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Agricultural Cadastral Map Updating by High Resolution Satellite Images &
GIS
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF
BAGHDAD IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER SCIENCE IN PHYSICS (Remote Sensing)
BY
Hashim Fadhil Abbas B. Sc. (physics science), (2009-2010)
Supervised by Dr. Nawal K. Ghazal
2013 1434
Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education
And Scientific Research University of Baghdad
College of Science
بسم اهللا الرمحن الرحيم
أنزل من السماء ماء فسالت أودية بقدرها فاحتمل السيل زبدا رابيا ومما
يوقدون عليه يف النار ابتغاء حلية أو متاع زبد مثـله كذلك يضرب الله
احلق والباطل فأما الزبد فـيذهب جفاء وأما ما ينفع الناس فـيمكث يف
األرض كذلك يضرب الله األمثال
صدق اهللا العلي العظيم
الرعد(١٧)
Acknowledgements
First of all praise be to “ALLAH” for giving me the strength to
complete this work.
I would like to submit my sincere gratitude to my supervisors
Dr. NAWAL KHALAF GHAZAL and for her helpful advice, valuable
suggestions, and encouragement throughout this study.
I would like to extend very special thanks and gratitude to my
family for their valuable help, unlimited support, and encouragement
during the period of courses and this research.
I would like to express my gratefulness and deep thanks to
department of agriculture eng. Aliaa ali hussain and eng. hussain
salih, for their unlimited help and support during the time of this
study.
I would like to thank Dr. Alaa S. Mahdi and Dr. falih and
ms.fouad
Finally, I would like to extend my deep thanks and gratitude to
my best friend for their prayer, unlimited support, and encouragement.
Hashim Fadhil Abbas
I
Abstract
The agriculture cadastral map is very important because it has technical and
materialist specification of the property borders and these maps which are
land registration based on it in Iraq, and have economic benefit. Therefor the
updating and digitize the agriculture cadastral map is very pivotal.
In our work, the study area called Al-shehmea zone located in Wasit
province, southern Iraq. In order to getting updating agriculture cadaster
map ,we obtained an old agriculture cadaster map produced in 1932 of scale
1:10000 with modern (QuickBird) satellite image viewed 2006, that has
61cm resolution for the same area.
In geometric correction process we have two stage, the first one is to
convert the old digital cadaster map from pixel coordinates into UTM
coordinates depending upon the new gridding on the old cadaster map (as a
paper) which made by Ministry of Water Resources department of General
Authority of Survey, while the other stage which can be represented as
(refinement process) is registration between the resulted cadaster map from
the first stage (as source) with the satellite image (as reference) using
ERDAS with total error 0.8542 m .
After that, drawing a set of layers for the study area to producing new
agricultural cadaster map by using Arc GIS and connect them with their own
the information for the study area (eastern Shehimea) in the medial of
Iraq.Finally database can be designed using Microsoft Access 2010 and then
linked with ArcGIS.
II
Contents
Page No. Abstract I List of Contents II List of Tables III List of Figures IV List of Abbreviation VI Chapter One: Introduction 1.1Introduction 1 1.2 Problem statement 2 1.3 Methodology of the work 3 1.4 Data used 1.5 Description of the study area
3 6
1.5 Literature review 6 1.6 Thesis layout 14 Chapter Two: Agriculture Cadastral Maps 2.1 Coordinate systems and map projection 15 2.1.1 Geographic coordinate system 15 2.1.2 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) 16 2.1.3 Datum 17 2.1.4 The geoid 18 2.2 The map 19 2.2.1 Types of maps 20 2.3 Cadastral maps 21 2.3.1 Types of cadaster maps 24 2.3 .2 Classification of cadastral system 24 2.3.3 stages of the evolution of cadastral map 26 2.4 Historical background of land registration in Iraq 29 2.4.1 Land ownership in Iraq under the ottoman occupation 30 2.4.2 Land rights during the British mandate 31 2.4.3 How the land registration system works 31 2.5 Agriculture cadastral map in Iraq 32 2.5.1 Problem of the cadastral maps in Iraq 35 2.5.2 Problem of coordinate system in Iraq 37 2.6 Computerization 37 2.6.1 Mapping system 38 2.6.2 Cadastral map layers 38 2.6.3 Additional map layers 39 2.6.4 Parcels Identifiers 39 2.6.5 Imagery 39 2.7 GIS for cadaster 40 Chapter Three: Remote sensing 3.1 Remote sensing 42 3.2 Common uses satellite imagery 43 3.2.1 Landsat 43 3.2.1.1 Sensors 45
III
3.2.2 Spot5 46 3.2.3 Ikonos 48 3.2.4 Quickbird 51 3.3 Geometric correction 54 3.3.1 Systematic correction 54 3.3.2 Nonsystematic correction 55 3.4 polynomial 56 3.5 Resampling 57 3.5.1 Bilinear interpolation 58 3.5.2 Nearest neighbor 58 3.15 Cubic convolution interpolation 58 Chapter Four: Experimental Work 4.1 Geometric correction 59 4.1.1 Ground control point (GCPs) 60 4.1.2 Resampling 65 4.2 New cadastral map 68 4.3 Database 69 Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusion 100 5.2 Recommendations 100 References 101
List of Tables
Page Title Table 44 Landsat orbit Table (3-1)
45 Landsat 4,5 MSS sensor characteristics Table (3-2)
46 Landsat TM,ETM+ sensor characteristics Table (3-3)
48 Spot 5 orbit Table (3-4)
48 Spot 5 sensor characteristics Table (3-5)
50 Ikonos orbit Table (3-6)
50 Ikonos characteristics Table (3-7)
52 Quickbrid orbit Table (3-8)
53 Quickbird 2 sensor characteristics Table (3-9)
60 GCPs of the first stage of geometric correction Table (4-1a)
65 GCPs of the second stage of geometric correction Table (4-1b)
74 Database of the province number one Table(4-2)
76 Database of the province number two Table (4-3)
78 Database of the province number three Table (4-4)
80 Database of the province number four Table (4-5)
IV
82 Database of the province number five Table (4-6)
84 Database of the province number six Table (4-7)
86 Database of the province number seven Table (4-8)
88 Database of the province number eight Table (4-9)
90 Database of the province number nine Table (4-10)
92 Database of the province number ten Table (4-11)
95 Database of parcels number 47 in province number one Table (4-12)
97 Database of parcels number 235 in province number 1 Table (4-13)
99 Database of parcel number 16 in province number 10 Table (4-14)
List of Figures
Page Title Figure
4 Old cadastral map (1.1) 5 Satellite image (1.2) 16 Universal Transverse Mercator Zones (2.1) 17 Mercator Plane Coordinate System (2.2) 18 Ellipsoid, Geoid and Topographic Surface (2.3) 26 System View of The Cadaster (2.4) 27 Integrated LIS (2.5) 28 Component of Multi-Purpose Cadaster of ANRC (2.6) 29 Cadastral Concept (2.7) 44 Landsat Satellite (3.1) 47 Spot5 Satellite (3.2) 49 Ikonos Satellite (3.3) 51 Quickbird satellite (3.4) 61 The first stage of geometric correction (4.1a) 62 The first pictures represent the first stage of geometric correction, and the
second picture represents the first one on the satellite image (4.1b)
63 Producing the Location of The GCPs on The Old Map (4.2) 64 Illustration of The Reference Satellite Image with location of GCPs (4.3) 66 The Corrected Map (4.4) 67 Producing the first and second correction old cadaster map and the satellite
image (4.5)
70 Illustration The Drawing all Parcels which Containing Study Area and Corrected Map
(4.6)
71 Represent the satellite Image, Old Cadastral map, and new Cadastral map (4.7) 72 Showing the all Parcels of the Study area with their numbers (4.8) 73 Illustration the Agriculture Cadastral map for province number one with
their parcels number (4.9)
75 Illustration the District number 2 (4.10) 77 Producing District number 3 (4.11) 79 Showing the District number 4 (4.12) 81 Producing District number 5 (4.13) 83 Represent the District number 6 (4.14)
V
85 Showing the District number 7 (4.15) 87 Showing the District number 8 (4.16) 89 Producing District number 9 (4.17) 91 Producing District number 10 (4.18) 93 Showing both the district number one and parcel number 47 (4.19) 94 Parcels holding number 47 within district number one (4.20) 94 Producing the parcel number 47 within satellite image (4.21) 96 Showing parcels number 235 in province number 1 (4.22) 98 Showing parcels number 1 in province number 9 (4.23) 98 Showing the parcels number 16 in province number 10 (4.24) 99 Showing the intersect of three provinces 4,5,7 (4.25)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
DEM Digital Elevation Model DLS Department of Lands and Survey DMS Degrees, Minutes and Second DOS Department of Space GIS Geographic Information System GPS Global Positioning System LIS Land Information Systems NNRMS National Natural Resources
Management System NRC National Research Council America PC Planning Commission STC Saudi Telecommunications Company UN United Nations UTM Universal Transverse Mercator WGS84 The word Geodetic System 1984
Chapter One Introduction
1
Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
Cadaster is a French word originating in the Latin capitastrum, meaning a
register of poll tax. Later it came to mean" an official register of the owner-
ship, extent, and value of real property in a given area, used as a basis for
taxation, “or "survey...showing or including boundaries, property lines, etc.
“The cadaster was thus the means used by rulers to collect data on the
division of landed property. An activity that goes back to Babylon and
ancient Egypt since about 3000 BC[1].The Romans, particularly under
Emperor Diocletianus in the 3rd century AD, introduced land inventories in
occupied territories. Also in China a taxation system was developed for land.
Spain introduced its first cadaster for taxation purposes in 1714. The
colonialists in the late 19th and early 20th century introduced systematic
inventories on land in the colonies to enforce their power.
The purpose of the cadaster has changed over time. Initially, taxation was
the main purpose, later on juridical cadastral systems for land use control
were established; and after private land ownership became more common,
the systems were providing security and reliability and became a basis for
land markets[2] The cadaster is a parcel-based system, i.e. information is
geographically referenced to unique, well-defined units of land. These units
are defined by the formal or informal boundaries marking the extent of lands
held for exclusive use by individuals and specific groups of individuals (e.g.
families, corporations, and communal groups).
Chapter One Introduction
2
Each parcel is given a unique code or parcel identifier. Examples of these
codes include addresses, co-ordinates, or lot numbers shown on a survey
plan or map. Cadastral maps commonly range from scales of 1:10,000 to
1:500. Large scale diagrams or maps showing more precise parcel
dimensions and features (e.g. buildings, irrigation units, etc.) can be
compiled for each parcel based on ground surveys or remote sensing and
aerial photography [3]. [4].
The geometric description of the individual land parcel is the basis of most
modern cadastral systems and the fundamental unit of the cadastral map. In
turn the cadastral map is becoming an essential component of a country’s
spatial data infrastructure.
1.2 Problem of statement
1- The standard conditions of cartography aspects is not completion for the
production of maps, in addition to being not used digital techniques and
remained as paper
2- Maps are damaged due to obsolescence time, environmental conditions,
and misuse by users
3-The fact that is old maps with mistakes produced in the old traditional
ways, such as chains and ropes.
4- The coordinates systems cannot be considered this system is first degree
due to the poor way in which the monitoring method and weak basic
guidelines and the short lines in addition to the loss of a large part of his
marks in
Chapter One Introduction
3
1.3 Steps of the work
1- Scanning for the old cadastral map which drawn in 1932.
2- Geometric correction with reference quickbird satellite image that
viewed in 2006 and has resolution 61cm.
3- Screen digitizing for ground features. I went to kute governorate four
times to get the proper information from the department of agriculture
and I met the Surveyor engineering he gave me important tips about the
area and the map which is used in our research.
4- after completed mapping briefed them and found some mistakes and
corrected I took from them information concerning about the region and
went to the Department of Municipalities and finally went to the Real
estate Registration Department and they give me some information and
did not give me all the information as confidential.
5- Building database for the ground features using standard accesses
Microsoft and linking them with ArcGIS.
1.4 Materials Used
1- Old cadastral map as paper at 1932 figure (1-1).
2- Quickberd satellite image in 2006 figure (1-2), with table (1-1) location of
study area.
3-ERDAS Imagine, ArcGIS.
Chapter One Introduction
5
Figure (1-2): satellite image
Table (1-1): location of study area
X Y Left 500699m 3632337m Right 509233m 3621947
Chapter One Introduction
6
1.5 Description of the study area
Province 16 eastern Shehimia in Kut governorate it lie on the west bank of
Tigris River, it’s overloaded by the property rights according to settlement
securities some of it detachment and appropriated from the farmers and
registered to ministry of finance of Iraq for agrarian reform and the
Settlement population according to the contract that deal with the ministry
and the farmers. The agriculture ministry plays the role that makes it
between the ministry of finance and the farmers.
On the other hand the land which relate to the peoples have the property
rights, this lands divided to small area because its own by the peoples, part
of it orchards and for human use. All of the land irrigated by Tigris through
small rivers and its divided into three part according to their proximity to
Tigris first the lands which near the river have ample fertility and the second
types of land have less fertility. And the last have no fertility because of
frequent salt and water is very slight so that they create irrigation project to
irrigate the land which in province 16 and the neighbors.
1.6 Literature Review
In this section will be reviewing some applications States: we will show
some Experiences of some advanced countries of the world, as well as the
experiences of neighboring countries because the cadastral maps are state
project and needs to expenses and a national effort, but we are trying to
develop a methodology for this work for the future.
Chapter One Introduction
7
Dosch, 1996,[5] Construct a 3D geometric model of an urban area by
merging features extracted from cadastral map of the area and from the
corresponding digital elevation model (DEM).
The cadastral map and the DEM are both transformed into two sets of
contour segments the segments extracted from the map represent contours of
buildings and blocks of buildings, whereas the segments extracted from the
DEM represent the external edges of blocks of buildings.
The fusion of 3D geometric model can’t be established without completed
cadastral map. The resulting 3D model has relatively good precision,
depending on the DEM, and has a rather high symbolic level allowing the
manipulation of basic entities such as buildings.
Rofail , and Youssef, 2005, [6] Egypt, In the 80’s of last century most of
Egyptian authorities and organizations started building up their own GIS
applications,Through international technical cooperation ESA succeeded to
digitize most of its cadastral data, but, in the middle of 90th, ESA found that
these data is not up to date, in different formats (paradox, oracle, Informix)
and still some analogue data. They made database model that could fulfill
user current needs and expected near future needs, and enable sustainability
of updating of the cadastral data, that will ensure more security of land
tenure and improve land administration system in Egypt.
ALostah, and Alkhtib [2005], [7], mentioned that Department of Lands and
Survey (DLS) is almost the oldest official governmental organization in
Jordan. In 1987 DLS started the process of Automating the Real Estate
Register to serve all the activities related to land registration affairs. All of
land ownership data are converted to digital form and stored in Ingress
Chapter One Introduction
8
RDBMS migrated recently to Oracle. In 1995, DLS started a large scale
project to convert (18.000) analogue cadastral sheets to digital format using
optical scanners and home customized raster-to-vector software.
The high price of lands, the expectations of owners to get accurate and
definitive results, and the conflicts between owners because of parcels
boundaries; are all factors pushing in the direction of improving accuracy of
the JDCDB and making it available in an easy and friendly form.
Abdul Aal,2005,[8] show that the Saudi Telecommunication company as
the incumbent telephone provider in Saudi Arabia Started its GIS project and
faced huge problem with the data conversion of the telephone networks. Part
of this problem was the lack of the availability of land base for all urban and
rural area in the Kingdom. To solve this issue STC has adopted an ambitious
program to develop land base maps using high resolution satellite images.To
manage this huge number of subscriber over wide geographical area
exceeding 1.5 million square kilometer in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
STC executed one of the most significant GIS project in the Kingdom.
Ministry of Urban Development, 2006, [9] The Planning Commission
(PC), Government of India set up the National Natural Resources
Management System (NNRMS) in 1983 to facilitate optimal utilization of
the country's natural resources through a proper and systematic inventory of
the resource availability and reduce regional imbalances through effective
planning under the guidance of the Department of Space (DOS). Ten
Standing Committees corresponding to various sectors/ministries support the
NNRMS programme. The Standing Committee on Urban Management (SC-
U) under NNRMS is to coordinate the application of remote sensing data
Chapter One Introduction
9
and GIS techniques in the context of urban planning and management. The
SC-U is chaired by the Secretary, Ministry of Urban Development (MOUD),
NewDelhi.
KANSU,and Gazioglu, 2006, [10] New technologies can be applied in every
branch of occupations nowadays. Turkey is concentrating on establishing a
Land Registry and Cadastral Information System. The general objective of
the project is to establish the Turkish Land Information System throughout
the country (TAKBIS). For this project (TAKBIS), digital cadastral maps
are started to produce and digital cadastral maps are being produced by
terrestrial and photogrammetric surveying.
Recent high-resolution satellite images provide an exciting new data source
for geospatial information acquisition.This makes it possible to extract man-
made objects such as buildings, roads and parcels from satellite imagery. So
images of Adapazarı side acquired from high resolution satellite imagery
such as (1 meter) IKONOS satellite image. This image was geometrically
corrected and vector data were produced acquired from image. At the end,
the sensitivity of the high resolution satellite images compared to data
produced by terrestrial surveying was investigated and the regions and zones
it could be used was studied together with analysis of time, lab our and cost.
Tiede, et al. 2007, [11], show digital cadaster data start from 2005. They
applied object-based image analysis and used cognition network language
for modeling objects individually in a semi-automated way. About one fifth
of the initial cadaster units have been further subdivided due to internal
heterogeneity. But the majority of the units have been merged due to
redundancy of the boundaries within. By this, the initial number of units has
Chapter One Introduction
10
been reduced to less than one fourth. Expert assessment revealed that more
than 96 % of the boundaries dissolved were removed correctly.
The accuracy of newly introduced boundaries and also the accuracy of
retained boundaries was about 86 %. The result met the demand of the given
task, although combining data sets of different scales implied some
methodological weaknesses. Overall, high potential of the approach can be
attributed to the high degree of automation ensuring cost-efficiency,
transferability and compatibility of the results. With regard to related
applications.
Dann, 2007, [12] Georgian have formulated a bulk digital mapping
methodology to accurately and effectively map virtually any country or city
in the world, by combining and analyzing affordable and existing data
sources, and maintaining the data in a unique way. Our capabilities, products
and services are all related to map data for digital & paper publication and
GPS based applications. Offering GIS data for countries and cities as well as
a service to capture data in virgin territory. It can be used for Military and
Commercial purposes.
Affordable High- and Medium resolution satellite imagery, combined with
GPS data and Field Information obtained from our own field teams and a
network of local partners, presented us with a way to capture and maintain
the spatial data for George.
Song, 2008,[13] The quality of the cadastral map is not adequate to satisfy
today customer requirments.the role of the cadastral map is set up by
National Spatial data infrastructure the ministry of government and home
affairs the project was reject twice in Korean parliament because that is
Chapter One Introduction
11
requested budget. Cadastral in Korea faces the challenge of having to change
the coordinate system or to use two coordinate system in parallel (the
classical reference system and the Korean ITRF/TM based system) to allow
GPS based surveys. the cadastral map renovation not only reduces the
budget for its maintenance but also improves the geometric quality of the
cadastral map. The Korea cadastral survey corporation developed cadastral
survey management software, manage the survey decision profile and
contains field sketches few years ago this create by large scale topographic
map and high resolution aerial photos.
Sohrabiniaa, et al. 2008,[14] Use of different image analysis and
processing methods in order to extract information content needed to update
large scale maps. Recently available high resolution satellite imagery
attracted mapping communities to shift their focus from aerial photographs
to satellite imagery. Obviously, this new source of information requires
different methods and algorithms to extract needed information for map
revision, therefore, is to examine reliability of image analysis methods to
extract fine groups of classes required to update large scale maps. Data used
include Ikonos and QuickBird images of the study area together with aerial
photographs and digital maps of the same region. Using Iranian geoid.
Utesnan. 2010 [15], Department of Land (DOL), had upgraded the cadastral
system on Land Tilting project completely for 20 years. A new series of
1/4000 cadastral mapping were produced base on rectified photomap. The
procedures for title deed survey is on new technology, on line processing.
On this learning, the cadastral survey have been interesting that DOL
Chapter One Introduction
12
cadastral system under law are reviewed including cadastral survey for
mapping processing for hardcopy data.
After the system had developed on Land Tilting Project for new tenure
system which cadastral base maps were created Universal Transverse
Mercator projection on Indian datum and new technology started implement.
Currently, the system is on digital era the official or license surveyor can
work online via internet. The cadastral survey system has been transformed
to digital model as database.
Thailand where the prime emphasis in re-establishing boundaries is
agreement by the parties rather than re-instatement from information
recorded in the land records. Most surveys in Thailand are undertaken to
lower accuracy, but lower cost, graphical standards.
Alves DAL SANTO, et al. 2010, [16] Develop methods of cartographic
generalization using GIS. Thus, the generalization models were generated,
evaluated, and presented through different criteria. Among these criteria, the
structure of the digital data storage, the effectiveness of the recovery
operations in the generalization process, and the necessity of a spatial
perception for applying the operations. Used the Criciuma cadastral
cartographic base maps (scale 1:5.000, year 2003). Potential users of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), among them private companies and
public institutions, have different necessities in terms of quality, quantity
and type of data stored in the spatial database, especially in the development
of their land planning and management. With the recent city halls
computerization process, the Geographic Information Systems represent one
of the most important tools for manipulating cadastral data.
Chapter One Introduction
13
Esri. Canada 2012 [17] Canada has a long history of providing reliable,
accurate and high-quality digital mapping data that has been achieved
through the province’s commitment to an advanced cadastral mapping
system. Since its inception more than 20 years ago, the system has
flourished, leading to the creation of many new dataset and products that
promote the efficient delivery of government services.
Naouali ,2012 ,[18] The Topographic and Cadaster Office of Tunisia (TCO)
has established a GNSS Network covering the Tunisian Territory as follow
During the year 2005, the TCO has installed three GNSS stations at Tunis,
Monastir and Sfax During 2010 and 2011 the TCO has installed 20 GNSS
stations. The main purpose of the GNSS Network of Tunisia is Updating the
technology in the field of Cadaster and Land Registration by developing the
use of real time GPS/RTK surveying methods. This project is a higher
social cost in reaching agreement on boundaries. When agreement is reached
on boundaries in Tunisia, accurate and costly surveys are undertaken and the
coordinates determined from these surveys are used to re-instate boundaries.
Chapter One Introduction
14
1.6 Thesis Layout
This section refers to discovering each chapter briefly.
Chapter one
entitled “general Introduction”, thesis propose, Methodology of the work,
data use, and literature survey of some Arabic and all around the world
country, Asia, Africa, south America and Europe.
Chapter two
Chapter includes, fundamental of map Coordinate system, type of datum
ellipsoid, and the maps and there types, Cadastral map and there types
Stages of the evolution, Historical Background of Land Registration in Iraq
from Ottoman Occupation through British Mandate to the modern years,
what the problem in the cadastral maps, and using GIS for mapping.
Chapter three
Remote sensing fundamental kind of satellites according to their images and
how we corrected the image with polynomial and resampling method that
we used in ERDAS program to correct image- to-image.
Chapter four
Experimental work and review to the result of our work, three major parts
geometric correction, draw cadastral map, relate it to the database.
Chapter five
Conclusion and the future work.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
15
2-1 Coordinate Systems and Map Projection To analyze, manipulate, measure and store reasonably, geospatial data,
they must put into one certain spatial coordinate system. There are two kinds
of coordinate system for geo-spatial data, Spherical and Cartesian coordinate
system. The two most commonly used projection system are Geographic and
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). [19]
2-1-1 Geographic Coordinate System In this system, all horizontal lines are called latitude or parallels and the
vertical lines are called longitude or meridians. As the meridians line toward
the poles, the distance represented by one degree of longitude decreases unit
it equals zero at the North Pole and the South Pole. The origin of the
Spherical coordinate is defined by the intersection of (00) latitude or the
equator and (00) longitude or the Prime Meridian passing through the
Greenwich in U.K.
Latitude and longitude are angled measured from the Earth’s center (not
perpendicular) to a point on the Earth’s surface and they are measured in
degrees, minutes and second (DMS) or decimal degree (DD). For example
latitude 0° is located at the Equator, 90° is at the North Pole, and -90° is at
the South Pole [19].
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
16
2-1-2 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) In this system, the world is divided into 60 zones, each covering 6 degrees
of longitude. In latitude, extends from 840 N to 800 S (Figure 2.1) and
(figure 2.2) show the projection of UTM. The origin of each zone is the
intersection of the central meridian at the equator. High degree of accuracy
is possible due to separate projection for each UTM zone. UTM values are
calculated in meters. To eliminate negative coordinates, the projection alters
the coordinate values at the origin. The value given to the central meridian is
the false easting, and the value assigned to the Equator is the false northing.
For locations in the Northern Hemisphere, the origin is assigned a false
easting of 500,000 meters and a false northing [19].
Figure (2-1): Universal Transverse Mercator zones [20]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
17
Figure (2-2): Mercator Plane Coordinate System
2-1-3 Datum
The word Geodetic System 1984(WGS84) is seen as a commonly accepted
and absolute global geodetic positioning system where coordinates are
defined with reference to the center of Earth.WGS84 datum is currently
accepted as the best-defined mathematical model to describe the earth’s
surface – though its values are being further fine-tuned. The possibility that
the earth’s equator is an ellipse rather than a circle and therefore that the
ellipsoid has been a matter of scientific controversy for many years. The
orbit data coming from various satellites indicate more complex geometric
phenomena. They indicate additional flattening at the South Pole
accompanied by a bulge of the same degree at the North Pole [19].
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
18
2-1-4 The Earth Geoid
Geodesists often need to account for the reality of the Earth's surface.
Although a geoid may seem to be a smooth, regular shape, but it isn't. The
Earth's mass is unevenly distributed. Because of these variations in
gravitational force, the "height" of different parts of the geoid always
changes, moving up and down in response to gravity. The geoidal surface is
an irregular shape with a wave appearance; there are rises in some areas and
dips in others. The geoid is the true shape of the earth and it’s closely
corresponds to mean sea level. The height of the geoid above the
ellipsoid is known as the geoid-ellipsoid separation, or often just the
separation, and is usually given the symbol N, as shown in figure
(2-3)
Figure (2-3): Ellipsoid, geoid and topographic surface
Also, as shown in figure (2-3), the relationship between the ellipsoid height
(h) and the geoid height (orthometric height) (H) can be expressed as
ℎ = 𝐻 + 𝑁 ………………………………………………………….…. (2-1)
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
19
Where N is the ‘geoid-ellipsoid separation’. It is emphasized that the height
(h) is the value that normally results from satellite observations; the
significance of this equation is therefore to obtain a height above the geoid
H, it is necessary to know the separation, N. Alternatively, since most
precise satellite positioning is done by relative techniques, the equation (2-1)
can be recast in the form
∆ℎ = ∆𝐻 + ∆𝑁 ……………………………………………………… (2-2)
This means that a satellite system such as GPS can be used to find the
change in ellipsoid height (∆ℎ). Therefore, in order to find the orthometric
height of the point it is necessary to know only the change in the geoid
separation (∆𝑁). [21]
2-2 The MAP Cartography is the art and science of expressing the known physical
features of the earth graphically by maps and charts. No one knows who
drew, molded, laced together, or scratched out in the dirt the first map. But a
study of history reveals that the most pressing demands for accuracy and
detail in mapping have come as the result of military needs. Today, the
complexities of tactical operations and deployment of troops are such that it
is essential for all soldiers to be able to read and interpret their maps in order
to move quickly and effectively on the battlefield [22].
A map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface drawn to
scale, it uses colors, symbols, and labels to represent features found on the
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
20
ground. The ideal representation would be realized if every feature of the
area being mapped could be shown in true shape. Obviously this is
impossible, and an attempt to plot each feature true to scale would result in a
product impossible to read even with the aid of a magnifying glass.
Therefore, to be understandable, features must be represented by
conventional signs and symbols. To be legible, many of these must be
exaggerated in size, often far beyond the actual ground limits of the feature
represented scale map; because a map is a graphic representation of a
portion of the earth's surface drawn to scale as seen from above.
2-2-1 Types of Maps
There are several types of maps. Each show different information. Most
maps include a compass rose, which indicates which way is north, south,
east and west. They also include a scale so you can estimate distances.
Here's a look at some different types of maps [23].
1-Climate maps Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and
snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show
different climate or precipitation zones.
2-Economic or resource maps Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or
economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that
oranges are grown there.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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3-Physical maps Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and
lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief
differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations,
and orange or brown indicate higher elevations.
4-Political maps Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national
boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with
a star within a circle.
5-Road maps Show major some minor highways and roads, airports, railroad tracks,
cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan
trips and for driving directions. 6-Topographic maps Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that
are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate
flat terrain.
2-3 cadastral maps
The cadaster is most simply described as a methodically arranged
public inventory of data concerning properties within a jurisdiction, based on
a survey of their boundaries [24]. Land registration is the process by which
the documentation affecting interests in land are recorded in a public
register. This is the official legal registration of properties and legal rights.
[25]. from a database perspective, this is a land information system where
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
22
information is referenced to unique, well-defined units of land, normally
referred to as land parcels. The outlines of these land parcels are normally
shown on large scale maps, are linked to textual land title registers and
provide a spatial reference for other spatial or a spatial, parcel related data.
The International Federation of Surveyors [26] defines a cadaster as a
“parcel based and up-to-date land information system containing a record of
interests in land (e.g. rights, restrictions and responsibilities) [27].
It usually includes a geometric description of land parcels linked to other
records describing the nature of the interests, ownership or control of those
interests, and often the value of the parcel and its improvements. It may be
established for fiscal purposes (valuation and taxation), legal purposes
(conveyance), to assist in the management of land and land-use control
(planning and administration), and enables sustainable development and
environmental improvement” [28].
However, the concept of Cadastre is difficult to identify. It may be designed
in many different ways, depending on the origin, history and cultural
development of the region or country. Basically, a cadastre as such is just a
record that identifies the individual land parcels/properties. The purpose of
this identification may be taxation (as was the reason for establishing the
European cadasters) or it may be security of land rights (as was the case
when establishing the Torrens systems in the new world such as Australia).
Today, most cadastral registers around the world are linked to both the
land value/taxation area and the area of securing legal rights in land.
Therefore, it makes sense to talk about Cadastral Systems or Cadastral
Infrastructures rather than just Cadaster. These systems or infrastructures
include the interaction between the identification of land parcels, the
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
23
Registration of land rights, the valuation and taxation of land and property,
and the control of present and possible future use of land [27]. According to
[28] the term Cadaster includes different types of purposes such as Juridical:
a register of ownership of the proprietary land parcel; Fiscal: a register of
properties recording their value to support taxation; Land use: a register of
land use; and when a cadaster serves as a supplier of up-to-date and reliable
land information at an affordable cost, it is then termed as Multipurpose
Cadaster. The objective of the multipurpose cadaster is to provide a service
through which the dynamics of the land parcel may be studied and also meet
the demands of the evolution of LAS which means the needs of the users.
Cadastral Systems can be grouped under three general heads Tax Cadaster,
Real Cadaster, and Legal Cadaster.
An essential prerequisite for an efficient cadastral system is therefore
ensuring that the two datasets are maintained and up-to-date. No set of rights
should exist without a spatial parcel to assign them to, and all spatial parcels
should be linked to a set of rights [29].
This is a simple concept, but can be very difficult to implement in practice.
In many countries there is a weak or non-existent spatial framework and this
is a major cause of uncertainty in rights in land. Most surveys in Thailand
are undertaken to lower accuracy, but lower cost, and graphical standards. In
other countries, such as Tunisia, there is a higher social cost in reaching
agreement on boundaries. When agreement is reached on boundaries in
Tunisia, accurate and costly surveys are undertaken and the coordinates
determined from these surveys are used to re-instate boundaries.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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In England a general boundary system operates with strong community
acceptance. The general boundaries are charted on large scale topographic
maps produced by a national authority. Registry maps and file plans are
produced from these maps. Land owners have the option of requesting
accurate surveys to fix their boundaries, but few such requests are made.
[30], the cadastral map record is a prime layer in supporting the development
of national Spatial Data Infrastructure. Few if any developed countries have
been able to implement such a system, even with significant recent
improvements in technology and a range of innovative approaches to phase
the introduction of improved accuracy.
The land administration infrastructures may be described as the
organizations, standards, processes, information and dissemination systems
and technologies required to support the allocation, transfer, dealing and use
of land. Information technology will play an increasingly important role both
in constructing the necessary infrastructure and in providing effective citizen
access to information
2-3-1 Types of cadaster map 1. Legal cadaster – supports land markets
2. Fiscal cadaster – supports land taxation
3. Multi-purpose cadaster
2-3-2 Classification of Cadastral System
They can be grouped under three general heads.
1- Tax Cadaster 2- Real Cadaster 3- Legal Cadaster. [31]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
25
Tax Cadaster
It is a system of survey where information is collected for land taxation.
The tax may be assessed based on area of land, type of land, value of land
and produce of the land. The physical survey may be represented by sketch.
Usually; accuracy of the survey is low since main objective is tax collection.
The determination of rightful ownership is not done since main objective is
tax collection. AS long as someone agrees to pay taxes, it does not matter to
the government who the rightful owners are.
Real Cadaster In contrast, the real property Cadaster is executed mainly for the physical mapping of land holding boundaries and locating real other properties for land inventory. Real property includes not only land, but also buildings, trees etc., which are permanently fixed to it.
Legal Cadaster Survey which furnishes information for the Registration of the land. Determination of legal ownership and Registration of legal transactions is called as legal cadaster. The requirements of physical survey of land boundaries preceding registration may not be necessary since registration
Can be based on old documents. Thus, in general, the legal cadaster is a complement to both property cadaster and tax cadaster. Hence, the most efficient approach is to take all three objectives together and integrate the three types of cadasters in one system. This is Land Information System or LIS.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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2-3-3 Stages of the evolution of cadastral map
The cadastral map has long been used as a charting or index map. By the
development of civilization and the increasing importance of cadastral maps.
There is a need to develop and convert cadastral maps from charting or
index map to digital maps and the cadastral parcel as a fundamental unit of
the data models. This requires the integration databases model with charts or
indexes and thus appeared models to suit human evolution.
The first model of the cadaster from a systems or holistic viewpoint. Figure
(2-4) shows the connections between the broader uses and users of cadastral
data. While this model heralds the multipurpose role of the cadaster,
multipurpose was more precisely defined by the American National
Research Council. [32]
Figure (2-4): System view of the cadaster [32]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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The integration of data, with the cadastral map as the central base map in
these LIS, demonstrates the multipurpose and centralized view of the spatial
cadastral data as depicted in Figure (2-5).
In analogue cadastral systems the cadastral map has long been used as a
charting or index map to other cadastral information and legal instruments a
critical observation was the recognition of the role of the digital, cadastral
parcel as a fundamental unit of the data models associated with LIS;
additionally there was a recognition of the multipurpose use of the cadastral
data to service the information needs of the public and private sector, and
individual users [33]
Figure (2-5): Integrated LIS [33]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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The structural diagram in Figure (2-6) is data model that identifies the
cadastral data (along with topographic maps and the geodetic framework) as
infrastructure. It clearly shows the interdependency of the spatial data,
spatial data ranging from the geodetic framework to the cadastral overlay
data [31].
Figure (2-6): Components of a Multi-Purpose Cadaster of American National Research Council. Developed a model of a cadastral system emphasizing the organizational
structures. An abbreviation of Williamson’s conceptual model is depicted in
Figure (2-7). The original full model expands the cadastral database to detail
the data and functions of this component.. In this model the cadastral
database organization, with its primary functions of cadastral surveying and
title registration, maintains the ownership data and parcel data of the system.
This cadastral database provides the foundation of a centralized
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
29
land information system, which manages all the data in the overall
information system. Two characteristics of this conceptual model are
important to note. First the up-to-date cadastral data is distributed to other
organizations, Second the data maintained by each of the users. [33]
Figure (2-7): Cadastral Concept [30]
2-4 Historical Background of Land Registration in Iraq Land registration in Iraq has deep roots. Evidence of the sale of private
properties was noted as early as 2700 BC from the city-states of Ur and
Uruk. Different classes of property were noted in written tablets of the
Sumerian period. Under Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), land classification
expanded and is referred to in the Hammurabic code.1 Thus, land
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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registration has occurred in Iraq for millennia, and Iraq could well be the
origin of the concept of land as private property.[34]
2-4-1 Land Ownership in Iraq under the Ottoman Occupation The Ottoman occupation of Iraq, which began in 1534, altered the concept
of land ownership to one that all land belongs to the state. The state does not
have to prove this ownership with any document, including title deeds. This
is, in effect, the default position for land ownership—no land is without
ownership. Communities (collective ownership), individuals, and corporate
bodies may own land, but this ownership must be proven through registered
title deeds. During the Ottoman period, most of the lands were owned by
such groups of people as the Rawa and Aana in the northwest of Iraq. At that
time, land reform was established by dividing the lands into three types: [34]
1. Privately held land 2. Ameriya lands (owned by the state)
3. Endowed lands Accordingly, large areas, cities, and complete villages were registered as one
plot of land on one title deed. This was the standard for a long period of
time. The people of one community were considered the legal
owners/partners of the city, town, or village with a single title deed.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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2-4-2 Land Rights during the British Mandate A year after the British occupation of Iraq in 1917, the commanding
general announced in his Declaration No. 15 (given December 18, 1918) that
the people who have title deeds for their possessions of Ameriya lands are
considered to be tenants for these lands. Institutions were to be established to
examine those title deeds. At the same time, the British authority distributed
lands to some tribal leaders and feudalists7 who had supported the British
occupation [34]. 2-4-3 How the Land Registration System Works From the Ottoman period until 1974, the ownership document was called
the Permanent Title Deed. It was a hand-written copy of the original
registration document of the property ownership held by the TAPU. In 1974,
the Real Estate Registration Law was promulgated, replacing the old
Ottoman Permanent Title Deed with a new Title Deed document. The title
document held by the owner is also a hand-written copy of the original,
official record-book document. It is the only proof of ownership. The RERD
holds the original in its registry.
The Title Deed document incorporates the following information:
1. The complete name of the owner(s).
2. The category of the property—plot of land, residential, arable,
commercial, or industrial.
3. The three types of the property:-
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
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A- Private Real Estate—Estates owned by the owner whose name(s) is
registered in the Title Deed document with no other partner.15
B- Public Estates—these belong to the state and are divided into two parts:
1. Properties given by Alezma and
2. Governmental estates entrusted to the RERD. Both types of
ownership affirm that the state is a partner owner with the
individual accorded some ratio or period of use.
C- Endowment (inheritance)—the property is registered in the
Endowment Department and under its protection.
In some cases a landowner makes an agreement with another person to
construct a building on his land. The two sides agree to make use of the
property for a limited period of time. This type agreement is called “Al
Musataha.” At the end of the agreed period, the property ownership reverts
to the landowner, and the building should be registered at the Real Estates
Registration Department. 2-5 Agriculture Cadastral Map in Iraq
Creativity of people in work or making plans and they excelled in the
measurement standards and engineering scientific map. Became map entity
and its own independent science. It was basically a documentary in
establishing science relating to land and thus varied purposes maps and each
map have purpose. Among these maps are cadastral mapping specialized in
identifying private and public property and identify other properties even
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
33
considered legal documents for the purpose for which it worked or
manufactured. It must clarify the fact that cadastral mapping through legal
supply contained thereon in determining its objectives in settlement of land
rights law that those maps index and described forms and limits and
diversified real estate sites, varieties and use rights and especially the rights
bare.
These maps became official documents its image legal and technical for the
desired purpose and thus the cadastral mapping recorded advanced steps in
the science of documentation and have been continuing in Iraq so far, and
the development of science and technology and the existence of aerial
photographs, which shifted from being aerial photographs to maps through
specialized programs where known maps and aerial surveys.
This map is considered a step forward other than cadastral mapping in many
purposes and is more precise workmanship and less cost and effort, but
cadastral mapping remains the original and are legally accredited and the
differences between the cadastral maps and the satellite are as in follow:
The satellite image do not obey to the legal border limits because it’s an
absolute image, so must refer to the cadastral map the one used by Real
Estate Registration Departments, and by using the new technology by using
ARCGIS, ERDAS programs so these programs enable us to fuse this
satellite image with the cadastral map to form new updated map, where the
earth’s climate, Erosion, and the human activity factor are cause a
continuous change to the map, so that we are in need of the satellite image to
update the old maps. Where our country was forbidden in the last three
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
34
Decades from this technology and Iraq become behind form his neighbors in
this field, or we can say we are behind from civilization line, which always
and forever work to the good of humanity by creativity and innovation.
There are many things in the cadastral maps hidden for those who work in
this field as a comparison to the satellite image, so we should come back to
the original map to solve these problems, and we will show the importance
of the cadastral maps from (legal, judicial and technical) point to explain the
priority of updating, and transforming it from a paper maps to a digital maps
valid to update and store easily.
The cadastral survey definition in the United Nations (it’s the creation,
description, and confirmation the lands borders). The Iraqi Land rights of
settlement law 29/1938 the summary of the 3rd section of the law is
(confirmation of the land borders and specify there area, and install the
places of rights that deals with lands like, (the rights of drinking, path,
passing Liquefied, course of the river …etc.).
Section 18th for the above mentioned law states: the borders and the places
of rights on the earth must be pointed on the map as inserted in the
adjustment, and signed by the Settlement President and Surveyor Engineer
or Area Inspector. This is the purpose or the duty of the cadastral map, so
that the map will be the technical and Materialist specification of the
property borders.
The Iraqi Land rights of settlement law 43/1971 in its corrected 25th section
(The cadastral map are the maps which Land Registration based on it) which
shows the legal force of this map.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
35
2-5-1 Problems of the Cadastral Maps in Iraq
One of the important problems that face cadastral maps and those who
work on it is the component of the cadastral map, the name or the nickname
of the province and its serial no. according to the administrative unit as the
name of the province may repeated in the same administrative unit, or may
be the number of the province repeated without the name because of the
adjustment
In the borders of the administrative unit or the both of the name and the
number may repeat. The borders of the province is outer than the
administrative unit borders this cause a legal problem in the distribution of
the land, the cadastral map is bare from the height and depth borders with
respect to the sea level and this problem appears in the mountain or aquatic
borders. Some of the big provinces borders if it divided to two or more parts
so each part follow a different administrative unit in the same governorate
and some of the province borders contain a lot of complex curves and
detours will strain the workers on the map.
Not all the cadastral maps deals with agriculture lands but there is a
cadastral maps for the residential homes this reveals a new problem which
the province may contain another province inside it and if the map contain
other part or appendix for this province.
Because of using more than one drawing scale in the same map this causes a
problem in measuring the correct area of the land and also cause interference
in borders, some of the borders between the provinces is a river and when
the river changes its path affect the borders by adding areas was
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
36
Immersed by water follow one province to the other neighbor one This is
illegal adding in the other hand the river immerse new areas from one of
them. In some maps the two neighbor lands borders enclosed or maybe there
is a land in side land.
When the enlargement of the cadastral map began new set of problem
appeared one of it there is more than one appendix for the same map, some
of the appendixes are missed or torn, this cause blur to the geographical
position and this lead to a new problem in position, area, and shape of the
property units, so it need to resettle these lands.
Also there is a problem in the real rights which follow property units this
represent the rights of drinking, path, passing….etc. and for each right there
is featured sign so if the worker on the map mistook in the sign and give a
land right that it is not allowed to have it, this will cause a problem between
the citizens of this area of the land for example the land which irrigated by
rain don’t have the right of drinking.
There are some forbidden lands like the lands which surround the roads, and
puncture project trespass by the people, or some lands become forbidden.
Some lands are distributed to the people but it is not registered in the Real
Estate Registration Department, and also there is problem in the unsettled
lands for example part of national rivers, or the deserts.
One of the worst problem in cadastral map is 40% of the area of the country
Free zones of the settlement so far still waiting for completion of the work or
install settlement rights, such as Salman, Southern Badia, Al-rotba and
Nukhayb.[35]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
37
2-5-2 Problem of coordinate system in Iraq
The coordinates systems in Iraq are divided into two systems: the first
system was known as the “third system” and the reference point located in
AL-NAHRWAN south-east of Baghdad city and CLARK1880 Ellipsoid was
used Cannot be considered this system is first degree due to the poor way in
which the monitoring method and weak basic guidelines and the short lines
in addition to the loss of a large part of his marks in, the second system was
established by “Pole Service Company “during 1979-1989, the reference
point located in KARBALA “recently is known “, and CLARK1880
Ellipsoid UTM was used, every project stand alone and it was completed
subdivisions, which led to the spread of control points Ground here and
there. The production or updating cadastral maps using the traditional land
survey instrument are costly and take a lot of time. Furthermore, in Iraq most
of the municipalities don’t have unified coordinate systems which cause
having cadastral maps with different systems. Beside that some of the
municipalities have no cadastral map at all. [36]
2-6 Computerizations Of map and parcel data can enhance the capability to manage, analyze,
summarize, display, and disseminate geographically referenced information
Working with digital cadastral maps and tabular parcel related data in a GIS,
users can selectively retrieve and manipulate layers of parcel and spatial
information to produce composite maps with only the data they need.
Sharing GIS files over an internal or external data network makes parcel
maps and related attribute information widely available, and reduces the
duplication of effort inherent in separate map systems. Such sharing is
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
38
becoming increasingly sophisticated, ranging from allowing users to
download data or prepared maps, to allowing users to make sophisticated
queries that may draw on the power of the host GIS’s software and
hardware.[3]
2-6-1 Mapping System A digital cadastral mapping system should have the following components:
· Reference to a geodetic control network
· Current base map layer (ideally, photogrammetrically derived)
· A cadastral layer delineating all real property Parcels.
· Vertical aerial photographs and/or images (ideally, orthorectified).
· A unique parcel identifier assigned to each parcel.
· A means to tie spatial data to attribute data (ownership and parcel
characteristic files).
· Additional layers of interest to the assessor, such as municipal
boundaries, zoning, soil types, and flood plains. [37]
2-6-2 Cadastral Map Layers The cadastral map layers should be tied to the base map layer and should
show all parcels in the assessing jurisdiction. Each parcel polygon should be
attributed with a unique parcel identifier. Parcel boundary lines should be
attributed or annotated with bearing, distance, and curve data.[38]
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
39
2-6-3 Additional Map Layers A multipurpose cadaster should have a variety of layers. Polygon map
layers that can be of great value to the assessor include municipal and taxing
district and school district boundaries, appraisal neighborhoods, soil types,
zoning, subdivision boundaries, and flood insurance rate areas. Linear map
layers may include features such as street centerlines, utility lines, and transit
lines. Point map layers may include locations of fire and police stations,
public buildings and schools. In smaller jurisdictions, the assessor may be
responsible for creating and maintaining some or all of these GIS layers; in a
large jurisdiction, they may be developed and maintained by other offices or
agencies.[39]
2-6-4 Parcel Identifiers Each parcel should be keyed to a unique identification number or code that links the cadastral layer with files containing data such as ownership, value, use, and zoning .The parcel identifier provides a common index for all property records and may help track changes in legal descriptions in a rigorous and more manageable way. [39] 2-6-5 Imagery Vertical aerial photographs based on film have long been an essential
product for base map development. They are being increasingly replaced by
digital images from aircraft. Imagery has greater value when all distortions
removed so that it closely matches the geodetic control, can erve as a base
map, and meets the measurement tolerances required for the cadastral layer.
Such images are called orthophotos, orthorectified images, or “orthos.”
Jurisdictions should acquire new imagery of urban areas at least every five
years and of rural areas at least every ten years. Jurisdictions
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
40
experiencing rapid or slow growth may need to adjust this timetable. Aerial
imagery (and photogrammetric work done to create base maps) should meet
industry recognized standards for scale, positional accuracy, resolution, and
other requirements.
Digital cadastral maps, whether viewed on-screen or in printed form should
include the following elements:
• Boundaries of all parcels.
• Parcel identifiers.
• Parcel dimensions and areas.
• Easements that influence value.
• Subdivision or plat boundaries, as well as block and lot numbers.
• Boundaries and names of political subdivisions, such as counties, towns,
townships, and municipalities.
• Boundaries and names of geographic subdivisions, such as sections,
townships, government lots, land districts, and land lots.
2-7 GIS FOR Cadaster
Since 1969, ESRI, a pioneer in geoprocessing tools, has been helping
people solve real-world geographic problems. Today, more than 100,000
organizations around the world use ESRI® software because it uses leading
ideas in technology for geographic information management. Many
European countries are developing new strategies to improve cadaster
management. Geographic information system (GIS) technology offers
cadasters a method of quickly accessing and producing maps, leveraging
database information, and automating enterprise work processes.
Chapter Two Agriculture Cadaster Map
41
Because ESRI's GIS software is an open system that conforms to
information technology standards, it adapts to a variety of cadaster systems
and responds to endless combinations of requirements and operations. The
vocation of the cadaster for all countries has become multipurpose: serving
administrative mandates, maintaining an up-to-date database, assigning
values for taxation, calculating subsidies, addressing rural development and
agrarian management, and providing products and services to citizens and
companies.
Some countries are creating National Spatial Data Infra structures that
serve as geospatial information warehouses. The cadaster is one of the base
layers of a National Spatial Data Infrastructure. ESRI has a well-documented
history of working with the international GIS community to develop these
national architectures for geospatial database access [3].
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
42
Chapter Three
Remote sensing and Satellite images
In this chapter we talk about remote sensing fundamentals and one of its
applications is mapping in brief, and explained the characteristics of satellite
images.
3 .1 Remote Sensing
The acquisition and measurement of data/information on some property of
a phenomenon, object, or material by a recording device not in physical
intimate contact with the features under surveillance; techniques involve
amassing knowledge pertinent to environment by measuring force fields,
electromagnetic radiation, or acoustic energy employing cameras,
radiometers and scanners, lasers, radio frequency receivers, radar systems,
sonar, thermal devices, seismographs, magnetometers, gravimeters,
scintillometers, and other instruments.[40] .
The sun provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing.
The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or
absorbed and then reemitted, as it is form thermal infrared wavelengths.
Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is naturally available are
called passive sensors such as camera. Active sensors, on the other hand,
provide their own energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiation
which is directed toward the target to be investigated. Some examples of
active sensors are a laser fluorosens or and a synthetic and satellite [41].
In order for a sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from a
target or surface, it must reside on a stable platform removed from the target
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
43
or surface being observed. Platforms for remote sensors may be situated on
the ground, on an aircraft or balloon (or some other platform within the
Earth's atmosphere),or on a spacecraft or satellite outside of the Earth's
atmosphere. sensing instruments can be placed on a variety of platforms to
view altitudes, which view the same portion of the Earth's surface at all
times have geostationary orbits. These geostationary satellites, at altitudes of
approximately 36,000 kilometers, monitor weather and cloud patterns
covering an entire hemisphere of the Earth. Many remote sensing platforms
are designed to follow an orbit (basically north-south) which, in conjunction
with the Earth's rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most of the Earth's
surface over a certain period of time.
3-2- Common uses satellite imagery
3-2-1 Landsat
The LANDSAT satellites 2 (figure 3.1) for land observation. The program
was first started by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) in 1972, then turned over to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) after it became operational. Since 1984, satellite
operation and data handling were managed by a commercial company
EOSAT. However, all data older than 2 years return to “public domain” and
are distributed by the Earth Resource Observation System (EROS) Data
Center of the US Geological Survey (USGS) [42].
The first satellite in the series, LANDSAT -1 (initially named as the Earth
Resource Technology Satellite ERTS-1) was launched on 23 July 1972.The
satellite had a designed life expectancy of 1 year but it ceased operation only
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
44
on January 1978.LANDSAT -2 was launched on 22 January 1975 and three
additional LANDSAT satellites were in 1978,1982, and 1984 (LANDSAT -
3,4, and 5 respectively).LADNDSAT-6 was launched on October 1993 but
the satellite failed to obtain orbit. A new satellite LANDSAT -7 was
launched in 15 April 1999.Currently, only LANDSAT -5 and 7 are
operational. The Landsat orbit is show in table (3.1)
Figure (3-1): Landsat satellite [43]
Table (3-1): LANDSAT Orbit
Type Sun-Synchronous
Altitude 705km
Inclination 98.2 deg
Period 99 min
Repeat Cycle 16 ays
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
45
3-2-1-1 Sensors
A- MSS (Multi –Spectral) , 0n LANDSAT -1 to 5 . Being one of the
older generation sensors, routine data acquisition for MSS was
terminating in late 1992. The resolution of the MSS sensor was
approximately 80m as shown in table (3.2) with radiometric coverage
in four spectral bands from the visible green to the near-infrared (IR)
wavelengths. Only the MSS sensor on Landsat 3 had a fifth band in
the thermal-IR.
Table (3-2): LANDSAT 4,5 MSS Sensor Characteristics
Band Wavelength (μm) Resolution (m)
Green 1 0.5 - 0.6 82m
Red 2 0.6 - 0.7 82m
Near IR 3 0.7 - 0.8 82m
Near IR 4 0.8 - 1.1 82m
B- TM (Thematic Mapper), first operational on LANDSAT -4. TM
sensors primarily detect reflected radiation from the Earth surface in
the visible and near- infrared (IR) wavelengths, but TM sensor
provides more radiometric information than the MSS sensor. The
wavelength range for the TM sensor is from the visible (blue), through
the mid-IR, into the thermal –IR portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Sixteen detectors for the visible and mid-IR wavelength
bands in the TM sensor provide 16 scan lines on each active scan.
Four detectors for the thermal-IR band provide four scan lines on each
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
46
active scan. The TM sensor has a spatial resolution of 30m for the
visible, near-IR, and mid-IR wavelengths and a spatial resolution of
120m for the thermal-IR band.
C- ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus) is carried on board Landsat
7. The ETM+ instrument is eight-band multispectral scanning
radiometric capable of providing high resolution image information of
the Earth’s surface. Its spectral bands are similar to those of TM;
except that the thermal band (band 6) as shown in table (3.3) has an
improved resolution of 60m (versus 120m in TM).There is also an
additional panchromatic band at 15m resolution.
Table (3-3): LANDSAT TM, ETM+ sensor Characteristics band Wavelength(nm) Resolution (m)
Blue 1 0.45 - 0.52 30m
Green 2 0.52 - 0.60 30m
Red 3 0.63 - 0.69 30m
Near IR 4 0.76 - 0.90 30m
SWIR 5 1.55 - 1.75 30m
Thermal IR 6 10.40 - 12.50 120(TM),60(ETM+)
SWIR 7 2.08 - 2.35 30m
Panchromatic 0.5 - 0.9 15
3-2-2 SPOT5 SPOT5 (figure 3.2) is a new satellite of the SPOT family of satellites. It is
planned to be launched in the first quarter of 2002.A new High Resolution
Geometry or HRG imaging instrument is developed by CNES to be carried
on-board SPOT5, and there orbit is shown in (table 3.4). The spectral band
in the short wave infrared band is maintained at a resolution of 20m due to
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
47
limitations imposed by the geometry of the CCD sensors used in this band.
The field width of HRG is 60 km, as SPOT 1, 2, 3, there characteristics
show in table (3.5)
and 4. With two HRG instruments, a maximum swath of 120km at 5m
resolution can be achieved. The oblique viewing capacity is maintained
providing rapid access to a given area. A dedicated instrument High
Resolution Stereo (HRS), for a long track stereo acquisition will also be
carried on board SPOT5.A vegetation large coverage instrument will also be
available.
Figure (3-2): Spot5 satellite
To ensure continuity with the SPOT 1-4 satellites, the SPOT 5 spectral
bands will be the same as those for SPOT4: B1(0.50 – 0.59 um); B2 (0.61-
0.68 um);B3(0.70- 0.89um); and SWIR (1.58 -1.75 um). The panchromat ic
band will, however, return to the values used for SPOT 1 through 3(pan:
o.51-0.73 um).
SPOT5 will have the same swath (60km) as SPOT 1-4 satellites, but with
higher resolution. In order to transmit the increase volume of data within a
data rate limit of 100 Mbit/s, data compression techniques will be used while
downlinking the data to the ground station.
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
48
The specifications of SPOT 5 called for a planimetric accuracy of 10m (rms)
and an elevation accuracy of 5m (rms).These figures are compatible with
conventional mapping standards at 1:50 000 scale. The radiometric quality
of SPOT5 imagery will be equal or better than that of SPOT 4.s.
Table (3-4): SPOT 5 Orbit
Type
Sun-Synchronous,10:30am (local solar
time) descending node crossing
Altitude 832 km
Inclination 98.7 deg
Period 101 min
Repeat Cycle 26 days
Off-Nadir Revisit 1 to 3 days
SPOT 5 will have the same orbit as SPOT 1 - 4.
Table (3-5): SPOT 5 Characteristics
Swath Width
60km
Metric Accuracy 10 m (rms) planimetric, 5 m elevation
Radiometric Digitization 8 bits
3-2-3 IKONOS Launched on September 24, 1999, figure (3.3) IKONOS is the world’s
first commercial satellite providing very high resolution (up to 1m) imagery
of the earth, the orbit optioned is shown in table (3.6). The IKONOS satellite
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
49
is operated by Space Imaging Inc. Of Denver, Colorado, USA and it
simultaneously collects one-meter resolution black – and white
(panchromatic) images and four- meter resolution color (multispectral)
images, and there characteristics in table (3.7). The multispectral images
consist of four bands in the blue, green and near- infrared wavelength
regions. These images can be merged with panchromatic images of the same
locations to produce “pan-sharpened color” images of 1-m resolution. The
satellite camera can distinguish objects on the Earth’s surface as small as
one meter square, but it cannot see individual people. The IKONOS satellite
is equipped with state- of – the art star trackers and on board GPS, enabling
it to acquire imagery with very high positional accuracy. It is suitable for
applications requiring a high level of details and accuracy, such as mapping,
agricultural monitoring, resource management and urban planning.
Figure (3-3): The IKONOS Satellite
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
50
Table (3-6): IKONOS Orbit
Type Sun-Synchronous
Altitude
68 km
Inclination 98.1 deg
Descending node
crossing time
10:30 am local solar time
Period 98 min
Off-Nadir Revisit 1.5 to 2.9 days at 40o latitude
Table (3-7) IKONOS characteristics
Viewing Angle
Agile spacecraft, along track and across
track pointing
Swath Width 11 km nominal at nadir
Image Modes
Single scene: 13 km x 13 km
Strips: 11 km x 100 km up to 11 km x
1000 km
Image mosaics: up to 12,000 sq. km
Metric Accuracy 12 m horizontal, 10 m vertical without
Radiometric Digitization 11 bits
Spectral Bands wavelength (μm) Resolution
1 (blue) 0.40 - 0.52
4 m
2 (green) 0.52 - 0.60
4 m
3 (red) 0.63 - 0.69 4 m
4 (NIR)
0.76 - 0.90 4 m
Panchromatic 0.45 - 0.90 1 m
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
51
3-2-4 Quickbird The Quickbird satellite is a series of very high resolution satellites operated
by Earth Inc, shown in figure (3.4). In September 2001, Earth Watch
changed its name to Digital Globe. The first of the satellites, Quickbird-1
was launched on 20 Nov 2000, but failed to reach orbit. The second identical
satellite, Quickbird-2, is planned to be launched in October 2001.Both
satellites were initially planned for 1m resolution imaging. In December
2000, Earth Watch received a license to operate a 0.5 meter resolution
satellite system,Quickbird orbit shown in table (3.8). The plans for
Quickbird 2 are modified to increase the resolution of the satellite imaging
system from the originally planned 1-m resolution to o.61 m by lowering the
orbit in which the satellite will be flown. The panchromatic resolution is
increased from 1m to 0.61m and the multispectral resolution is increased
from 4m to 2.5m. For more details see table (3.9)
Figure (3-4): Quickbird Satellite
The Quickbird-2 satellite will simultaneously collect panchromatic images
at o.61m resolution and multispectral images at 2.5m resolution. The
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
52
multispectral images consist of four bands in the blue, green, red and near –
infrared wavelength regions. The multispectral images can be merged with
panchromatic images of the same locations to produce “panshapened color”
images of 0.61m resolution [44]. The satellite’s ability to acquire high
resolution imagery will supply users with satellite data at resolution
comparable to aerial photography. Buildings, cars, and even large individual
trees can be recognized. Locational information collected by the satellite’s
star trackers and onboard global positioning system (GPS) will enable users
accurate, large- scale mapping without using ground control points (GCPs)
[45].
Table (3-8): Quickbird Orbit
Type Sun-Synchronous
Altitude
450 km
Inclination 98 deg
Period 93.4
Off-Nadir Revisit
1 to 3.5 days
Field of Regard 544 km swath
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
53
Table (3-9): Quickbird -2 Sensor Characteristics
Viewing Angle Agile spacecraft, in-track and cross-track
pointing +/-
30 deg nominal fore-and-aft and side-to-
side,
45 deg maximum
Swath Width 17 km nominal at nadir
Image Strip Length Up to 225 km
Metric Accuracy 23 m circular error (CE), 17 m linear error
(LE)
at 90% confidence (without ground control
points)
Radiometric Digitization 11 bits
Spectral Band) Wavelength (μm Resolution
(at nadir)
Resolution
(at 30o off nadir)
1 (blue) 0.45 - 0.52 2.5 m 2.9 m
2 (green) 0.52 - 0.60
2.5 m 2.9 m
3 (red) 0.63 - 0.69 2.5 m 2.9 m
4 (NIR) 0.76 - 0.89 2.5 m 2.9 m
Panchromatic 0.45 - 0.90 0.61 m 0.73 m
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
54
3-3 Geometric Correction
Digital images collected from airborne or space-born sensors often contain
systematic and non-systematic errors that arise from the earth curvature,
platform motion, relief displacement, non-linearities in scanning motion, and
the earth rotation. Some of these errors can be corrected by using ephemeris
of the platform and precisely known internal sensor distortion
characteristics. Other errors can only be corrected by matching image
coordinates of physical features recorded on the image to the geographic
coordinate of the same feature collected from a map [3].
3-3-1 Systematic Correction
Geometric systematic distortions are those effects that are constant and can
be predicted in advance. These are of mainly three types, which are as
follows:
1- Scan skew: it is caused by forward motion of the spacecraft during the
time of each mirror sweep. In this case, the ground swath scanned is
not normal to the ground track.
2- Known mirror velocity variation: the known mirror velocity variation
are used to correct the mirror distortion due to the velocity of the scan
mirror not being constant from start to finish of each scan line.
3- Cross-track distortion: these generally occur in all the unrestored
images acquired by the across- track scanners. They result from
sampling pixels along a scan line at constant time intervals. The width
of pixel is proportional to the tangent of the scan angle and therefore
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
55
is wider at the either margins of the scan line that compresses the
pixel. This distortion is restored using trigonometric function.
3-3-2-Non-systematic Correction
There are two type of image non-systematic correction as described below.
1- Image to ground geocorrection (or georeferencing) is the correction of
digital image to ground coordinates using GCPs collected from maps or
collected from ground using GPS. Georeferencing is the process of
projecting image data onto a plane and making it conform to a map
projection system. If the GCPs are collected from ground, the process is
known as image –to-ground georeferencing; and if the GCPs are
collected from an existing map, then the process is generally referred as
image-to-map georeferencing.
2- Image-to-image correction (or image registration), is image-to-image
correction involves matching the coordinate system of two digital
image with one image acting as a reference image and the other as the
image to be rectified this process is to making image data conform to
another image many applications of remote sensing image data require
two or more images of the same geographic area, acquired at different
dates or by different sensors, to be processed together.
In our work we use this method image-to-image correction because it is
provide effort and work and the lowest price of other methods. This
method use polynomial transformation where we will explain.
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
56
3-4 Polynomials
A polynomial is a mathematical expression consisting of variables and
coefficients. A coefficient is constant, which is multiplied by a variable in
the expression. The variables in polynomial expressions can be raised to
exponents. The highest exponent in a polynomial. A polynomial with one
variable, x, take the following form [3]:
A + Bx +Cx2 + Dx3 + …. + Ωxt (3-1)
Where
A, B, C, D ….Ω = coefficients t= the order of polynomial
The following first-order polynomial transformation equation can be used to
determine the coefficients required to transform pixel coordinate
measurement to the corresponding other coordinate value.
x0 = a1 + a2 X + a3Y (3-2)
y0= b1 + b2 X + b3 Y (3-3)
Where (X,Y) are the input pixel coordinates and (x0, y0 ) are the output
(geographic) coordinate.
The order of the polynomial used in this process is the order of the
transformation. Polynomial equations are used to convert the source
coordinate to rectified coordinate. The pixel coordinate system has an x
coordinate (column) and y coordinate (row).
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
57
Using a polynomial transformation, the relationship between the pixel
coordinate system and the geographic coordinate system can be defined. The
best order of transformation can be obtained using a trial and error process.
Initially, a few (at least three for first-order polynomial) ground control point
(GCPs) are required to determine six transformation coefficient (a1, a2, a3,
b1, b2, b3). The resulting six coefficients can then be transform each set of
row (X) and column (Y) pixel coordinate to output (geographic)
coordinates. We use in our work second-order transformation equation
(where at least 6 number of GCPs are required to determine 12
transformation coefficient) for X and Y are:-
x0 = a1 + a2X + a3Y + a4X2 + a5XY + a6Y2 (3-4)
b0 = b1 + b2X + b3Y + b4X2 + b5 XY + b6Y2 (3-5)
3-5 Resampling
The next step in the rectification/registration process is to create the output
file. Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid for
the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new data file values for
the output file can be calculated. Resampling is used to determine the pixel
values to be filled in the (output) image from the uncorrected (input) image.
The resampled method which was used in the research is Cubic Convolution
Interpolation. The resampling step the image data are transformed to the
regular grid of the reference frame a desired spatial resolution and a method
for interpolation have to be selected. Some well-known interpolation
methods are nearest neighbor, Bilinear Interpolation, and cubic convolution
interpolation [46].
Chapter Three Remote Sensing and Satellite Image
58
3-5-1 Bilinear Interpolation
In this method, the value of the rectified pixel is based upon the distance
between the transformed coordinate location and the four closest pixels in
the input image. Bilinear determines the gray level from the weighted
average of the four closest pixels to the specified input coordinate and
assigns that value to the output coordinates. It generates an image
appearance smoother than Nearest Neighbor, but the gray level value are
resulting in blurring or loss of image resolution [47].
3-5-2 Nearest Neighbor
To determine the output pixel’s nearest neighbor, the rectified coordinate
(x,y) of pixel are transformed back to the source coordinate system using the
inverse transformation. It calculates the gray level from the closet pixel to
the specified input coordinate, which introduce as well error into the newly
registered image [47]
3-5-3 Cubic Convolution Interpolation
In cubic convolution method, the value of the rectified pixel upon the
distances between the transformed coordinates location and the sixteen
closest pixels in the input image. It determines the gray level from the
average of the sixteen closest pixels to the specified input coordinates and
assigns that value to the output coordinates [47]
Chapter Four Experimental Work
59
Experimental work
In this chapter we talk about experiment work it can be divided into three
meager part the first one the geometric correction, secondly about how we
draw the cadastral map in the last we joined the map with database:
4-1 Geometric correction
In the beginning we have old cadastral map which draw by hand in 1932
and high resolution satellite image, the satellite image was corrected from
the exporter with projection UTM, spheroid WGS 84, zone number 38
(range 42 E-48 E), and Datum WGS 48.The geometric correction processing
through two stages. the first one is to convert the old digital cadaster map
from pixel coordinates into UTM coordinates depending upon the new
gridding on the old cadaster map which made by Ministry of Water
Resources department of General Authority of Survey in June 2011 and we
get the result in table (4-1a) below, the figure (4-1a) show the GCPs point
which we made the correct upon it after that we projected the map on the
satellite image we find huge different between the corrected image and map
as show in figure(4-5) so that we made second stage in geometric correction,
which we correct the map to the satellite image. We want to illustrate the
processing of geometric correction as we don at the beginning we chose the
proper GCPs, secondary make two stage of geometric correction with
polynomial and finally resample the corrected image.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
60
4-1-1 Ground Control point (GCPs)
A ground control point of an identifier two set of coordinate and residual
relate to the image space a control point has two plane coordinate in x and y
and related to the spatial reference system the same point is define with three
coordinates X, Y and Z. GCPs are used in positioning and correlation map
feature and to determine geometrical correction. It is sometimes useful for
point identification to have control point sketches which show the location
of the point. Control points can be derived from maps, orthimage and from
field surveys. We benefit from GCPS point to make geometric correction
and plot the cadastral map. We try to select the appropriate GCPs point in
order to be a better correction and give good results as shown in the table
(4-1a), (4-1b) and figure (4-1a) and figure (4-2).
Table (4-1a): GCPs of the first stage of geometric correction
Point Id X input Y input X ref. Y ref. X residual
Y residual
RMS
GCP 1 503995.295 3630003.611 504000 3630000 -0.007 0.144 0.144 GCP2 505002.430 3630001.101 505000 3630000 -0.042 0.116 0.123 GCP3 505996.196 3630001.101 506000 3630000 -0.030 0.776 0.776 GCP4 504999.794 3628003.026 505000 3628000 0.234 -3.107 3.116
GCP5 505998.832 3627997.754 506000 3627000 0.023 -0.632 0.632 GCP6 505002.430 3627003.988 505000 3627000 -0.179 2.703 2.709 total control point error for (x) 0.1223 m
total control point error for (y) 1.731 m
total control point error 1.736 m
Chapter Four Experimental Work
61
Figure (4-1a): the first stage of geometric correction
After we correct the map, the first stage is over, we take the result of first
stage picture (1) in figure (4-1b), and put it on the satellite image we
recognize the geometric correction has shifting so we made the second stage,
The second stage of geometric correction it is to correct the old cadastral
map with the satellite image as the Source we depended on it we use
registration method image- to- image as we illustrate in chapter 3. There are
sex control point that we dependent on it as shown in figure (4-2), and the
figure (4-3) show the control point on the satellite image where control point
Chapter Four Experimental Work
62
is (any station in a horizontal and /or vertical control system that is identified
on a photograph or digital image and used for correlating the data shown on
that photograph/image).
Figure (4-1b): The first pictures represent the first stage of geometric correction, and the
second picture represents the first one overlaid on the satellite image
Chapter Four Experimental Work
64
Figure (4-3): Illustrated the reference satellite image with locations of GCPs.
We found many problems because the area of our interest is an agricultural
region so it does not have any landmarks like bridge or highway, crossroads
to make the geometric correction easy process. It just farmland, it taken a
long time, so we use the method of try and error, and finally we make it with
total control point error (x= 0.6687, y= 0.5316) and total root mean square
RMS error less than 1 it equal to 0.8542.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
65
Table(4-1b): The coordinates of the input and reference image with their RMS
Point Id X input Y input X ref. Y ref. X residual
Y residual
RMS Contrib.
GCP 1 505843.299 3630060.274 505829.198 3630094.243 -1.115 0.369 1.174 1.375 GCP2 504925.324 3629218.888 504921.990 3629227.412 0.436 -0.043 0.438 0.513
GCP3 503663.337 3625130.990 503663.341 3625120.513 -0.484 0.951 1.067 1.249 GCP4 505932.890 3629025.578 505916.737 3629066.913 0.984 -0.317 1.034 1.211
GCP5 502483.917 3624903.156 502498.934 3624854.608 0.212 -0.695 0.727 0.851 GCP6 506878.705 3627283.475 506844.504 3627363.601 -0.033 -0.264 0.266 0.312 total control point error for (x) 0.6687
total control point error for (y) 0.5316
total control point error 0.8542
(The accuracy should be usually within ±1 pixle. If the error is larger than
the requirement, the coordinates on the image and map/ground should be
rechecked) [3], so our result less than 1 as show in table (4-1b) so we in the
safe side. In figure below we will review the corrected map figure (4-4). The
figure (4-5) Show the different between the corrected map of the first stage
and the corrected map of the second stage. Firstly we used ArcGIS program
to do geometric correction but we get large RMS so we obligate to use
ERDAS program and we get good result.
4-1-2 Resampling
The next step in the rectification/registration process is to create the output
file. Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid for
the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new data file values for
the output file can be calculated. Resampling is used to determine the pixel
values to be filled in the (output) image from the uncorrected (input) image.
The resampled method which is used in the research is Cubic Convolution
Interpolation.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
67
Figure (4-5): Producing the first and second corrected old cadaster map and satellite
image.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
68
4-2 New cadastral map
By using ArcGIS which includes a suite of integrated applications that
allow you to preform your tasks, from simple to advance including mapping,
geographic analysis, data editing and compilation, data management,
visualization, and geoprocessing.
ArcGIS provides a scalable frame work for implementing GIS for a single
user or many users. The main application in ArcGIS is ArcMAp which is
used for all mapping and editing tasks as well as for map-based quire and
analysis.ArcMap represents geographic information as a collection of layers
and other elements in a map view. We use this program because it has many
Features as we mentioned earlier.
And we draw eastern AL- Shehmea it has 10 provinces where each
provinces have a parcels for example province number 1 have 247 parcels
where every parcels represent piece of land which exist in satellite image,
that take a lot of times and work and put all provinces in one layer call it
border, and we make three other layers for Tigris, sub-river, and street. We
will show the ten pieces with its database together. The figure (4-6) show the
new cadastral map and the old cadastral map and the different between them
is the province no.10 which in old map cut off and drawn beside it while we
draw it as it is. The figure (4-7) shows the old cadastral and the new one
with satellite image. Finally the figure (4-8) shows the new cadastral map
with the parcels number and show the hard work of plotting them.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
69
4-3 Database
When we went to real state registration department to get the information,
they refuse give it to us because information is confidential. That is a big
problem to our research, therefor we went to the Department of Agriculture
in Kut, to collect the necessary information, we get the contents of database
are owner name, land area by kilometers, property type, price of acre by Iraqi
dinar , irrigation type, the cultivable area by kilometers , the non-cultivable
area by kilometers, all crops by tons like amount of wheat crop, amount of
barley crop, amount of jet crop, amount of trefoil crop, amount of orange
crop, amount of palm crop, amount of bitter crop, amount of lemon crop,
amount of pomegranate crop, amount of apricot crop, amount of olive crop,
amount of fig crop, amount of mulberry crop, amount of apple crop, amount
of summer vegetables, amount of winter vegetables, livestock type, fish lake,
apiary, poultry, number of farmers, number of wells, number of fodder
plants, number of tunnels, number of greenhouse, number of tractors, number
of massacres, number of pumps. We take all kind of information that is
available for agricultural land in general for governorate of Kut, this allows
for workers in the field to design database suitable for them.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
70
Figure (4-6): illustrated the drawing all parcels which contain in study area and corrected map.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
71
Figure (4-7): represents the satellite image, old cadaster map, and new cadaster map.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
72
The figure (4-8) show all parcels, that were plotting within the study area,
which includes ten major boycotts according to what exists in the real state
registration department in the province of Kut.
Figure (4-8): Showing the all parcels of the study area with their numbers.
Form figure (4-9) shows the new agriculture cadaster map for number one
province adjacent to the Tigris River, which includes a very large number of
parcels with the determining of its frontiers with the database statement that
region.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
73
Figure (4-9): Illustrated the agriculture Cadaster map for province number one with their number of the parcels.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
74
Database for the province number one, as provided from the Department of Real Estate Registration.
Table (4-2): Database of province number one
Chapter Four Experimental Work
75
New agricultural cadastral map for the province number two represents the
eastern border for the Al-Shehimiah and includes a number of parcels, as
well as going through a river branching from the Tigris River. Database
associated with this region, which contains some of the information that was
obtained from the same source.
Figure (4-10): Illustrated the district number 2.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
76
Database associated with this region shown in table (4.3)
Table (4-3): Database of province number two
County number three located between districts two and four. Also includes a number of parcels and passes by the River St. from the Tigris River. This section is divided into two parts in the upper part of this county, one enters the district No. 2 and the second part goes along the three provinces. And information that region appear in the attached database.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
78
The database belongs to this region shown in table (4.5)
Table (4-4): Database of province number three
County number four figure (4-12) represents the province that bordered to
the north county number one on the south county number ten. Passes in the
northern part of the area branches of the river branching from the Tigris
River. one of these branches splits into two parts enter one in the province of
No. 3 and the second goes to County No7, while the other section also is
Chapter Four Experimental Work
79
divided into two parts and one goes to the district No. 5 and the other passes
through the area 4.
Figure (4-12): Showing the district number 4.
In general, organized information of this region in a database showing in the table (4.5)
Chapter Four Experimental Work
80
Table (4-5): Database of province number four
Number Five of district consists of a single parcel, and passes by two branches of the river coming from the Tigris River, one of these two branches represent boundary between the province and neighboring provinces from the eastern side, while the second section, it passes through this region from the Eastern Province. Then the database are displayed that region.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
82
Database for specific to the number five of region shown in table (4.6)
Table (4-6): Database of province number five
Chapter Four Experimental Work
83
The region carrying the number six represents the western boundaries of the study area in the upper part (Al-shehimiah) .This region are divided into a set of parcels which Have some of their own information, that are received from the Department of Real Estate Registration.
Figure (4-14): represented the district number 6.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
84
The database for region number 6, shown in table (4.8)
Table (4-7): Database of province number six
Chapter Four Experimental Work
85
County number seven represents most of the western border region of the
study area. The river passes this region along their length. it linked to the
database for this region as shown below.
Figure (4- 15): Showing district number 7.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
86
Database for district number 7, shown in table (4.8)
Table (4-8): Database of province number seven
Chapter Four Experimental Work
87
New agricultural map of the area assigned the number eight with the
database for their own information.
Figure (4-16): Showing the district number 8.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
88
Database for District No. 8, shown in table (4.9)
Table (4-9): Database of province number eight
Chapter Four Experimental Work
89
Red color indicates to the district which has number nine is one parcel
according to what exist in the old map, but in fact made up of four parcels by
new agricultural cadastral map and this will ensure that people’s property
rights.
Figure (4-17): Producing the province number 9.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
90
Some information belonging to that the region appear in this database table
(4.10)
Table (4-10): Database of province number nine
Chapter Four Experimental Work
91
The number ten represents the southern part of the study area which has the
number of parcels. In the northern part of the region passes river that is the
boundary between the district No.4 and 7. It linked with the new agricultural
cadastral map with its database.
Figure (4-18): represent the region which holding number 10.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
92
Table (4.11) show the database for district number 10.
Table (4-11): Database of province number ten
Chapter Four Experimental Work
93
Drawing which carries No. 8, shows the parcel which bearing No. 47,
located within the district's number one. While satellite image in Figure
(4.21) shows the location of that parcel in this image.
Figure (4-19): Showing the both the district number one and parcel number 47.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
94
Figure (4- 20): Parcel holding number 47 within district number one.
Figure (4- 21): Representing the parcel number 47 within satellite image.
Chapter Four Experimental Work
95
Database of this parcel, shown in table (4.13)
Table (4-12): Database of parcels number 47 in province number one
Chapter Four Experimental Work
96
These picture below show some of parcels have unique character the figure
(4-22) show parcels number 235 in province number 1 which is on the west
bank of Tigris therefor it ample fertility and their database table (a). The
figure (4-23) show parcels number 1 in province number 9 which is far away
from Tigris and near sub river Hspak. The figure (4-24) show the parcels
number 16 in province number 10 which is the last parcels in south and it is
within the land reclamation project in nahiyah al Shehmea and their
database. The last figure (4-25) show the intersect of three provinces 4, 5,
and 7 and the swera-zobeadia across them and we see three sub rivers which
are Abboud, Jpelaa, and Salman these area have important place because it
on the road and have enough water so it very useful for agriculture
investment.
Figure (4-22): Show parcels number 235 in province number 1
Chapter Four Experimental Work
98
Figure (4-23): Showing parcels number 1 in Provence number 9
Figure (4-24): Showing the parcels number 16 in province number 10
Chapter Four Experimental Work
99
Table (4-14): Database of parcels number 16 in province number 10
Figure (4-25): Showing the intersection of three provinces 4, 5, and 7
Chapter Five Conclusion and the future work
100
Conclusion
1-We get new digital cadastral map of the study area and relate it to
database.
2-This work can be applied to all areas of Iraq, to get updated maps, similar
to developed countries.
3- The features in old map belong to the 1932 while features in satellite
image at 2006, so it is natural that there will be a big change during such a
long period of time.
4- Database should be repaired and updated every time to be useful
Recommendations
1- Geometric correction for satellite images by using DGPS.
2- In geometric correction using other models, such as rational function.
3- Increase the number of Ground Control Points.
4- cadastral maps need to more attention by supporting agricultural
institution
Reference
101
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المستخلص
) مهمة جدا النها تحتوي على المواصفات التقنية والفنية المساحيةتعد خرائط الملكية الزراعية (والقانونية بالنسبة الى تحديد حدود الملكية. وتلك الخرائط هي االساس لترسيم وتحديد الحدود ما بين
فهناك جدوى ماسة في تحديثها القطع والمقاطعات في العراق،ولها اهمية اقتصادية كبرى لذلك ورقمنتها.
في رسالتنا هذه، خذت منطقة الشحيمية (تقع في محافظة واسط جنوب العراق) ،اذ استخدمت خارطة على ان تحدث ويعاد ،۱۹۳۲ويعود تاريخ انتاجها الى عام ۱:۱۰۰۰۰زراعية كادسترائية لها مقياس
) ماخوذة من القمر سم ٦۰ة حديثة عالية الدقة (فضائي انتاجها باالسلوب الرقمي اعتمادا على صورة .)QuickBird(الصناعي
تم تطبيق التصحيح الهندسي عاى مرحلتين، في المرحلة االولى صححت الخارطة الكادسترائية القديمة باالعتماد على التشبيك الذي وضع عليها (ورقيا) من قبل الهيئة العامة للمساحة في وزارة
ية، اما المرحلة الثان.UTMتحولت احداثياتها من نظام بكسل الى نظام الموارد المائية وبذلك ولغرض مطابقتها هندسيا مع الصورة المصححة الحديثة (اتخذت كمرجع للتصحيح) تم تصحيح
الخارطة المنتجة من المرحلة االولى باالعتماد على هذه الصورة الفضائية وبذلك فقد نتجت خارطة مع نسبة خطا كلي )ERDAS(باستخدام برنامج كادسترائية مصححة باالعتماد على الصورة
)0.8542( .
بعد ذلك،تم رسم مجموعة من الطبقات لمنطقة الدراسة النتاج خريطة زراعية كادسترائية جديدة باستخدام نظم المعلومات الجغرافية وربط المعلومات الخاصة بمنطقة الدراسة في وسط العراق.
م ثم الربط مع نظ) Microsoft Access 2010(باستخدام واخيرا تم تصميم قاعدة البيانات .المعلومات الجغرافية
بواسطة كادسرائيةال ةالزراعي تحديث خرائط الصور الفضائية عالية الدقة و نظم المعلومات
الجغرافية
رسالة مقدمة/ جامعة بغداد كجزء من متطلبات نيل درجة الماجستير في العلومإلى كلية
الفيزياء (التحسس النائي)
من قبل
هاشم فاضل عباس ٢٠١٠¡ فيزياءبكالوريوس
إشراف نوال خلف غزالد.
2013 1434
جمهورية العراق وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي
جامعة بغداد الفيزياء/ قسم العلوم كلية