agricfoodwater (1)

8/12/2019 agricfoodwater (1)

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A contribution

to the World Water Development Report

Agriculture ,food and

water


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A contribution

to the World Water Development Report

Agriculture ,food and

water


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FAO 2003 , for the present edition

The designations employed and the presentation of material in thisinformation product do not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitationof its frontiers or boundaries.

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for thepurpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may bereproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrievalsystem now known or to be invented, without written permission ofUNESCO-WWAP.

92-5-104943-2


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iiiAGRICULTURE, FOOD AND WATER

Preface

Food and agriculture are by far the largest consumers of water. They require one thousand timesmore than we use to drink and one hundred times more than we use to meet basic personal needs, with up to 70 percent of the water we take from rivers and groundwater going into irrigation.Global food production has kept pace with population growth in recent decades; yet nearly 800million people remain undernourished, and the population shift from rural to urban environments will certainly increase the pressures and problems associated with food security. A growing population will need more food and thus more water. What is the status of food production in the world? How can it be made more ef cient without compromising the environment? What are thecontributions from rainfed and irrigated agriculture and from sheries? What role does the market play? What is the connection between food security and poverty? These questions are discussed in this publication. However, the question remains whether we shall rise to the challenge of feeding the worlds hungry by being more ef cient and productive in our use of water while still respecting the resource base and demands from competing sectors.


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iv AGRICULTURE, FOOD A ND WATER

Acknowledgements

This publication is based onWater for people Water for life, the United NationsWorld Water Development Report UNESCOWWAP 2003, where it appears as Chapter 8 Securing food fora growing population. The World Water Development Report was published jointly in 2003 by the United Nations Educational, Scienti c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and BerghahnBooks. A slightly modi ed version of Chapter 8 of the report is reproduced here by permission ofUNESCO.

The World Water Development Report, prepared under the overall coordination of Gordon Young, is a joint report by the United Nations Agencies concerned with freshwater. This chapter was prepared by Wulf Klohn, with inputs and support from Jean-Marc Faurs, Domitille Valle, se Eliasson, Jippe Hoogeveen and Jacob Burke, FAO, Land and Water Development Division,and with contributions from Uwe Barg, Jelle Bruinsma, Gerold Boedeker, Robert Bos, AndyBullock, Karen Frenken, David Molden and David Smith. Annex 1 on the right to adequate foodand the right to water was prepared by Kerstin Mechlem.

Special thanks are due to Simone Morini for the design and layout of this publication.

Credits for cover images are:FAO/17011/G. BizzarriFAO/16242/P. Johnson


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vAGRICULTURE, FOOD AND WATER

Table of

contentsPreface iii

Acknowledgements iv

Acronyms vii

The world water development report viii

Chapter one Introduction 1

Chapter two How the world is fed 9

The world food system: sustained improvement in food availability 9 The main source of food supply 11

Major crops 11

The prominent role of cereals and oil crops 11 Source of growth in crop production 12

Livestock: an increasing role 13 Fisheries and the growing importance of aquaculture 13

Food trade 14 Developing countries are increasing their imports 14 The concept of virtual water 15

Chapter three The use of water in agriculture 17 Water for food production 17 Food production: the dominant role of rainfed agriculture 18

Role of irrigation in food production 18

Future investments in irrigation 21

Water use ef ciency 22

Future water withdrawals for irrigation 25

The special role of groundwater 25


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vi AGRICULTURE, FOOD A ND WATER

Chapter four Ensuring access to food for all 29 The markets fail to provide food for all 29

The undernourished: where, who, and why? 30 The role of irrigation in alleviating poverty and improving food security 32 Managing agricultural risk for sustainable livelihoods 33 Irrigation contributes to creating off-farm employment 34 The contribution of sheries and aquaculture to food security 34

Forestry and food security 36

Chapter ve Trends in irrigation-water management 37 Adapting institutional arrangements 37 Increasing private investments in irrigation 38 Reforming irrigation: modernization and empowerment 38 Equity in the roles of men and women in irrigation 39 Improving water-use productivity in agriculture 40 Diversifying crops 40

Chapter six Agricultural water use, environment and health 43 Environmental aspects 43 Water-quality deterioration 44 Health and irrigation 45

Chapter seven Conclusions 47

References 49

Annex one The right to adequate food and the right to water 53 The legal basis of the right to adequate food and the right to water 53 The right to adequate food 53 The right to water 54 States obligations 54 Outlook 55

Annex two Related global assessment publications 57 Annex three Some useful Web sites 61


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viiAGRICULTURE, FOOD AND WATER

Acronyms

AQUASTAT FAOs information system on water and agriculture

DAC Development Assistance Committee (OECD Department)

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GIS Geographic Information SystemsGNP Gross National Product

IFAD International Fund for Agriculture and Development

IIED International Institute for Environment and Development

IWMI International Water Management Institute

IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

NEPAD New Partnership for Africas Development

NGO Non-governmental Organization

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OMVS Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (Organisation pour la mise en valeur du euve Sngal)

UN United Nations

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scienti c and Cultural Organization WCD World Commission on Dams

WHO World Health Organization

WWAP World Water Assessment Programme

WWDR World Water Development Report


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1AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND WATER

Introduction

Since the 1960s, the world food system has responded to a doubling of the world population, providing more food per capita at progressively lower prices. Global nutrition has consistentlyimproved. This performance was possible through a combination of high-yielding seeds, irrigation plant nutrition and pest control. In the process, large quantities of water were appropriated foragriculture. As population keeps increasing, albeit at a slower rate, more food and livestock feedneed to be produced in the future and more water applied to this purpose. Water withdrawalsfor irrigation in developing countries are expected to increase by an aggregated 14 percent until2030, while irrigation water use ef ciency is expected to improve by an average 4 percent. Water-scarcity stress is foreseen to grow locally and in some cases regionally and a number of countrie will have to rely more on trade for their food security.

While food production is satisfying market demand at historically low prices, an estimated 777million people in developing countries do not have access to suf cient and adequate food because they do not have the resources to buy it or, in the case of subsistence farmers, to produce it. In spiteof the overall improvement in the nutritional situation, the absolute number of undernourished people is reducing at a much slower rate than had been anticipated. The 1996 World FoodSummit (see Annex 1)set a target of reducing the number of chronically hungry people to about 400 million, but current projections indicate that this gure may be achieved fteen years later than targeted, i.e. by 2030, unless decisive policy and nancial action is taken.Irrigated agriculture will by necessity claim large quantities of water to produce the foodrequired to feed the world. Irrigation-water management has a long way to go to adapt to thenew production requirements and reconcile competing claims from other economic sectors andcalls for environmental protection. However, water-saving technologies are available and cansigni cantly reduce the waste of water. In addition, the political, legal and institutional framework to support improved water productivity in irrigated agriculture also shows signs of adaptation. Water-management trends point to empowering stakeholders, with a priority for the poor and themarginalized. At the same time, the water needs for human health and for the aquatic environmentcall for closer attention. The message from agriculture, which will remain globally the larges water user, is cautiously optimistic.

At the start of the twenty- rst century, agriculture is using a global average of 70 percent ofall water withdrawals from rivers, lakes and aquifers. The Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO, 200b) anticipates a net expansion of irrigated land of some 45 million ha in ninety-threedeveloping countries (for a total of 242 million ha in 2030) and projects that agricultural water withdrawals will increase by some 14 percent from 2000 to 2030 to meet future food production

C H A P T E R O N E


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2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

needs. The analysis indicates a projected annual growth rate of 0.6 percent, compared with the 1.9 percent observed in the period from 1963 to 1999.

Only a part of agricultural water withdrawals are effectively used in the production of food orother agricultural commodities; a large proportion of water may not reach the crop plants becauseit evaporates or in ltrates during conduction, evaporates from the soil in the eld, or is usedby non-productive growth such as weeds. Irrespective of the actual outcomes, it is important tohighlight the fact that water allocations for agriculture will face increasing competition from otherhigher utility uses municipal, industrial uses and calls for water to be left in the environment.Under these circumstances it is crucial that the role of water in securing food supply is understoodand the potential for improving overall agricultural productivity with respect to water fullyrealized.

In this report, the facts about past, present and future water demand in food production and foodsecurity are discussed. For the purpose of discussion, three groups of countries are identi ed:developing countries, industrialized countries and countries in transition. Developing countriescall for special attention because demographic growth rates are high and the potential demand forfood is not yet satis ed. This group of countries is considered in regional groupings, that is: sub-Saharan Africa, Near East/North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, South Asia and East Asia. It should always be kept in mind that aggregate and average gures tend to hide as much as

or more than they reveal. Water problems are always local or, at most, regional in nature, and may vary over time. Countries with large territories also have a large diversity of situations, includingarid and humid regions and plains as well as mountains.

This section is largely based on FAOs technical reportWorld Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030 , the most recent edition of FAOs periodic assessments of likely future developments in worldfood, nutrition and agriculture. The report provides information on a global basis, with moredetailed emphasis on ninety-three developing countries. The section also relies extensively on the data, information and knowledge provided by FAOSTAT, the FAO statistical database,

and AQUASTAT, FAOs information system on water and agriculture. The contribution of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in the preparation of this section isacknowledged with thanks. National values of key indicators in 251 countries are presented inTable 1. The signi cance of each indicator is highlighted in the relevant part of the discussion byreference to this table.


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A g r

i c u l t u r a l

w a t e r

P r o p o r t

i o n o f

w i t h d r a w a l

N u m

b e r o f

N u m

b e r o f

u n d e r n o u r i s h e d

P r o p o r t

i o n o f

a s %

p e o p

l e

p e o p

l e

i n t o t a l


C u l

t i v a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

A g r

i c u l

t u r a

l w a t e r

T o t a l r e n e w a b

l e

o f t o t a l



p o p u

l a t i o n

i n t o t a l

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a s %

w i t h d r a w a l

w a t e r r e s o u r c e s

r e n e w a

b l e

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

p o p u

l a t i o n

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

o f c u

l t i v a t e d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

) 3


C o u n t r y

( m i l l i o n s )

( m i l l i o n s )

( % ) 1

( % ) 1

l a n d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

)

i n 1 9 9 8

A f g h a n i s t a n

9 . 3

1 2 . 1

6 4

5 8

8 0 5 4

2 3 8 6

3 0

2 2 . 8

4

6 5 . 0

0

3 5

A l b a n i a

0 . 5

0 . 3

1 4

1 0

6 9 9

3 4 0

4 9

1 . 0 6

4 1 . 7

0

3

A l g e r i a

1 . 3

1 . 7

5

6

8 1 7 4

5 6 0

7

3 . 9 4

1 4 . 3

2

2 8

A n g o l a

6 . 0

6 . 3

6 1

5 1

3 5 0 0

7 5

2

0 . 2 1

1 8 4 . 0 0

0 . 1

A n t i g u a a n d B a r b u d a

8

0

0 . 0 0 1

0 . 0 5

2

A r g e n t i n a

0 . 7

0 . 4

0

0

2 7 2 0 0

1 5 6 1

6

2 1 . 5

2

8 1 4 . 0 0

3

A r m e n i a

1 . 3

3 5

5 6 0

2 8 7

5 1

1 . 9 4

1 0 . 5

3

1 8

A r u b a

2

0

A u s t r a l i a

0

0

5 3 7 8 6

2 3 6 5

4

1 7 . 7

8

4 9 2 . 0 0

4

A u s t r i a

0

0

1 4 7 9

4

0 . 3

0 . 0 2

7 7 . 7

0

0 . 0 3

A z e r b a i j a n

2 . 9

3 7

1 9 7 2

1 4 5 5

7 4

1 1 . 6

5

3 0 . 2

8

3 8

B a h a m a s

1 0

0

0 . 0 2

B a h r a i n

4

4

1 0 0

0 . 1 7

0 . 1 2

1 4 7

B a n g l a d e s h

3 9 . 2

4 4 . 1

3 5

3 3

8 3 3 2

3 8 5 0

4 6

7 0 . 2

0

1 2 1 0 . 6 4

6

B a r b a d o s

1 7

1

6

0 . 0 2

0 . 0 8

2 4

B e l a r u s

0 . 1

0

6 3 1 1

1 1 5

2

0 . 8 4

5 8 . 0

0

1

B e l g i u m

L u x e m b o u r g

0

0

8 3 2

4 0

5

0 . 1 1

2 1 . 4

0

0 . 5

B e l i z e

8 9

3

3

0 . 0 3

1 8 . 5

6

0 . 2

B e n i n

0 . 9

0 . 9

1 9

1 5

1 8 5 0

1 2

1

0 . 1 9

2 4 . 8

0

1

B h u t a n

1 6 0

4 0

2 5

0 . 4 0

9 5 . 0

0

0 . 4

B o l i v i a

1 . 7

1 . 7

2 5

2 2

2 2 0 3

1 2 8

6

1 . 1 2

6 2 2 . 5 3

0 . 2

B o s n i a a n d H e r z e g o v i n a

0 . 2

4

6 5 0

2

0 . 3

3 7 . 5

0

B o t s w a n a

0 . 2

0 . 3

1 7

2 3

3 4 6

1

0 . 3

0 . 0 6

1 4 . 4

0

0 . 4

B r a z i l

1 9 . 3

1 5 . 9

1 3

1 0

6 5 2 0 0

2 8 7 0

4

3 6 . 1

2

8 2 3 3 . 0 0

0 . 4

B r u n e i D a r u s s a l a m

0

0

7

1

1 4

8 . 5 0

B u l g a r i a

0 . 2

0 . 9

3

1 1

4 5 1 1

8 0 0

1 8

1 . 9 7

2 1 . 3

0

9

B u r k i n a F a s o

2 . 8

2 . 6

3 1

2 4

3 4 5 0

2 5

1

0 . 6 9

1 2 . 5

0

5

B u r u n d i

2 . 8

4 . 1

4 8

6 6

1 1 0 0

7 4

7

0 . 1 9

3 . 6 0

5

C a m b o d i a

4 . 3

4 . 6

4 3

3 7

3 8 0 7

2 7 0

7

4 . 0 0

4 7 6 . 1 1

1

C a m e r o o n

3 . 4

3 . 6

2 9

2 5

7 1 6 0

3 3

0 . 5

0 . 7 3

2 8 5 . 5 0

0 . 3

C a n a d a

0

0

4 5 7 0 0

7 2 0

2

5 . 4 1

2 9 0 2 . 0 0

0 . 2

C a p e V e r d e

4 1

3

7

0 . 0 2

0 . 3 0

7

C e n t r a l A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c

1 . 4

1 . 5

4 6

4 3

2 0 2 0

0

0 . 0 0 1

1 4 4 . 4 0

0 . 0 0 1

C h a d

3 . 5

2 . 5

5 8

3 4

3 5 5 0

2 0

1

0 . 1 9

4 3 . 0

0

0 . 4

C h i l e

1 . 1

0 . 6

8

4

2 2 9 4

1 8 0 0

7 8

7 . 9 7

9 2 2 . 0 0

1

C h i n a

1 9 2 . 6

1 1 6 . 3

1 6

9

1 3 5 3 6 5

5 2 8 7 8

3 9

4 1 4 . 7 6

2 8 9 6 . 0 0

1 4

T a

b l

e

1

N a

t i o n a

l v a

l u e s o

f k e y

i n d i c a

t o r s o n a g r i c u

l t u r e ,

f o o

d a n

d w a

t e r


13/64


A g r

i c u l t u r a l

w a t e r

w i t h d r a w a l

a s %

C u l

t i v a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

A g r

i c u l

t u r a

l w a t e r


l e

o f t o t a l

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a s %

w i t h d r a w a l


r e n e w a

b l e

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

o f c u

l t i v a t e d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

) 3


C o u n t r y

l a n d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

)

i n 1 9 9 8

C o l o m b i a

6 . 1

5 . 3

1 7

1 3

4 1 1 5

8 5 0

2 1

4 . 9 2

2 1 3 2 . 0 0

0 . 2

C o m o r o s

1 1 8

0

1 . 2 0

C o n g o , D e m . R

e p u b l i c o f

1 3 . 7

3 1 . 0

3 5

6 4

7 8 8 0

1 1

0 . 1

0 . 1 1

1 2 8 3 . 0 0

0 . 0 1

C o n g o , R e p u b l i c o f

0 . 8

0 . 9

3 5

3 2

2 1 8

1

0 . 5

0 . 0 0 4

8 3 2 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 5

C o s t a R i c a

0 . 2

0 . 2

6

5

5 0 5

1 0 5

2 1

1 . 3 9

1 1 2 . 4 0

1

C t e d I v o i r e

2 . 5

2 . 4

1 9

1 6

7 3 5 0

7 3

1

0 . 6 0

8 1 . 0

0

1

C r o a t i a

0 . 7

1 5

1 5 8 7

3

0 . 2

1 0 5 . 5 0

C u b a

0 . 5

1 . 9

5

1 7

4 4 6 5

8 7 0

1 9

5 . 6 4

3 8 . 1

2

1 5

C y p r u s

0

0

1 4 4

4 0

2 8

0 . 1 7

0 . 7 8

2 2

C z e c h R e p u b l i c

0 . 1

0

3 3 3 7

2 4

1

0 . 0 6

1 3 . 1

5

0 . 4

D e n m a r k

0

0

2 3 7 4

4 6 0

1 9

0 . 5 5

6 . 0 0

9

D j i b o u t i

1

1

1 0 0

0 . 0 0 7

0 . 3 0

2

D o m i n i c a

1 5

0

0

D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c

1 . 9

2 . 0

2 7

2 5

1 5 5 0

2 6 5

1 7

2 . 1 6

2 1 . 0

0

1 0

E a s t T i m o r

8 0

0

E c u a d o r

0 . 9

0 . 6

8

5

3 0 0 1

8 6 5

2 9

1 3 . 9

6

4 3 2 . 0 0

3

E g y p t

2 . 6

2 . 4

5

4

3 3 0 0

3 3 0 0

1 0 0

5 4 . 0

0

5 8 . 3

0

9 3

E l S a l v a d o r

0 . 6

0 . 7

1 2

1 2

8 1 0

3 8

5

0 . 7 2

2 5 . 2

5

3

E q u a t o r i a l G u i n e a

2 3 0

0

0 . 0 0 1

2 6 . 0

0

0 . 0 0 4

E r i t r e a

2 . 0

5 7

5 0 0

2 2

4

0 . 3 0

6 . 3 0

5

E s t o n i a

0 . 1

4

1 1 3 5

4

0 . 4

0 . 0 0 8

1 2 . 8

1

0 . 1

E t h i o p i a

2 9 . 6

4 9

1 0 6 5 0

1 9 0

2

2 . 4 7

1 1 0 . 0 0

2

F i j i I s l a n d s

2 8 5

3

1

0 . 0 5

2 8 . 5

5

0 . 2

F i n l a n d

0

0

2 1 7 0

6 4

3

0 . 0 6 6

1 1 0 . 0 0

0 . 1

F r a n c e

0

0

1 9 5 1 7

2 0 0 0

1 0

3 . 5 6

2 0 3 . 7 0

2

F r e n c h G u i a n a

1 3

2

1 5

F r e n c h P o l y n e s i a

2 1

0

G a b o n

0 . 1

0 . 1

1 1

9

4 9 5

1 5

3

0 . 0 5

1 6 4 . 0 0

0 . 0 3

G a m b i a

0 . 2

0 . 2

1 9

1 5

2 0 0

2

1

0 . 0 2

8 . 0 0

0 . 3

G a z a S t r i p ( P a l e s t i n e )

2 5

1 2

4 8

0 . 0 6

G e o r g i a

1 . 0

1 8

1 0 6 2

4 7 0

4 4

2 . 1 3

6 3 . 3

3

3

G e r m a n y

0

0

1 2 1 0 7

4 8 5

4

9 . 3 1

1 5 4 . 0 0

6

G h a n a

5 . 4

2 . 7

3 5

1 5

5 3 0 0

1 1

0 . 2

0 . 2 5

5 3 . 2

0

0 . 5

G r e e c e

0

0

3 8 8 2

1 4 2 2

3 7

6 . 1 2

7 4 . 2

5

8

G r e e n l a n d

0

0

G r e n a d a

1 1

0

P r o p o r t

i o n o f

N u m

b e r o f

N u m

b e r o f


P r o p o r t

i o n o f

p e o p

l e

p e o p

l e

i n t o t a l




p o p u

l a t i o n

i n t o t a l

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

p o p u

l a t i o n

( m i l l i o n s )

( m i l l i o n s )

( % ) 1

( % ) 1

T a

b l

e

1

c o n t i n u e

d


14/64


G u a d e l o u p e

2 6

3

1 2

G u a m

1 2

0

G u a t e m a l a

1 . 3

2 . 3

1 4

2 2

1 9 0 5

1 3 0

7

1 . 6 1

1 1 1 . 2 7

1

G u i n e a

2 . 6

2 . 7

4 0

3 4

1 4 8 5

9 5

6

1 . 3 6

2 2 6 . 0 0

1

G u i n e a B i s s a u

3 5 0

1 7

5

0 . 1 0

3 1 . 0

0

0 . 3

G u y a n a

0 . 1

0 . 1

1 9

1 4

4 9 6

1 5 0

3 0

1 . 6 0

2 4 1 . 0 0

1

H a i t i

4 . 5

4 . 5

6 3

5 6

9 1 0

7 5

8

0 . 9 3

1 4 . 0

3

7

H o n d u r a s

1 . 1

1 . 3

2 3

2 1

1 8 7 5

7 6

4

0 . 6 6

9 5 . 9

3

1

H u n g a r y

0 . 0

0 . 1

0

0

5 0 4 5

2 1 0

4

2 . 4 5

1 0 4 . 0 0

2

I c e l a n d

0

0

7

0

0 . 0 0 0 2

1 7 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 1

I n d i a

2 1 4 . 6

2 2 5 . 3

2 5

2 3

1 6 9 6 5 0

5 7 0 0 0

3 4

5 5 6 . 0 5

1 8 9 6 . 6 6

2 9

I n d o n e s i a

1 6 . 7

1 2 . 0

9

6

3 0 9 8 7

4 8 1 5

1 6

7 5 . 6

0

2 8 3 8 . 0 0

3

I r a n , I

s l a m i c R e p . o f

2 . 7

3 . 5

4

5

1 8 8 0 3

7 5 6 2

4 0

6 6 . 7

8

1 3 7 . 5 1

4 9

I r a q

1 . 2

3 . 0

7

1 4

5 5 4 0

3 5 2 5

6 4

3 9 . 3

8

7 5 . 4

2

5 2

I r e l a n d

0

0

1 0 8 8

0

0 . 0 0 0 2

5 2 . 0

0

0 . 0 0 0 4

I s r a e l

0

0

4 4 0

1 9 9

4 5

1 . 2 8

1 . 6 7

7 6

I t a l y

0

0

1 1 1 3 7

2 6 9 8

2 4

2 0 . 0

0

1 9 1 . 3 0

1 0

J a m a i c a

0 . 3

0 . 2

1 2

8

2 7 4

2 5

9

0 . 2 0

9 . 4 0

2

J a p a n

0

0

4 9 0 5

2 6 7 9

5 5

5 6 . 0

3

4 3 0 . 0 0

1 3

J o r d a n

0 . 1

0 . 2

3

5

3 8 4

7 5

2 0

0 . 7 6

0 . 8 8

8 6

K a z a k h s t a n

1 . 7

1 1

3 0 1 3 5

2 3 3 2

8

2 8 . 4

1

1 0 9 . 6 1

2 6

K e n y a

1 1 . 5

1 3 . 4

4 7

4 6

4 5 2 0

6 7

1

1 . 0 1

3 0 . 2

0

3

K o r e a , D e m . P

e o p l e s R e p .

3 . 4

8 . 8

1 7

4 0

2 0 0 0

1 4 6 0

7 3

4 . 9 6

7 7 . 1

4

6

K o r e a , R e p u b l i c o f

0 . 8

0 . 7

0

0

1 9 1 0

1 1 5 9

6 1

8 . 9 9

6 9 . 7

0

1 3

K u w a i t

0 . 5

0 . 1

2 3

4

6

6

1 0 0

0 . 2 0

0 . 0 2

1 0 0 0

K y r g y z s t a n

0 . 5

1 0

1 4 2 8

1 0 7 2

7 5

9 . 4 5

2 0 . 5

8

4 6

L a o , P D R

1 . 2

1 . 4

2 9

2 8

9 4 0

1 6 8

1 8

2 . 5 9

3 3 3 . 5 5

1

L a t v i a

0 . 1

4

1 8 7 1

2 0

1

0 . 0 4

3 5 . 4

5

0 . 1

L e b a n o n

0 . 1

0 . 1

0

0

3 0 8

1 2 0

3 9

1 . 0 6

4 . 4 1

2 4

L e s o t h o

0 . 5

0 . 5

2 8

2 5

3 2 5

1

0 . 3

0 . 0 1

3 . 0 2

0 . 3

L i b e r i a

0 . 8

1 . 0

3 7

4 2

3 9 0

3

1

0 . 0 6

2 3 2 . 0 0

0 . 0 3

L i b y a n A r a b J a m a h i r i y a

0 . 0

0 . 0

0

0

2 1 5 0

4 7 0

2 2

4 . 2 7

0 . 6 0

7 1 2

L i t h u a n i a

0 . 1

3

3 0 0 4

8

0 . 3

0 . 0 2

2 4 . 9

0

0 . 1

M a c e d o n i a

, T h e F m r . Y u g . R e p .

0 . 1

5

6 3 5

5 5

9

6 . 4 0

M a d a g a s c a r

4 . 3

6 . 1

3 5

4 0

3 1 0 8

1 0 9 0

3 5

1 4 . 3

1

3 3 7 . 0 0

4

M a l a w i

4 . 8

3 . 8

4 9

3 5

2 0 0 0

2 8

1

0 . 8 1

1 7 . 2

8

5

M a l a y s i a

0 . 6

0 . 4

3

0

7 6 0 5

3 6 5

5

5 . 6 0

5 8 0 . 0 0

1

M a l d i v e s

3

0

0

0 . 0 3

0

M a l i

2 . 2

3 . 0

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1 3 8

3

6 . 8 7

1 0 0 . 0 0

7

M a l t a

9

2

2 2

0 . 0 1

0 . 0 5

2 0

M a r t i n i q u e

2 3

3

1 3

M a u r i t a n i a

0 . 3

0 . 3

1 4

1 1

5 0 0

4 9

1 0

1 . 5 0

1 1 . 4

0

1 3

M a u r i t i u s

0 . 1

0 . 1

6

6

1 0 6

2 0

1 9

0 . 3 7

2 . 2 1

1 7

M e x i c o

4 . 3

5 . 0

5

5

2 7 3 0 0

6 5 0 0

2 4

6 0 . 3

4

4 5 7 . 2 2

1 3

T a

b l

e

1

c o n t i n u e

d


15/64


A g r

i c u l

t u r a

l

w a t e r

w i t h d r a w a l

a s %

C u l

t i v a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

I r r i g a

t e d l a n d

A g r

i c u l

t u r a

l w a t e r


l e

o f t o t a l

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a r e a

i n 1 9 9 8

a s %

w i t h d r a w a l


r e n e w a b

l e

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

( 1 , 0

0 0 h a ) 2

o f c u

l t i v a t e

d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

) 3


C o u n t r y

l a n d

i n 1 9 9 8

( k m

3 / y e a r

)

i n 1 9 9 8

M o l d o v a , R

e p u b l i c o f

0 . 4

1 0

2 1 8 2

3 0 7

1 4

0 . 7 6

1 1 . 6

5

7

M o n g o l i a

0 . 8

1 . 0

3 4

4 2

1 3 2 2

8 4

6

0 . 2 3

3 4 . 8

0

1

M o r o c c o

1 . 4

1 . 8

5

6

9 9 7 6

1 2 9 1

1 3

1 1 . 3

6

2 9 . 0

0

3 9

M o z a m b i q u e

9 . 6

9 . 5

6 9

5 4

3 3 5 0

1 0 7

3

0 . 5 5

2 1 6 . 1 1

0 . 3

M y a n m a r

3 . 9

3 . 2

9

7

1 0 1 4 3

1 6 9 2

1 7

2 7 . 8

6

1 0 4 5 . 6 0

3

N a m i b i a

0 . 4

0 . 6

3 0

3 3

8 2 0

7

1

0 . 1 7

1 7 . 9

4

1

N e p a l

3 . 5

5 . 0

1 9

2 3

2 9 6 8

1 1 3 5

3 8

9 . 8 2

2 1 0 . 2 0

5

N e t h e r l a n d s

0

0

9 4 1

5 6 5

6 0

2 . 6 9

9 1 . 0

0

3

N e w C a l e d o n i a

1 3

0

N e w Z e a l a n d

0

0

3 2 8 0

2 8 5

9

0 . 8 9

3 2 7 . 0 0

0 . 3

N i c a r a g u a

1 . 2

1 . 4

3 0

2 9

2 7 4 6

8 8

3

1 . 0 8

1 9 6 . 6 9

1

N i g e r

3 . 3

4 . 2

4 2

4 1

5 0 0 0

6 6

1

2 . 0 8

3 3 . 6

5

6

N i g e r i a

1 2

7 . 6

1 4

7

3 1 0 0 0

2 3 3

1

5 . 5 1

2 8 6 . 2

2

N o r w a y

9 0 3

1 2 7

1 4

0 . 2 3

3 8 2 . 0 0

0 . 1

O m a n

6 2

6 2

1 0 0

1 . 2 3

0 . 9 9

1 2 5

P a k i s t a n

2 6 . 5

2 4 . 4

2 4

1 8

2 1 9 7 0

1 8 0 0 0

8 2

1 6 1 . 8 4

2 2 2 . 6 7

7 3

P a n a m a

0 . 5

0 . 4

1 9

1 6

6 5 5

3 5

5

0 . 2 3

1 4 7 . 9 8

0 . 2

P a p u a N e w G u i n e a

0 . 9

1 . 2

2 4

2 6

6 7 0

0

0 . 0 0 1

8 0 1 . 0 0

0

P a r a g u a y

0 . 8

0 . 7

1 8

1 3

2 2 8 5

6 7

3

0 . 3 5

3 3 6 . 0 0

0 . 1

P e r u

8 . 9

3 . 1

4 1

1 3

4 1 7 0

1 1 9 5

2 9

1 6 . 4

2

1 9 1 3 . 0 0

1

P h i l i p p i n e s

1 6 . 0

1 7 . 2

2 6

2 4

1 0 0 0 0

1 5 5 0

1 6

2 1 . 1

0

4 7 9 . 0 0

4

P o l a n d

0 . 3

0 . 3

0

0

1 4 3 7 9

1 0 0

1

1 . 3 5

6 1 . 6

0

2

P o r t u g a l

0

0

2 6 2 0

6 5 0

2 5

8 . 8 1

6 8 . 7

0

1 3

P u e r t o R i c o

8 1

4 0

4 9

3 . 4 0

Q a t a r

1 3

1 3

1 0 0

0 . 2 1

0 . 0 5

4 2 0

R e u n i o n

3 8

1 2

3 2

5 . 0 0

R o m a n i a

0 . 7

0 . 3

3

0

9 , 8 4 3

2 8 8 0

2 9

1 4 . 2

3

2 1 1 . 8 5

7

R u s s i a n F e d e r a t i o n

8 . 1

6

1 2 7 9 5 9

4 6 6 3

4

1 3 . 8

3

4 5 0 7 . 2 5

0 . 3

R w a n d a

2 . 2

2 . 6

3 4

4 0

1 0 7 0

4

0 . 4

0 . 0 2

5 . 2 0

0 . 4

S a m o a

1 2 2

0

S a o T o m e a n d P r i n c i p e

4 1

1 0

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2 . 1 8

S a u d i A r a b i a

0 . 3

0 . 4

0

0

1 6 2 0

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2

2 . 4 0

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S e n e g a l

1 . 7

2 . 1

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2 4

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3

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3 9 . 4

0

4

S e y c h e l l e s

7

0

S i e r r a L e o n e

1 . 9

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4 6

4 1

5 4 0

2 9

5

0 . 3 4

1 6 0 . 0 0

0 . 2

S i n g a p o r e

1

0

P r o p o r t

i o n o f

N u m

b e r o f

N u m

b e r o f


P r o p o r t

i o n o f

p e o p

l e

p e o p

l e

i n t o t a l




p o p u

l a t i o n

i n t o t a l

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

1 9 9 0

9 2

1 9 9 7

9 9

p o p u

l a t i o n

( m i l l i o n s )

( m i l l i o n s )

( % ) 1

( % ) 1

T a

b l

e

1

c o n t i n u e

d


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S l o v a k i a

0 . 1

0

1 6 0 4

1 7 4

1 1

5 0 . 1

0

S l o v e n i a

0 . 0

0

2 0 3

2

1

3 1 . 8

7

S o l o m o n I s l a n d s

6 0

0

4 4 . 7

0

S o m a l i a

4 . 8

6 . 0

6 7

7 5

1 0 6 5

2 0 0

1 9

3 . 2 8

1 3 . 5

0

2 4

S o u t h A f r i c a

2 . 7

3 . 5

4

5

1 5 7 5 0

1 3 5 0

9

1 0 . 0

3

5 0 . 0

0

2 0

S p a i n

0

0

1 8 5 1 6

3 6 5 2

2 0

2 4 . 2

2

1 1 1 . 5 0

2 2

S r i L a n k a

5 . 0

4 . 3

2 9

2 3

1 8 8 9

6 5 1

3 4

1 1 . 7

4

5 0 . 0

0

2 3

S a i n t H e l e n a

4

0

S a i n t K i t t s N e v i s

7

0

0 . 0 2

S a i n t L u c i a

1 7

3

1 8

S a i n t V i n c e n t / G r e n a d i n e s

1 1

1

9

S u d a n

7 . 9

6 . 3

3 1

2 1

1 6 9 0 0

1 9 5 0

1 2

3 6 . 0

7

6 4 . 5

0

5 6

S u r i n a m e

0 . 0

0 . 0

1 2

1 1

6 7

5 1

7 6

0 . 6 2

1 2 2 . 0 0

1

S w a z i l a n d

0 . 1

0 . 1

1 0

1 2

1 8 0

6 9

3 8

0 . 7 5

4 . 5 1

1 7

S w e d e n

0

0

2 7 8 4

1 1 5

4

0 . 2 6

1 7 4 . 0 0

0 . 2

S w i t z e r l a n d

0

0

4 3 9

2 5

6

0 . 0 5

5 3 . 5

0

0 . 1

S y r i a n A r a b R e p u b l i c

0 . 2

0 . 2

0

0

5 4 8 4

1 2 1 3

2 2

1 8 . 9

6

2 6 . 2

6

7 2

T a j i k i s t a n

2 . 8

4 7

8 6 4

7 1 9

8 3

1 0 . 9

6

1 5 . 9

8

6 9

T a n z a n i a

, U n i t e d R e p u b l i c o f

9 . 1

1 5 . 5

3 4

4 6

4 6 5 0

1 5 5

3

1 . 7 9

9 1 . 0

0

2

T h a i l a n d

1 6 . 9

1 2 . 9

3 0

2 1

1 8 2 9 7

4 7 4 9

2 6

7 9 . 2

9

4 0 9 . 9 4

1 9

T o g o

0 . 9

0 . 7

2 7

1 7

2 3 0 0

7

0 . 3

0 . 0 8

1 4 . 7

0

0 . 5

T o n g a

4 8

0

T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o

0 . 1

0 . 2

1 2

1 3

1 2 2

3

2

0 . 0 2

3 . 8 4

0 . 5

T u n i s i a

0 . 1

0 . 0

0

0

5 1 0 0

3 8 0

7

2 . 2 3

4 . 5 6

4 9

T u r k e y

0 . 9

1 . 2

0

0

2 6 9 6 8

4 3 8 0

1 6

2 7 . 1

1

2 2 9 . 3 0

1 2

T u r k m e n i s t a n

0 . 4

9

1 8 0 0

1 8 0 0

1 0 0

2 4 . 0

4

2 4 . 7

2

9 7

U g a n d a

4 . 2

6 . 2

2 4

2 8

6 8 1 0

9

0 . 1

0 . 1 2

6 6 . 0

0

0 . 2

U k r a i n e

2 . 6

5

3 3 8 2 1

2 4 4 6

7

2 0 . 0

0

1 3 9 . 5 5

1 4

U n i t e d A r a b E m i r a t e s

0 . 1

0 . 1

3

0

7 4

7 4

1 0 0

1 . 5 3

0 . 1 5

1 0 2 1

U n i t e d K i n g d o m

0

0

6 3 0 6

1 0 8

2

0 . 2 8

1 4 7 . 0 0

0 . 2

U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a

0

0

1 7 9 0 0 0

2 2 3 0 0

1 2

2 9 6 . 8 7

2 0 7 1 . 0 0

1 0

U r u g u a y

0 . 2

0 . 1

6

3

1 3 0 7

1 8 0

1 4

3 . 0 3

1 3 9 . 0 0

2

U z b e k i s t a n

0 . 9

4

4 8 5 0

4 2 8 1

8 8

5 4 . 3

7

5 0 . 4

1

1 0 8

V e n e z u e l a

2 . 3

4 . 8

1 1

2 1

3 4 9 0

5 7 0

1 6

3 . 9 4

1 2 3 3 . 1 7

0 . 3

V i e t N a m

1 8 . 0

1 4 . 2

2 7

1 9

7 2 5 0

3 0 0 0

4 1

4 8 . 6

2

8 9 1 . 2 1

5

W e s t B a n k

2 0 9

1 2

6

0 . 7 5

Y e m e n

4 . 4

5 . 7

3 6

3 4

1 6 8 0

4 9 0

2 9

6 . 1 9

4 . 1 0

1 5 1

Y u g o s l a v i a

, F e d . R

e p . o

f

0 . 5

5

4 0 4 7

5 7

1

2 0 8 . 5 0

Z a m b i a

3 . 6

4 . 7

4 3

4 7

5 2 7 9

4 6

1

1 . 3 2

1 0 5 . 2 0

1

Z i m b a b w e

4 . 6

4 . 8

4 3

3 9

3 3 5 0

1 1 7

3

2 . 2 4

2 0 . 0

0

1 1

N o

d a t a a v a i

l a b l e .

( 1 ) V a l u e s m a r

k e d a s

0 a r e < 2 . 5

% .

( 2 ) V a l u e s m a r

k e d a s

0 a r e 40%

Map 1 Area equipped for irrigation as percentage of cultivated land by country (1998)

Source: FAOSTAT, 2002.


28/64


the increasing scarcity of suitable areas for irrigation and of water resources in some countries,as well as the rising cost of irrigation investment. The rst selection of economically attractiveirrigation projects has already been implemented, and prices for agricultural commodities havenot risen to encourage investment in a second selection of more expensive irrigation projects.

Most of the expansion in irrigated land is achieved by converting land in use in rainfed agricultureor land with rainfed production potential but not yet in use into irrigated land. The expansionof irrigation is projected to be strongest in South Asia, East Asia and Near East/North Africa.These regions have limited or no potential for expansion of non-irrigated agriculture. Arableland expansion will nevertheless remain an important factor in crop production growth in manycountries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and some countries in East Asia, although to amuch smaller extent than in the past. The growth in wheat and rice production in the developingcountries will increasingly come from gains in yield, while expansion of harvested land wilcontinue to be a major contributor to the growth in production of maize.

Future investments in irrigationIn many developing countries, investments in irrigated infrastructures have represented asigni cant share of the overall agricultural budget during the second half of the twentiethcentury. The unit cost of irrigation development varies with countries and types of irrigatedinfrastructures, ranging typically from US$1 000 to US$10 000 per hectare, with extreme casesreaching US$25 000 per hectare (these costs do not include the cost of water storage as the cost ofdam construction varies on a case-by-case basis). The lowest investment costs in irrigation are in Asia, which has the bulk of irrigation and where scale economies are possible. The most expensiv

S u b - S a h a

r a n

A f r i c a N e a r E a

s t /

N o r t h A f

r i c a

I n d i a

S o u t h A

s i a

C h i n a

E a s t A s i a

W o r l d

L a t i n A m e

r i c a0

10

0

30

40

50

60

70

8090

100

20

1997/99

2030

% o

f i r r i g a t e

d a r e a

Figure 5 Irrigated area as proportion of irrigation potential in developing countries

This gure shows that a vastshare of the irrigation potential

is already being useg in Asiaand in the Near East but thereremains a large potential still

untapped in sub-SaharanAfrica and Latin America.

Source: FAO, 2002.


29/64

22 CHAPTER 3 The use of water in agriculture

irrigation schemes are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where irrigation systems are usually smallerand developing land and water resources is costly.

In the future, the estimates of expansion in land under irrigation will represent an annualinvestment of about US$5 billion, but most investment in irrigation, between US$10 and 12billion per year, will certainly come from the needed rehabilitation and modernization of agingirrigated schemes built during the years 1960-1980. In the 1990s, annual investment in storagefor irrigation was estimated at about US$12 billion (WCD, 2000). In the future, the contrastingeffects of reduced demand for irrigation expansion and increased unit cost of water storage willresult in an annual investment estimated between US$4 and 7 billion in the next thirty years.

Typically, investment gures in irrigation do not include that part of the investment providedby the farmer in land improvement and on-farm irrigation that can represent up to 50 percent of the overall investment. In total, it is estimated that annual investment in irrigated agriculture will therefore range between US$25 and 30 billion, about 15 percent of annual expected investmentsin the water sector.

Water use efciency

Assessing the impact of irrigation on available water resources requires an estimate of totalabstraction for the purpose of irrigation from rivers, lakes and aquifers. The volume extractedis considerably greater than the consumptive use for irrigation because of conveyance lossesfrom the withdrawal site to the plant root zone. Water use ef ciency is an indicator often used toexpress the level of performance of irrigation systems from the source to the crop: it is the ratiobetween estimated plant requirements and the actual water withdrawal.

On average, it is estimated that overall water use ef ciency of irrigation in developing countries isabout 38 percent. Map 2 shows the importance of agriculture in the countries water balance, andFigure 6 shows the expected growth in water abstraction for irrigation from 1998 to 2030. The predictions are based on assumptions about possible improvements in irrigation ef ciency in eachregion. These assumptions take into account that, from the farmers perspective, wherever wateris abundant and its cost low, the incentives to save water are limited. Conversely, if farmers can pro tably irrigate more land using their allocation in an optimum way, irrigation ef ciency mayreach higher levels.

Improving irrigation ef ciency is a slow and dif cult process that depends in large part on thelocal water scarcity situation. It may be expensive and requires willingness, know-how and actionat various levels. Table 4 shows current and expected water use ef ciency for developing countriesin 1998 and 2030, as estimated by FAO. The investment and management decisions leading to


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31/64


(33 37)

Latin America

East Asia

South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa

Near East &North Africa

Renewable water and water withdrawal (km 3)

0 14 000

(25 25)

(33 35)

(44 49)

12 00010 0008 0006 0004 0002 000

Renewable water resourcesWater withdrawal, 2030Water withdrawal, 1997-99

>

>

>

>

>

(40 53)

In brackets: movement in irrigation efficiency from 1997-99 to 20 30.

Figure 6 Irrigation and water resources: current (1999) and predicted (2030) withdrawals

This gure shows the expectedgrowth in water abstraction for

irrigation for the period 1999to 2030. There is a potential

increase in all regions, mostnotably in south Asia, whereasthe sub-Saharan Africa region

is predicted to maintain its verylow level of irrigation water

withdrawals.

Source: FAO data andprojections.

Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America Near East & North Africa South Asia East Asia All countries

Water use efficiency in irrigation (%)1998 33 25 40 44 33 382030 37 25 53 49 35 42Irrigation water withdrawal as a percentage of renewable water resources (%)1998 2 1 53 36 8 8

2030 3 2 58 41 8 9

Table 4 Water use efficiency in 1998 and 2030 (predicted) in 93 developing countries

Source: FAO, 2002.

Global water strategies tend to focus on the need to increase agricultural water use ef ciency,

reduce wastage and free large amounts of water for other, more productive uses as well as sustainingthe environmental services of rivers and lakes. While there is scope for improved use of water inagriculture, these improvements can only be made slowly and are limited by several considerations.First, there are large areas of irrigated agriculture located in humid tropics where water is not scarceand where improved ef ciency would not result in any gain in water productivity. Second, water useef ciency is usually computed at the level of the farm or irrigation scheme, but most of the waterthat is not used by the crops returns to the hydrological system and can be used further downstream.In these conditions, any improvement in water use ef ciency at eld level translates into limitedimprovement in overall ef ciency at the level of the river basin. Finally, different cropping systemshave different potential for improvement in water use ef ciency. Typically, tree crops and vegetablesare well adapted to the use of localized, highly ef cient irrigation technologies, while suchequipments are not adapted to cereal or other crops.

BOX 2 POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY


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Future water withdrawals for irrigationIrrigation water withdrawal in developing countries is expected to grow by about 14 percent from the current 2 130 km3 per year to 2 420 km3 in 2030. This nding is consistent with the one givenin Box 1 earlier but it is based speci cally on individual assessments for each developing country.Harvested irrigated area (the cumulated area of all crops during a year) is expected to increase by33 percent from 257 million ha in 1998 to 341 million ha in 2030. The disproportionate increasin harvested area is explained by expected improvements in irrigation ef ciency, which will resultin a reduction in gross irrigation water abstraction per ha of crop. A small part of the reduction isdue to changes in cropping patterns in China, where consumer preference is causing a shift fromrice to wheat production.

While some countries have reached extreme levels of water use for agriculture, irrigation stillrepresents a relatively small part of total water resources of the developing countries. The projected increase in water withdrawal will not signi cantly alter the overall picture. At the locallevel, however, there are already severe water shortages, in particular in the Near East / North Africa region and in large parts of Asia.

Of the ninety-three developing countries surveyed by FAO, ten are already using more than 40 percent of their renewable water resources for irrigation, a threshold used to ag the level at whichcountries are usually forced to make dif cult choices between their agricultural and urban watersupply sectors. Another eight countries were using more than 20 percent, a threshold that can beused to indicate impending water scarcity. By 2030 South Asia will have reached the 40 percentlevel, and the Near East and North Africa not less than 58 percent. However, the proportion ofrenewable water resources allocated to irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and East Asia in 2030 is likely to remain far below the critical threshold.

The special role of groundwater Water contained in shallow underground aquifers has played a signi cant role in developingand diversifying agricultural production. This is understandable from a resource management perspective: when groundwater is accessible it offers a primary buffer against the vagaries ofclimate and surface water delivery. But its advantages are also quite subtle. Access to groundwatercan occasion a large degree of distributive equity, and for many farmers, groundwater has proved to be a perfect delivery system. Because groundwater is on demand and just-in-time,farmers have sometimes made private investments in groundwater technology as a substitute forunreliable or inequitable surface irrigation services. In many senses, groundwater has been used

by farmers to break out of conventional command and control irrigation administration. Someof the management challenges posed by large surface irrigation schemes are avoided, but the


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aggregate impact of a large number of individual users can be damaging, and moderating the race to the pump-house has proved dif cult. However, as groundwater pumping involves a directcost to the farmer, the incentives to use groundwater ef ciently are high. These incentives do notapply so effectively where energy costs are subsidized; such distortion has arguably acceleratedgroundwater depletion in parts of India and Pakistan.

The technical principles involved in sustainable groundwater and aquifer management are wellknown but practical implementation of groundwater management has encountered seriousdif culties. This is largely due to groundwaters traditional legal status as part of land propertyand the competing interests of farmers withdrawing water from common-property aquifers(Burke and Moench, 2000). Abstraction can result in water levels declining beyond the economicreach of pumping technology; this may penalize poorer farmers and result in areas being takenout of agricultural production. When near the sea, or in proximity to saline groundwater, over- pumped aquifers are prone to saline intrusion. Groundwater quality is also threatened by theapplication of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides that percolate into aquifers. These non-pointsources of pollution from agricultural activity often take time to become apparent, but their effectscan be long-lasting, particularly in the case of persistent organic pollutants.

Fossil groundwater, that is, groundwater contained in aquifers that are not actively recharged,represent a valuable but exhaustible resource. Thus, for example, the large sedimentary aquifers

of North Africa and the Middle East, decoupled from contemporary recharge, have alreadybeen exploited for large-scale agricultural development in a process of planned depletion. Thedegree to which further abstractions occur will be limited in some cases by the economic limits to pumping, and promoted where strong economic demand from agriculture or urban water supplybecomes effective (Schif e, 1998). Two countries, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Saudi Arabia, arealready using considerably more water for irrigation than their annual renewable resources, bydrawing on fossil groundwater reserves. Several other countries rely to a limited extent on fossilgroundwater for irrigation. Where such groundwater reserves have a high strategic value in termsof water security, the depletion of such reserves to irrigate is questionable.


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Food security is de ned by FAO as physical, social and economic access for all people to suf cient,safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthylife. Its converse, food insecurity, applies when people live with hunger and fear of starvation. Foodsecurity requires that:

suf cient quantities of food of appropriate quality be available a production issue;

individuals and households have access to appropriate foods a poverty issue; and

nourishment is taken under good conditions, including regular meals, safe food, clean water and adequate sanitation a public health issue.

The individual state of health is also relevant for food security as disease-stricken people are

hampered or unable to contribute to their own and their households food security. By the sametoken, undernourished people are much more prone to disease.

For regional and global assessments, per capita food intake per day in kilocalories is used as theindicator for food security. This indicator is derived from agricultural production and trade statistics.At the national level, a per capita food intake of less than 2,200 kcal/day is taken as indicative of avery poor level of food security, with a large proportion of the population affected by malnutrition.A level of more than 2,700 kcal/day indicates that only a small proportion of people will be affectedby undernourishment. As people are enabled to access food, per capita food intake increases rapidlybut levels off in the mid-3,000s. It must be stressed that per capita food intake in terms of kilocaloriesis only an indicator of food security: adequate nutrition requires, in addition to calories, a balanceddiversity of food including all necessary nutrients.

BOX 3 FOOD SECURITY AND ITS INDICATORS


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Ensuring access

to food for allThe markets fail to provide food for allSince the 1960s, market food prices have been low while food production satis ed marketdemand. However, FAOs estimates indicate that in 1998 there were 815 million undernourished people in the world: 777 million in the developing countries, 27 million in countries in transitioand 11 million in the industrialized countries. The world is capable of producing suf cient food tofeed its population until 2030 and beyond (actually, a growing part of cereal production is alreadydedicated to animal feed). The 1996 World Food Summit set a target of reducing the number ofundernourished people to 400 million by 2015. FAO projections indicate that this target may notbe achieved before 2030. The normative target and the projection of the current course of eventsare illustrated in Figure 7.

The plight of undernourished people needs to be addressed through pro-active implementation offood-security programmes. Necessary policy adjustment should be tailored to ensure that peoplecan apply their initiative and ingenuity to access food and establish a livelihood. Food security

programmes should identify the most vulnerable categories of population and consider their assetand constraints in order to emerge from poverty. FAO has developed speci c indicators for this purpose (see Box 3). A rst level of support is emergency assistance to households that have been

C H A P T E R F O U R

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1 000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Trend

Path to the World

Food Summit Target

FAOprojections

Millions of undernourished

World Food Summitbase period 1990-92

Figure 7 Progress towards the World Food Summit target

FAO projections of attainmentof the World Summit food

security goal are clearly at odds with the targeted goal.According to FAO estimates,

the World Summit goal would not be achieved

before 2030, fteen yearsbehind schedule.

Source: FAO, 2002.


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30 CHAPTER 4 Ensuring access to food for al l

hit by natural, man-made or individual disasters. Households weakened by hunger and diseaseneed to be restored to the necessary strength for being able to apply themselves to construction ofa viable livelihood. At this point, people may need punctual support to realize their plans. Externalsupport may take a variety of forms, from provision of seeds and tools to capacity building andinfrastructure development. Many poverty alleviation activities bear some relation with water.The role of irrigation is discussed further on.

The undernourished: where, who, and why?Figure 8 and map 3 identify the countries with the highest prevalence of undernourished people.

Many of these countries have been stricken by war and natural disasters, including extended periods of drought. Within the countries, large numbers of undernourished people live inenvironmentally degraded rural areas and in urban slums. During the 1990s, the number ofundernourished people fell steeply in East Asia. In South Asia, although the proportion fell, the total number remained almost constant. In sub-Saharan Africa, the proportion remained virtuallyunchanged, which meant that the number of undernourished people rose steeply. Food securityaction has therefore a special focus on sub-Saharan Africa.

Many undernourished people are refugees who have lost their physical and social assets in

displacement caused by war or natural disaster. The cause of displacement can also be unmitigatedexternalities stemming, for example, from urban development and consequent water pollution, as well as construction of dams and consequent ooding of the land. Some national macro-policies havefailed to recognize the importance of agriculture and have also contributed to the forces pushing

1990

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Category 4: 2034% undernourished

Category 5: 35% undernourished

This graph indicates the levels of malnutrition in developing countries between 1990-92 and 1997-99.

While a majority of countries have reduced their level of malnutrition, there are still many cases of worsening situations.

Source: FAO, 2001b.

No data< 2.5%

2.5 5%5 20%

20 35%> 35%

Map 3 Percentage of undernourished people by country (1998)

This map shows large regional disparities in the proportion of undernourished people throughout the world, and illustratesthe typical division between developed and underdeveloped countries. Whereas western Europe and North America havereasonable food security levels, much of Africa, and large parts of Latin America and Asia do not enjoy the same luxury.

Source: FAO, 2001b.


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32 CHAPTER 4 Ensuring access to food for al l

rural people into poverty. In rural areas, the people most affected include smallholders, landlesslabourers, traditional herders, shermen and generally marginalized groups such as refugees,indigenous peoples and female-headed households. Children are particularly vulnerable to the fullimpact of hunger, which can lead to permanent impairment of physical and mental development.

Undernourishment is a characteristic feature of poverty. Poverty includes deprivation of health,education, nutrition, safety, and legal and political rights. Hunger is a symptom of poverty and alsoone of its causes. These dimensions of deprivation interact with and reinforce each other. Hunger is acondition produced by human action, or lack of human action to correct it. For example, in the early1990s nearly 80 percent of all malnourished children lived in developing countries that producedfood surpluses. Lack of access to water to provide basic health services and support reliable food production is often a primary cause of undernourishment. To eradicate hunger, abundant food production is a requirement, but in addition existing food needs to be accessible to all.

The role of irrigation in alleviating poverty and improving food security There is a positive, albeit complex, link between water services for irrigation and other farmuse, poverty alleviation and food security (IFAD, 2001; FAO, 2001a; FAO/World Bank, 2001).

Many of the rural poor work directly in agriculture, as smallholders, farm labourers or h

agricfoodwater (1)

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