles per cm3.

This value is in connection with smoke generated from the use of a blowtorch for 5-10 minutes.

Several employees were watching from a close distance without any reason as showed in Picture 1.

Picture 1

Figure 1 shows employee exposure at SBV compared to employee exposure in CPH. From the figure

it is clear that smoke generated from 5-10 minutes use of a blowtorch contributes significantly to the

employee exposure at the metro site. The average exposure at SBV is 36,800 particles per cm3 while

the average in CPH is 95,600 particles per cm3. The average exposure at SBV would be reduced by

approximately 25 % to 27,700 particles per cm3 if employees maintain a distance from where a

blowtorch is being used instead of standing in the vicinity of it.

Figure 1

4

Aksel Møllers Have Detailed measurements of ultrafine particles at AMH were performed November 6th 2012. The wind

data recorded from Kastrup were 6 m/s from south and south-west. The wind speed at the site

(surrounded by a tall fence and tall buildings) was about ½ m/s from south.

Figure 2 shows a conceptual model of the measurements at AMH (not to scale).

Figure 2

Picture 2 illustrates the measurements around Rig A and downwind of the rigs.

Picture 2

25 35

North

~ ½ m/s

Wind direction

Rig A Rig B

Go

dth

åb

svej

Fen

ce

20 40

5

Air pollution with ultrafine exhaust particles was screened around (5-7 metres distance) the secant

piles rig A (Picture 2). The screening measurements were performed 1 to 5 metres above ground

level (the exhaust pipe of a secant piles rig is around 4 metres above ground). In the main plume of

smoke 5 m above ground level there were measured up to 500,000 particles per cm3 (max. range of

the P-Trak). Outside the main plume of smoke no significant air pollution from the secant piles rig

was observed.

On the basis of the screening measurements and the wind direction it was decided to take further

measurements at 20, 25, 35 and 40 metres (end of the construction site) downwind of the secant piles

rig B (cf. Figure 2) thereby catching the main plume of smoke from both the secant piles rigs and the

excavators used in close proximity. Each distance was measured for about 15-20 minutes, i.e. 900-

1,200 measurements (measurements each second).

However, the main plume of smoke was higher than 5 metres above ground level at a distance of 20-

25 metres downwind of rig B. Therefore could not be measured adequately from the ground.

However, this was overcome by climbing the scaffold close to the fence surrounding the site,

enabling measurement of the main plume of smoke, which was approximately to 6 metres above

ground and downwind of rig B. This could be considered a worst case situation when taking into

account all the active equipment combined with the extremely low wind speed

Picture 3 shows the measurements from the scaffold close to the end of the site i.e. 35 and 40 metres

downwind of rig B (cf. Figure 2). Wind speed was measured every half hour and did not change

significantly i.e. about ½ m/s from south.

Picture 3

6

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

0 10 20 30 40 50

Par

ticl

es

pe

r cm

3

Meters downwind secant piles rig B

Ultrafine particles vs. distance from rig B

Figure 3 shows the results from the scaffold downwind secant piles rig B (cf. Figure 2).

Figure 3

From Figure 3 it is clear that there is significant pollution with ultrafine particles in the main plume

of smoke from the two secant piles rigs and the excavators used close to the secant piles rigs. The

pollution is reduced by around 50 percent within 20 metres, due to dilution and aggregation. At the

end of the site the pollution level is 30-40,000 particles per cm3. This is the same level as a polluted

road in rush hour. Heavy polluted streets in Copenhagen can reach about 60,000 particles per cm3.

However, if the wind direction had been east the pollution crossing the fence adjacent to the rigs

might reach 100-150,000 particles per cm3 (cf. Figure 2).

Figure 4 shows the screening results from just above/outside the fence and 5 metres from the fence

outside AMH (all measurements were taken 5 metres above ground level).

Figure 4

Go

dth

åb

svej

40 – 60,000 20 – 40,000 5 – 10,000

North

~ ½ m/s Wind

Rig Rig

7

From Figure 4 it can be seen that the highest levels of ultrafine particles are observed close to

Godthåbsvej (nearest larger street) downwind of the secant piles rigs and west of the site. These

levels could be affected by pollution from street traffic even though the measurements are upwind of

Godthåbsvej. The highest levels observed are close to the levels at polluted city streets.

Table 2 and Picture 4 show measurements (3.5 metres above ground): 2.5 metres on each side of the

site gate towards Godthåbsvej (40 metres downwind of secant piles rig B) as well as 2.5 and 7.5

metres outside the gate next to Godthåbsvej. Wind speed outside the site next to Godthåbsvej was 1-

2 metres per second from the west. Each distance was measured for 15-17 minutes, i.e. around 1,000

measurements per distance. There was little traffic observed on Godthåbsvej (late afternoon).

Table 2 Picture 4

The fence towards Godthåbsvej

(40 metres downwind rig B)

Particles

per cm3

2.5 metres inside the site 60,600

2.5 metres outside the site 32,600



2.5 metres inside / outside the site are about 37.5 / 42.5

metres downwind of secant piles rig B (Figure 2).

From the measurements 2.5 metres on each side of the fence (grey cells) it seems like the site

contributes to air pollution with ultrafine particles outside the site towards Godthåbsvej. However,

measurements performed just beyond 2.5 and 7.5 metres outside the site do not confirm that the site

affects the external air quality significantly. The levels measured at 2.5 metres outside the site differ

probably due to fluctuating wind conditions and varying pollution levels from the site and the road

traffic. None of these results indicate alarming pollution with ultrafine particles from the site.

Table 3 shows background measurements (1 metre above ground) next to Godthåbsvej, 100 metres

upwind AMH and at the unpolluted side of the site (Figure 4) as well as at the pavement outside the

gate towards Godthåbsvej. Locations were measured for 10-20 minutes i.e. 600-1,200 measurements.

Table 3

Particles per cm3

Godthåbsvej (100 metres from AMH) 17,600

The pavement towards Godthåbsvej 33,100

Unpolluted side of the site (Figure 4) 11,300

From the measurements in Table 3 it can be seen that air next to Godthåbsvej is, as expected, more

polluted than the air on the unpolluted side of AMH. Furthermore, the air next to Godthåbsvej

outside the site seems more polluted than 100 metres from the site. This could be caused by pollution

from the site or from local traffic. None of these results indicate alarming air pollution from the site.

8

Frederiksberg Allé, Sønder Boulevard and Marmorkirken Measurements of ultrafine particles outside FBA, SBV and MMK were performed November 8th

2012. The wind data from Kastrup were 6-8 m/s from west. The wind speed at the construction sites

was lower and from other directions due to shelter-effects from local tall buildings.

Figure 5 shows the screening results from just above/outside the fence and 5 metres from the fence

outside FBA, SBV and MMK (all measurements were taken 5 metres above ground level).

Figure 5

SBV: High levels were seen both at location B and C.

From Figure 5 it can be seen that the highest levels of ultrafine particles are observed downwind of

the sites at FBA and SBV. However, at MMK the highest levels are observed just next to the site

parallel to the measured wind direction. This pollution must be assumed to originate from MMK

since there are no local pollution sources next to the site. This could be explained by complex local

wind directions caused by tall buildings surrounding MMK. At SBV high levels were seen both at

location B and C.

In general there were no significant differences between measurements just above/outside the fence

and 5 metres from the fence. However, at one specific spot downwind of SBV there was observed a

significantly higher pollution just above/outside the fence when compared to 5 metres from the

fence. This was probably caused by specific local conditions (e.g. wind turbulence etc).

9

Picture 5 shows measurements above/outside the fence to SBV (left: location C) and measurements

downwind of SBV at 5 metres above ground level and at inhalation height (right: location B).

Picture 5

Table 4 shows the measurements at the most polluted side of the three sites just above/outside the

fence and 3-5 metres downwind (away from) the fence (5 metres above ground). Each distance was

measured for 10-30 minutes, i.e. 600-1,800 measurements.

Table 4

Above/outside the fence 5 metres away from the fence Local wind speed

FBA 13,000 a) 14,200 a) 2-3 m/s from south

SBV 26,500 b) 14,200 b) 2-3 m/s from south-west

MMK 21,400 21,000 c) 1 m/s from north-west

a) Not much activity was observed at the site (the secant piles rig seemed turned off).

b) Measured at position C outside SBV (cf. Figure 5 and Picture 5).

c) Only possible to measure 3.7 metres away from the fence.

There was no significant air pollution observed at FBA. This is likely due to the secant piles rig was

turned off. Hence, no further measurements were performed at FBA. The measurements from SBV

and MMK indicate some pollution from the sites. It seems that the pollution from MMK is trapped

between the site fence and the surrounding buildings. However, none of these results indicate

alarming pollution with ultrafine particles from the sites.

Table 5 shows background measurements from the unpolluted side of SBV and MMK (Figure 5) and

from the streets Sønder Boulevard and Bredgade about 100 metres from the two construction sites

(1 m above ground). All locations were measured for 30 minutes, i.e. 1,800 measurements.

Table 5

SBV MMK

Sønder Boulevard and Bredgade (100 metres from sites) 6,000 22,400

Unpolluted side of two construction sites (Figure 5) 5,300 9,000

10

Measurements at Bredgade and Sønder Boulevard (100 metres from MMK and SBV, respectively)

clearly illustrate the difference between a city road with little traffic and a city road with some traffic

(Bredgade). The pollution with ultrafine particles at Bredgade seems comparable to the pollution

measured from the sites just above/outside the fence (Table 4). However, when comparing the levels

from the unpolluted side of the two sites with the levels just above/outside the fence in Table 4 it is

obvious that the sites affect the external environment. But the pollution of the external environment

does not seem to reach a higher level than that from a street like Bredgade in the early evening.

Extra measurements were performed at SBV to investigate the pollution at location B (cf. Figure 5

and Picture 5 right) and inside the entrance to MMK, where a distinct smell of diesel exhaust was

detected. Table 6 shows measurements at point B (15-30 minutes, i.e. 1,000-2,000 measurements).

Table 6

Time Part. per cm3

SBV: 3.6 metres above ground 5 metres from location B 14:30 – 14:47 87,200

SBV: 3.6 metres above ground 15 metres from location B 14:29 – 14:46 57,300

SBV: 5 metres above ground 10 metres from location B 12:14 – 12:27 70,100

SBV: Inhalation height about 10 metres from location B 12:13 – 12:26 85,400

SBV: 5 metres above ground 10 metres from location B 12:14 – 12:42 43,500

SBV: Inhalation height about 10 metres from location B 12:13 – 12:41 51,000

From the measurements taken 3.6 metres above ground, it can be seen that the concentration is

reduced by about 30,000 particles per cm3 over a distance of 10 metres. This is the same reduction as

observed in Figure 3. The reduction is due to dilution and aggregation. The concentration recorded

10 metres from the entrance was reduced significantly during the period 12:26-12:42. Therefore the

measurements taken 10 metres from the entrance were divided into two time intervals to enable

comparison with the measurements from 3.6 metres above ground. Hence, pollution downwind of

the site can reach levels above the rush hour traffic at the most polluted streets in Copenhagen.

However, pollution will be reduced significantly 50 metres away from the site.

Table 7 and Picture 6 show measurements from the entrance (G at Figure 5) to MMK 3.6 metres

above ground. Measurements were performed for about 30 minutes, i.e. about 2,000 measurements.

Table 7 Picture 6

Part. per cm3

MMK inside the entrance 204,400

5 metres downwind the entrance 46,500

Both measurements 3.6 metres above ground

The measurements inside the entrance to MMK show very high pollution with ultrafine particles.

According to a workman from the site this pollution was caused by a diesel generator used at the site.

This information was not investigated further.

11

Conclusion The measured average employee exposure to ultrafine particles at the investigated metro construction

sites is not alarming compared to similar professions. However, high half hour peaks appear. These

peaks can be directly related to welding, blowtorching and/or the smell of diesel exhaust.

The measurements downwind of two secant piles rigs without particulate filters at the construction

site Aksel Møllers Have show that the pollution with ultrafine exhaust particles crossing the site

fence about 40 metres downwind of the rigs can be 40,000 particles per cm3 in the main plume of

smoke (5-7 metres above ground). This is the same level as a polluted city road in the rush hour.

However, the pollution could be much higher if the main plume of smoke crosses the site fence close

to the rigs. The highest pollution levels measured just above/outside the fence are close to the levels

at polluted city streets in the rush hour.

The first measurements from FBA, SBV and MMK indicated that the pollution from the sites was at

the level of the street Bredgade in the early evening. However, detailed measurements at the polluted

side of SBV (location B cf. Figure 5) showed that pollution downwind of the site can reach levels

above the rush hour on the most polluted streets in Copenhagen. The same measurements indicated

that the pollution will be reduced significantly downwind of the site. Measurements inside the

entrance to MMK showed very high pollution levels that might be caused by a diesel generator at the

site (according to a workman from the site).

The overall conclusion concerning the external environment is that people living close to or passing

the sites will only be exposed to a limited pollution with ultrafine exhaust particles from the sites

compared to the pollution most of them inhale daily from traffic. In addition, the sites cause very

local pollution for a short period of time (equipment without filters are only used 6-8 months at sites)

compared to road traffic affecting hundred thousands every day in Copenhagen. However, if persons

living next to the sites open their windows towards the sites and the plume of smoke simultaneously

hits the windows (worst case) this could cause significant indoor air pollution that day.

Recommendations

1) Run a shut down the engine campaign. Much equipment is running idle at the site. This will

reduce both air pollution and diesel consumption.

2) Further investigate the possibility to reduce air pollution with exhaust particles (and NOx) by

filters, SCR or other technical installations on diesel equipment.

3) Avoid diesel generators without filters to generate electricity – use the public power supply.

4) Inform employees that they should, if possible, keep a safe distance from the smell of diesel

exhaust and smoke from welding or blowtorching.

5) Implement a mandatory safety course for existing and new employees focusing on health

problems connected to ultrafine particles at the sites and employee possibilities to reduce the

pollution and their exposure to the pollution.

Appendix 1 Maps of the four metro construction sites and equipment list for the construction sites.

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❥♦❳✇♦❱ s❡❪⑩❢❩❲④❛❬❣❣❞❜⑤ ⑥❛①t⑩❢❩♥❱♦♦❲⑦①✇r ✉✇⑧❲ ✉❯♦❳ s❯♦❳ ✉✇❲ s♥⑨ ♠ s❯♦❳ ✉✈♦♥ ✉✈②❯ ✉❢t❢❢❢③ ✉③❪❢

❱④❶❩❬❜❷❣④❸❵❹❴❛⑥❛❴❩❷❞❺❻ ④❵❛❵❹⑥❴❛❞❼ ❺❞❫⑤ ❺❬❽❞❣❵❤❺❶❬❝❞ ❳♦②❾♦rq♥❲❦❳♦❳♦②②♠❙❾②♠♣✇❦❳✇r♦❲♦❧♠❲❱t⑩❢❩❩

❿➀➁➂➃➀➄➅➆➄➇➈➉➊➋➌➍➊➉➈➎➇➏➐➑➑➑➑➑➒➓➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜↔↕➙➛➝➛➔➞➙➛➓↕↕→➣➟↔➠➡➛➢↔↕➞➣↔➤➥➦↔↔➙➤ ➧➨➨ ➠➓➩↔➜➫➦↔➔➭↔➜➯➠↔➨ ➞➠↔➜

➒↔➲➔➠➛➨ ➙➛➓↕➒➞➙↔➳↔➠➵ ➸➺➻➺➼➽➾➻➚➪➾➸➶➹➪➾➻➚➪➾➘➴➷➬➮➱➱✃❐❒❮➘➴❰Ï❮Ð➮Ñ❮ÐÒÓÔÕ➱➬✃❐❒❮➳➫Ö×➳➫Ø➳➫➫➞➙↔Ù ➓➠ÚÛÜÝ

ÛÜÞÛÜß

à➻áá ➪âã➶➽➽➶äå➾➻➚➪➾æ ➼áá ➪âçà➻áá ➪âã➶➽➽➶äå➾➻➚➪➾æ ➾äè➪âç➥➔➞➢↔

➘éêëìí îïð ñòóôõïôö÷ôòëî øùîïð ñòùúëîûóù÷üóì ùóôõ

ýþÿþ�✁✂þ✄☎þ✆ �✝✞✟✂✠ÿ✠✂✡☛�☞✠✂✌ þ✂✠✆ ✂✝✆ ✠✂✁✍ ✝✞✎✏✑✂✒✠✍ þ✓ÿ✔þÿþ�✁✂✠✕✠✆ þ✂✁☎✠✓✁✖ ✟✂✠ÿ✠✂✡☛�☞✠✂✌

✗✑✓✡ý✡✆ þ✄✡✁✍ ✘✙✠✓ÿ✠✂✠ÿ☞✍✆ ✠✂☎✡��✡✝✓✝✞✁✚✠✗✑✓✡ý✡✆ þ✄✛þ✓ÿ✏✑✂✒✠✍ ✝✂✝✞✜✢✢✣✘✤✥✘✦✜

✧✚✠☎þ✆ �✞✝✂✔✝✆ ✠✓✚þ✌ ✠✓✗✑✓✡ý✡✆ þ✄✡✁✍ þ✂✠✂✠✓ÿ✠✂✠ÿ☞✍✆ ✠✂☎✡��✡✝✓✝✞✎✧✚✠★✞✞✡ý✠✝✞✁✚✠✔✡✁✍ ✏✑✂✒✠✍ ✝✂✖

✔✝✆ ✠✓✚þ✌ ✠✓✗✑✓✡ý✡✆ þ✄✡✁✍✩ ✂✠✆ ✂✝ÿ✑ý✁✡✝✓✆ ✠✂☎✡��✡✝✓✟✦✤✤✪✣✫✜✢✢✪þ✓ÿ✟✦✬✬✢✥✫✦✤✤✭✮✯✰ ✱✯✲✳ ✱✴✳✵ ✶✵✷✸ ✱✯✹ ✱✰✺✻ ✱✼✽✹ ✱✾✿✾✾✾✿❀ ❁❂✾

❃❄❅❆❇❈❉❄❊❇❋ ●❍■❏❑▲▼◆ ▲▲❑❖❏P◗❘❑ ❙❍❚❯❱❲❳❨❊❇❅❄❈❆❩ ❲❬❅ ❭❪ ❇❅❄❫ ❈❆●❪ ❇❅❄❇●❊❅❆❈❈❆❅❇❲●Þ❴Ý❵❛æ ❜ÞçÝ❝❛❞

❡❢❣❤✐❤❢❢❣❤❥❣✐❥❦❧♠♥♦❧♥♥♣q♥r♠♥s❧♥t✉

✐❣❤✐❤❢❢❣❢❤❣❢✈♥q✇✉t①❧♥♥♣q♥r♠♥s❧♥t✉

②❣❤✐❤❢❢❣❢❢❣✐②♦③❧♠①❧♥♥♣q♥r♠♥s❧♥t✉

④❣❤✐❤❢✐❣❤❢❣❤④❦⑤⑥⑦⑤⑧⑨⑩⑤❶❷❸ ❹⑤⑤❶❺❻❼❽❾⑤❼❹⑨❿⑤➀❿➁❷➂⑤❼ ❦➃♠♥s❧♥t✉

➄❣❤✐❤❢✐❣❤✐❣❤❢③♣♦♥♠q➅❧♥q①q➆♠♥s❧♥t✉

Ü➇ ➈Üà➉ ➈➸➉❜ ➊❜ã➋ ➈Ü➌ ➈➇➍Û ➈➎➏➌ ➈❛Þ❛❛❛Þ➐ ❵➑❛➑➒è➓r♦♥❲❦❥❲❱♦♥❚❲♦❝④❩❻ ❬❝❛❞❫❩❬❛❞❺❴❬❣⑤ ❺❬❽❞❣①

t⑩❢❩❩♥❯❚✇♠❲♦❯❦r♣❯✇❡❢❢❩❩♥❯❚❚✇♠❲♦❯❦r♣❯♦

➔→➣↔↕➙→➛➔➜➝➔➞➛↔➔➛➟➜➔➞➠➟➜→➙➡➢➔➜➔➞➜➤➢→➛➣↔➤➔➥➜➔→➜➜➡➢➠➙➙➛➦➔➧➨➩

�✁✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✞✁✠✄✡☛☞✌✍✎✏✑✍✒✏✌✍

✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✕✚✖✛✜✢✣✤✥✦✧✣★✩✪✤✫✬✭✭✮✯✰✱✮✲✳✴✲✮

✵✶✷✸✹✺✻✼✽✾✿❀❁❂❃❄

❅ ❆❇❇ ❈❉❊❊

❋● ❍■■ ❏❑▲▼◆❖P◗◗❘❙▼❚P❯❙❯▼❱❲❙

❘❳◆▼❱❨❙❱▼❙❱❩◆▼❘❳❙❙◗❯❱❨❙❘❬❭❪❫❴❵❛❜❝❞❡❪❢❣❤✐❥❦❧♠♥♦❣❧♣♦qqrst ✉✈✇①✉②③④⑤✇✉⑥⑤✈⑦②⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸❹

❺❻❼❼❽❺❾❼❿➀➁➂❻➂❼➃➄➅➆➇➈➉➊➅➋➌➍➎➏➐➑➒➏➓➔

→❱▼❙❏◆➣❘❙❳▼➣❯↔❩◆▼❘❳❙❙◗❯❱❨❙❘

→❱❳❙▼❳▼❙❱❳❖❙❲❳↕◗❱❲❳➙➛➜➝➞➟◆➠➡➢➤➥➦➝➞ ➧➨➞➠➩ ➫◗➭➯➲➳➵➸➺➻➼➽➾➚ ➪➶➹➘➴➷➴➴ ➬ ➮ ➱ ✃ ✃

❐❒❮❰❐ÏÐÑ❮ÒÏÑÓÑ❮❐❒❮❰❐ÏÐÑ❮ÒÏÑÓÑ❮ Ô Õ Õ Ö × Ö Ø Ù Ô Ú Ô Û Ü ÔÝ Þ Þ ß à ß á â Ý ã Ý ä å Ý

æ ç è é ê ç ë æ æ ç è é ê ç ë ææ ç è é ê ç ë æ ì í î í ï ð ñ ò ó ôæ ç è é ê ç ë æì í î í ï ð ñ ò ó ôæ ç è é ê ç ë æ

õ ö ÷ ø ù ÷ ú ûü ý þ ÿ � ✁ ✂ ✄ ☎ ✆ � ✝ ✞ ✁ü ý þ ÿ � ✁ ✂ ✄ ☎ ✆ � ✝ ✞ ✁õ ö ÷ ø ù ÷ ú û ✟✠✡☛☛☛☞✟✌✍✡✎✟ ✏✟✑✒✓✔✕✖✗✘✘✙✚ ✛✜✢✣✤✥✦✚✥✧✗★✑✦✕✗✙✥✩✪✔✔✗✥✔✙✥✖✩✥✓✓✥✓✗✦✘✥✪✦✚✕✦✚✔✥★✥

✫✬✗✓✥✧✪✘✘✙✔✥★✪✗✦✗✦✫✧✪✘✘✙

✙✥✔✭✗✚✥✚✔✪✦✥✮ ✯ ✯ ✰ ✱✲✳✴✵✵✶✷✸✹✺✻✼✽✶✾✿✹✺✻✼❀✾✼❀

✶✷✸✹✺✻✼✽✶✾✿✹✺✸✼❁❂❃❁❄❅❆❇❃❂❈✶✷❉✼❊❀✾✻❋●❍■❏❑▲▼ ◆▼

❖✵✵✵ P◗❘❙❚❯❱◗❘❲ ❳◗P◗❨❩ ❬ ❭ ❪ ❫ ❴ ❵ ❛❜ ❬ ❪ ❪❝ ❪ ❬ ❪ ❪

✴❞❡✵ ❢✴❣✳✵ ✮ ✯ ❤ ✱ ✱

✮ ✐ ❥ ✱ ✱❢✲✵✴❞❡❦✵✵✵ ❢❧✵❧❡ ♠♥ ♦ ♣ q q✮ ✐ ✱ ❤ ❥

✲✳❞❡❡✴❣✳

r s s t t✉✈✇①①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨②⑩❶⑤⑥⑦⑧❷⑩⑧❷

②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨②⑩❶⑤⑥④⑧❷⑩⑧❷❸❹❺❻❼❽❾❿➀➁❼➂➃❽❻➄➅➆➇➈➉➊➋➋

➌①①① ➍➎➏➐➑➒➓➎➏➔ →➎➍➎➣↔ ↕ ➙ ➛ ➜ ➝ ➞ ➟➠ ↕ ➛ ➛➡ ➛ ↕ ➛ ➛

✇➢➤①➥✇➦✈① r s ➧ t t➨ ➩ ➫ ➭ ➯ ➯

s ➲ ➳ t➥✉①➵➤①➥➸✉①①➥✉✈➤① ➤✇➦✈

➺➻➼➽➾➚➪➶➹➘➾➴➷➚➽ ➬➮➱➾✃➹❐❒➶➼➶❮❰➶➚ÏÐÑÒÓÔÕÖ×ØÙÚÛÜÝÞßÞàáÙÜâÝßÝßã äâååæçèéßæÜâååâÜÝÞßÞàæÜÙÙåæêÙâëäÝÜêìÙßÜÝåâÜÝÞßæí æÜÙî

ïèéßæÜâååâÜÝÞßÞàðáÙìÝÙñ ÛÝò îÙßÜóè×ØÙÚÛÜÝÞßÞàã ÛÝëÙäâååæôè×ØÙÚÛÜÝÞßÞàõ öäâååè÷øùúûøüýþüÿ� ✁✂✄☎✆ ✂✁� ✝ÿ ✞✟✠✠✠✠✠✡☛☞✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✎✏✑✒✔✒☞✕✑✒☛✏✏✌✍✖✎✗✘✒✙✎✏✕✍✎✚

✛✜✎✎✑✚ ✢✣✣ ✗☛✤✎✓✥✜✎☞✦✎✓✧✗✎✣ ✕✗✎✓✡✎★☞✗✒✣ ✑✒☛✏✡✕✑✎✩✎✗✪ ✫✬✭✬✮✯✰✭✱✲✰✫✳✴✲✰✭✱✲✰✵✶✷✸✹✺✺✻✼✽✾✵✶✿❀✾❁✹❂✾❁❃❄❅❆✺✸✻✼✽✾✩✥❇❈✩✥❉

✩✥✥✕✑✎❊ ☛✗❋●❍■●❍❏●❍❑

▲✭▼▼ ✲◆❖✳✯✯✳P◗✰✭✱✲✰❘ ✮▼▼ ✲◆❙▲✭▼▼ ✲◆❖✳✯✯✳P◗✰✭✱✲✰❘ ✰P❚✲◆❙✛☞✕✙✎

✵❯❱❲❳❨ ❩❬❭ ❪❫❴❵❛❬❵❜❝❵❫❲❩ ❞❡❩❬❭ ❪❫❡❢❲❩❣❴❡❝❤❴❳ ❡❴❵❛

✐❥❦❥❧❨❯❥❳P❥♠ ❧❚♥♦❯♣❦♣❯◗❱❧q♣❯❲ ❥❯♣♠ ❯❚♠ ♣❯❨r ❚♥st✉❯✈♣r ❥❘❦✇❥❦❥❧❨❯♣①♣♠ ❥❯❨P♣❘❨② ♦❯♣❦♣❯◗❱❧q♣❯❲

③✉❘◗✐◗♠ ❥❳◗❨r ④⑤♣❘❦♣❯♣❦qr♠ ♣❯P◗❧❧◗❚❘❚♥❨⑥♣③✉❘◗✐◗♠ ❥❳⑦❥❘❦t✉❯✈♣r ❚❯❚♥⑧⑨⑨⑩④❶❷④❸⑧

❹⑥♣P❥♠ ❧♥❚❯✇❚♠ ♣❘⑥❥❲ ♣❘③✉❘◗✐◗♠ ❥❳◗❨r ❥❯♣❯♣❘❦♣❯♣❦qr♠ ♣❯P◗❧❧◗❚❘❚♥s❹⑥♣❺♥♥◗✐♣❚♥❨⑥♣✇◗❨r t✉❯✈♣r ❚❯②

✇❚♠ ♣❘⑥❥❲ ♣❘③✉❘◗✐◗♠ ❥❳◗❨r❻ ❯♣♠ ❯❚❦✉✐❨◗❚❘♠ ♣❯P◗❧❧◗❚❘♦❸❶❶❼⑩❽⑧⑨⑨❼❥❘❦♦❸❾❾⑨❷❽❸❶❶❿➀➁➂ ➃➁➄➅ ➃➆➇➈ ➉➆➊➋ ➃➁➌ ➃➂➍➎ ➃➏➐➌ ➃➑➒➑➑➑➒➓ ➔→➣

↔↕➙➛➜➝↔↕➞➜➟ ➠➡➢ ➤➥➦➧➨➩➫➭➦➯➲➧➥ ➳➡ ➵➯➸➺➻➼➞➜➙↕➝➛➽ ➺➾➙ ➚➪ ➜➙↕➶ ➝➛➠➹➘↕➴➾➙➜➺➠➺➷➻↕➙➛➜➠➜➠➟ ➬➛➝➝➞❏➮❏➱➱➱❑✃➱❐

❒❮❰ÏÐÏ❮❮❰❮❮❰ÏÐÑÒÓÔÕÒÔÔÖ×ØÙÚØÛÜØÝÞ

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í❰ÏÐÏ❮Ð❰Ïì❰❮❮ÑÜÑæëÜØØäáÑÞÚåáæÚÞØáçØèéÙáæÚáêÜØÜÞÝØÙÚØÛÜØÝÞ

í❰îÐÏ❮Ð❰Ïì❰ÐìØÙÚØÛÜØÝÞ

❍ï ð❍▲ñ ð✫òó ô✫✱õ ð❍ö ðï÷● ðøùö ð➱❏➱➱➱❏ú ûüýüþ❚ÿ

�✁�✂�

✄☎✆✝✞✆✟✠✡☛✆☞☞✌✍✎✍✏✑✒✝✓☎✄✔☛✆☞☞

�✁�✂�

☛✆✕✖✔✗✘✙✖✆☎✙✔✞✄☎✔✕✔☞✚✘☎☞✕✖✘✞✆✝✔ ✆✄✄☎✖☎✘✙✆☞✆✞✔✆

�✁✂✄✄☎✆�✝✂✁✄✞✂✆✂✟✠✡✡ ☛☞✌✌ ✍✎✏✏ ✍✏✏✏✏ ✑ ✒ ✓ ✔✟ ✕ ✖ ✗ ✘ ✗ ✘ ✙ ✚ ✛ ✘ ✜ ✗ ✘ ✜

✢✢

✣✤✥✦✧✤★✩✪✫✬✤✭✦✫✧✪✮✥✦✧✫✧✪✭✦

✯✰✱✲✳✰✴✵✶✷✸✰✰✹✺✱✶✻✼✽✼✾✵✲✰✴✿❀❁❂❃❀❄❄ ✺✶✾✶✹✼❅✱✰✵✼✾✵✲✰✴✲✴❅✷❆✸✰✰✹❂❇❀❀❁❂❈❀❀❁❇❇❄❄

❉❊❋●❍■❏❑▲▼◆❖▲P❑▼◗❑❘●❏❙●❚▲❖❯◗❑❏●■❖●■❱ ❲ ❲ ❲❉✺✶✾✶✹✼❅✱✰✵✼✾✵✲✰✴✲✴❅✷❆✸✰✰✹❇❇❄❄❱ ❲ ❲ ❲ ❳ ❨ ❩ ❲❳ ❬ ❲ ❲❳ ❬ ❲ ❲❭ ❩ ❭ ❩

❪❫❴❵❴❫❛❜❝❞❴❫❡ ❢❣❣❤ ✐❥❦❧❝❴❝❴♠❴♥♦♣❛qrqstq❫❜❝

✉✈✇①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶❷⑤❸❹❺❻❼⑤⑥❽⑨❶❾⑧❾❿➀ ❽❶➁⑤➂⑦❷❷➃❶⑧➄⑤❶⑧❿❾➄⑥⑤➁⑥❾⑧⑥➄⑤⑨⑤➅❺❻❼⑤⑥❽⑨❶❾⑧❾❿➃⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶❷⑤➃

➆➇➈➉➊➇➋➌➍➋➎➏ ➐➑➒➓➔ ➑➐➏ →➎ ➣↔↕↕↕↕↕➙➛➜➝➞➟➠➡➢➤➟➠➡➢➥➢➜➦➡➢➛➠➠➝➞➧➟➨➩➢➫➟➠➦➞➟➭➯➲➟➟➡➭ ➳➵➵ ➨➛➸➟➤➺➲➟➜➻➟➤➼➨➟➵ ➦➨➟➤

➙➟➽➜➨➢➵ ➡➢➛➠➙➦➡➟➾➟➨➚ ➪➶➹➶➘➴➷➹➬➮➷➪➱✃➮➷➹➬➮➷❐❒❮❰ÏÐÐÑÒÓÔ❐❒ÕÖÔ×ÏØÔ×ÙÚÛÜÐ❰ÑÒÓÔ➾➺ÝÞ➾➺ß➾➺➺➦➡➟à ➛➨áâãä

âãåâãæ

ç➹èè ➮éê➱➴➴➱ëì➷➹➬➮➷í ➘èè ➮éîç➹èè ➮éê➱➴➴➱ëì➷➹➬➮➷í ➷ëï➮éî➯➜➦➫➟

❐ðñòóô õö÷ øùúûüöûýþûùòõ ÿ�õö÷ øù�✁òõ✂ú�þ✄úó �úûü

☎✆✝✆✞✟✠✆✡☛✆☞ ✞✌✍✎✠✏✝✏✠✑✒✞✓✏✠✔ ✆✠✏☞ ✠✌☞ ✏✠✟✕ ✌✍✖✗✘✠✙✏✕ ✆✚✝✛✆✝✆✞✟✠✏✜✏☞ ✆✠✟☛✏✚✟✢ ✎✠✏✝✏✠✑✒✞✓✏✠✔

✣✘✚✑☎✑☞ ✆✡✑✟✕ ✤✥✏✚✝✏✠✏✝✓✕☞ ✏✠☛✑✞✞✑✌✚✌✍✟✦✏✣✘✚✑☎✑☞ ✆✡✧✆✚✝✗✘✠✙✏✕ ✌✠✌✍★✩✩✪✤✫✬✤✭★

✮✦✏☛✆☞ ✞✍✌✠✛✌☞ ✏✚✦✆✔ ✏✚✣✘✚✑☎✑☞ ✆✡✑✟✕ ✆✠✏✠✏✚✝✏✠✏✝✓✕☞ ✏✠☛✑✞✞✑✌✚✌✍✖✮✦✏✯✍✍✑☎✏✌✍✟✦✏✛✑✟✕ ✗✘✠✙✏✕ ✌✠✢

✛✌☞ ✏✚✦✆✔ ✏✚✣✘✚✑☎✑☞ ✆✡✑✟✕✰ ✠✏☞ ✠✌✝✘☎✟✑✌✚☞ ✏✠☛✑✞✞✑✌✚✎✭✫✫✱✪✲★✩✩✱✆✚✝✎✭✳✳✩✬✲✭✫✫✴✵✶✷ ✸✶✹✺ ✸④✺✻ ✼✽✾✻ ✸✶✿ ✸✷❻❀ ✸❁❂✿ ✸❃❹❃❃❃❹❄ ❅❺❃

❆❇❈❉❊❋❆❇●❊❍ ■❏❑▲▼▲❑◆❖P◗▲❑❘ ❙❚❚❯ ❱❏❲❙❳❨❩❬●❊❈❇❭❉❪ ❨❫❈ ❴❵ ❊❈❇❛ ❋❉■❜❝❇❞❫❈❊❨■❨❡●❇❞❉■❈❛ ❊❋❇●❢❣❤❵ ❜✐

å❥ä❦❧æ♠❧♥♦♣qrsr♣♣q♣sq♣t✉✈✇①②✈①①③④

✉⑤✇①⑥✈①⑦⑧

sqrsr♣sqrsq♣⑨①④⑩⑧⑦❶✈①①③④✉⑧✇❷④②✇⑧①④❸①❹❺❻④②✇④❼✈①✈⑧⑦①❻✇①⑥✈①⑦⑧

⑨qrsr♣sqr❽q♣♣❶❾❿❿➀➁➂➃➄➅➆➁➂➇➁➈➉➊ ➋➃❿❾➌❿➁➃➈➀➇➇❾➇ ✇❷②①⑥✈①⑦⑧

❽qrsr♣sqr➍qs➍⑤❸❺①①✉④⑦⑩④❺⑩⑩⑧✇❶✈⑦⑤❸➎➏✈②➐❸④②②④✇⑩✇➑➒➑⑩➏➑❸④②➑♣♣⑨➓ ✉⑤✇①⑥✈①⑦⑧ã➔ →ãç➣ →➪➣↔ ↕➙➛↔ →ã➜ →➔➝â →➞➟➜ →❧å❧❧❧å➠ ➡➢❧➢➤ï➥

➦➧➨➩➫➭➯➲➳➵➨➸➺➻➼➼➸➸➨➫➻➩➦➽➳➼➨➸➾➚➪➚➶➹➘

➴➷➴

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air pollution with exhaust particles at four metro construction sites in copenhagen

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ultrafine exhaust particles

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