agreement on - world trade organization i: salient features of the nickel industry properties and...
TRANSCRIPT
GENERAL AGREEMENT ONTARIFFS AND TRADE
RESTRICTED
MDF/W/2128 June 1985
Special Distribution
PROBLEMS OF TRADE IN CERTAIN NATURAL RESOURCE PRODUCTS
Background Study on Nickel and Nickel Products
Prepared by the Secretariat
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION
SECTION I: Salient Features of the Nickel Industry
Properties and characteristicsNickel ores and reservesMining and ProcessingNickel products, industrial uses and substitutesStructure of the world nickel industryPricing in the nickel industry
SECTION II: Production Consumption and Prices
Mine productionSmelter productionSemi-manufacture of nickelConsumptionPrices and stocks
SECTION III: International Trade
Ores and concentratesIntermediate productsRefined nickel productsDirection of trade
SECTION IV: Commercial Policy Situation
17. Tokyo Round Negotiations: tariff assessment18. Trade in nickel and nickel products under different
tariff treatment according to stages of processing19. Tariff escalation20. Non-tariff measures
2.3.4.5.6.7.
5
5
55
11132024
8.9.10.11.12.
29
13.14.15.16.
2934363643
48
51515152
59
85-1142
59
62103103
Page
MDF/W/21Page 2
Page
SECTION V: Activities in Other International Organizations 107
21. The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea 10722. International cooperation on nickel 10823. Customs Cooperation Council (Brussels) 109
24. Summary and observations 109
ANNEX I: Summary of pre-Tokyo and post-Tokyo RoundTariff Situation Affecting Nickel andArticles Thereof 112-118
ANNEX II: The Harmonized System of CommodityDescription and Classification 119-121
MDF/W/21Page 3
List of Tables
Page
7
14
17
22
23
26
30
1. Estimated world nickel reserves and reserve base, 1985
2. Commercial forms of primary nickel
3. World consumption by uses in market economy countries
4. Corporate shares of world nickel production, 1982
5. Principal world nickel producers
6. Estimated costs of nickel production, 1975
7. World production of nickel, 1960-1983(in thousands of metric tons)
8. World production of nickel(as a percentage of world production)
9. World consumption of nickel, 1960-1983
10. Relative growth rates of nickel consumption until 1990
11. Nickel prices, 1950-1984
12. World stocks of unwrought nickel, 1976-1984
13. Exports of nickel - unwrought
14. Imports of nickel - unwrought
15. Direction of trade by main importers, 1983
16. Direction of trade by main supplires, 1983
17. Pre-Tokyo Round and Post-Tokyo Round tariffs in ninedeveloped markets (in percentages)
18. Summary of imports of nickel and nickel products underdifferent tariff treatment in twenty-three countries
19. - Australia
20. - Austria
21. - Canada
22. - EEC
23. - Finland
24. - Hungary
25. - Japan
31
39
42
44
47
50
53
54-55
56-57
61
63
65
67
69
71
72
74
75
MDF/W/21Page 4
Page
26. - New Zealand 77
27. - Norway 78
28. - Switzerland 80
29. - Sweden 82
30. - United States 83
31. - Argentina 86
32. - Brazil 87
33. - Colombia 88
34. - Hong Kong 90
35. - India 91
36. - Korea 93
37. - Malaysia 94
38. - Spain 95
39. - Singapore 97
40. - Thailand 98
41. - Yugoslavia 100
42. Nickel and nickel products tariff rates according todifferent stages of processing in the following countries:Chile, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Poland,Romania, Venezuela. 101
43. Non-tariff measures affecting trade in nickel andproducts thereof 104-106
Diagram I Nickel scrap flow 10
List of Charts
I Nickel consumption by first use, 1983 15
II Cash operating costs, 1983 27
III World mine production of nickel 32
IV Changes in world nickel consumption and crude steelproduction, 1953-1983 37
V World nickel consumption, 1950-1983 40
VI Canadian nickel prices, 1950-1983 45
MDF/W/21Page 5
1. INTRODUCTION
1. The present study on nickel forms part of the series of factualbackground papers being prepared by the secretariat on non-ferrous metals.These studies are being undertaken in accordance with the Decision taken byMinisters at the Thirty-Eighth Session of the CONTRACTING PARTIES inrelation to Problems of Trade in Certain Natural Resource Products.
2. This study provides information on nickel and nickel productsconcerning the following CCCN positions: 26.01, 26.03, ex 28.28, ex 28.30,ex 28.35, ex 28.38, ex 28.39, ex 28.42, ex 28.43, ex 28.48, ex 73.02,ex 73.03, 75.01, 75.02, 75.03, 75.04, 75.05, 75.06. Section I givesbackground information on some of the salient features of the nickelindustry. Section II briefly reviews developments with regard to worldnickel production, consumption and prices since 1960. Section III providesinformation on trade flows in nickel ores and concentrates; onintermediate nickel products such as matte, speiss, and nickel oxide, andon refined but unwrought nickel products including, nickel oxide sintersferro-nickel, electrolytic nickel cathodes, briquets, pellets, rondels,incomets etc. Section IV provides detailed information on trade flows on atariff line basis, together with tariff treatment in twelve developedcountry markets and some developing countries. It also providesinformation on non-tariff measures affecting nickel and nickel products,notified in GATT. Section V describes actions in other internationalorganizations related to nickel.
SECTION I: Salient Features of the Nickel Industry
2. Properties and characteristics
3. Nickel (Ni) a light grey metal belongs to the iron-cobalt family. Ithas an atomic number of 28, an atomic weight of 58.70 and a melting pointof 1452°C. Nickel shares some properties with iron; high melting point,strength, hardness, and magnetism. It is, however, superior to iron in itsability to resist corrosion and oxidization and in its great strength atelevated temperatures. Alloyed with other metals, nickel imparts corrosionresistance, strength and toughness at high temperatures and other qualitiespreferable to those of other materials in a number of applications.
3. Nickel ores and reserves
4. Nickel occurs basically in four main types of mineral ores; sulphideores, oxide ores, arsenidic ores and sedimentary ores, of which only thefirst two are currently of economic interest. Arsenidic ores are todayconsidered to be virtually worked out. Sedimentary ores occur in manganesenodules on the ocean floor which, according to tests carried ou. so far,contain on average approximately 1 per cent nickel. This source of ore ispotentially important since sea-bed mining is seriously envisaged in thefuture when the technological problems involved might have been overcome.
5. The largest concentration of sulfide ores is in the Sudbury districtof Ontario, Canada. Sulfide ores exist also in Australia, South Africa,China, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Finland, Morocco, Norway and the Soviet Union.Until the late 1960s sulfide deposits accounted for almost two-thirds ofnickel mined in the world.
MDF/W/21Page 6
6. Oxide (laterite) deposits are formed by a process of laterization overlong periods of weathering and erosion. They are found near the surface,can usually be mined by open-pit methods, and exist mainly in tropicalareas. Countries producing nickel from laterite ores include NewCaledonia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Australia, Greece, United States,Indonesia, Colombia, Philippines, Brazil, Burma, Albania, Soviet Union,German Democratic Republic and Poland. Laterite deposits have recentlybeen discovered in Burundi, India, Ivory Coast, Tanzania and Zaire. Oxideor laterite deposits which now account for the major part of identifiedworld reserves are of two types; those in which silicates are predominant,and those with a predominant iron base. Silicate ores (also calledgarnierite) which comprise most of the New Caledonian deposits, are richerin nickel content than sulphide ores, usually exceeding 1.5 per cent. Thesecond type of laterite deposits, (limonitic) nickel-ferrous ironlaterites, while rich in iron (45-50 per cent) contain a low level ofnickel, about 1.0 per cent. Most of the deposits in Cuba, the Philippines,Indonesia and most other developing countries are of this type.
7. The world nickel reserve base, excluding nickel associated withsea-bed manganese nodules, have been estimated at about 111 million tonsfor 1985. On the other hand, total world reser-es have been estimated atabout 58 million tons of nickel. About 57.1 per cent of the world reservesare found in the developing countries which account for 29 per cent ofcurrent mine production. Cuba alone accounts for about 34.4 per cent oftotal world reserves, New Caledonia 3.4 per cent, Dominican Republic 1.4per cent, Brazil 1.5 per cent, Botswana 0.8 per cent, Colombia 1.1 percent, Yugoslavia 3.2 per cent, Zimbabwe 0.3 per cent. Other developingcountries with major reserves are the Philippines 3.4 per cent, andIndonesia 7.4 per cent. Developed market economy countries were estimatedin 1985 to account for 28.1 per cent of reserves, among them Canada andAustralia have the largest shares, 13.8 per cent and 4.0 per centrespectively; others are US 0.5 per cent, Greece 4.5 per cent, SouthAfrica 4.8 per cent, Finland 0.1 per cent. The centrally-planned economiesinclucing China account for about 14.8 per cent of total world reserveswith the USSR alone accounting for 12.6 per cent. Small reserves are alsoknown to exist in a number of other countries. Table 1 shows the knownworld reserves of nickel in 1985 and their distribution. Laterite ores areestimated to account for about 75 per cent of known reserves as against ashare of about 35 per cent of current mine output.
8. The discovery of a vast quantity of metal-bearing nodules on the oceanfloor has added a new dimension to attempts to have an accurate estimate of
In almost every occurence of laterite nickel ores the two types ofdeposits (limonitic and silicate types) are present, but in widely varyingproportions. Geologically the distinction betweem the two types is one ofdegree and any sharp classification is necessarily arbitrary.
MDF/W/21Page 7
Table 1
Estimated World Nickel Reserves and Reserve Base, 1985
PercentageReserye share of
Countries/economies Reserves base reserves
World Total 58,140 111,250 100.0
Developing countriesand territories 33,183 72,500 57.1
Botswana 450 500 0.8Burundi _ 1,300 _Brazil 900 4,700 1.5Colombia 650 700 1.1Cuba 20,000 25,000 34.4Dominican Republic 800 1,100 1.Guatemala _ 900 _India _ 600 _Indonesia 4,300 5,800 7.4Philippines 2,000 5,100 3.4New Caledonia 2,000 17,000 3.4Papua New Guinea _ 1,400 _Zimbabwe 200 1,900 0.3Yugoslavia 1,883 2,000 3.2Other _ 4,500 _
Developed countries 16,340 29,050 28.1
Australia 2,300 5,300 4.0Greece 2,600 2,800 4.5Finland 40 50 0.1Canada 8,000 14,800 13.8United States 300 2,800 0.5Union of South Africa 2,800 2,900 4.8Other 300 400 0.5
Centrally-planned economies 8,617 9,700 14.8
USSR 7,300 8,100 12.6Albania 222 250 0.4China 800 1,000 1.4Other 295 350 0.5
¹The reserve base includes demonstrated resouces that are currentlyeconomic (reserves) marginally economic (marginal reserves), and some ofthose that are currently sub-economic (sub-economic resources)
Source: Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior, 1985.
MDF/W/21Page 8
world nickel resources and reserves. These nodules, also widely known asmanganese nodules, contain mainly manganese, nickel, copper and cobalt.Assuming that these nodules will be mined, those in the "first generation"operations will contain, on the average, approximately 1.3 per centnickel, 1.1 per cent copper, 0.23 per cent cobalt and 25.0 per centmanganese (if recovered). There are strong indications that because of thehigh cost of entry into ocean mining and the economies of scale, that onelikely individual mining project will need to have an annual capacity ofnot less than 3 million tons of dry nodules. The feasibility of a3 million tons per year operation, however, remains to be demonstrated.Thus, assuming a recovery rate from processing of 90 per cent, each projectwould at least produce 35,000 tons of nickel, 30,000 tons of copper and4,000 tons of cobalt annually. The quantity of sea-bed nickel on themarket at any time will depend therefore on the number of viable projectsin operation. As has been indicated above, the ratio of the four mainminerals found in nodules is significantly different from the relative sizeof present or likely future demand for each of them. Because of this andthe different land-based reserve status of these metals, there is a viewthat the decision to mine the nodules and the level of production will bedetermined by the market prospects for nickel. The extent of noduledevelopment , therefore. will be dictated by the outlook for an increase inworld demand for nickel and the degree of competitiveness between marine-and land-based sources of supply.
¹Resources as distinct from reserves are defined as total knowndeposits regardless of whether or not they can be mined at a profit undercurrent economic conditions. Resource availability is essentially dynamicsince the state of technology will be the crucial factor in determiningwhat is and what is not to count as a resource at any point in time.Reserves are the proportion of identified resources that are economic toextract given current prices and costs. Large fluctuations in costs andprices, especially the latter, which occur over relatively short periods,may lead to large fluctuations in the level of reserves, particularly forthose countries with large marginal deposits.
²The Nickel Industry and the Developing Countries, - UN New York 1980- ST/ESA/100, page 45).
³The Nickel Industry in the Developing Countries - United Nations,New York 1980 - ST/ESA/100, page 45.
4There are a number of uncertainties regarding nodule mining atpresent. Prospects for technological progress in engineering, material anddesign, which would reduce production costs are uncertain. Furthermore,the design of the particular metallurgic process selected - e.g. whetheradditional stages of processing are included in the plant design - coulddetermine whether certain minerals, particularly manganese, could berecovered, thus affecting profitability. Another crucial determinant ofcosts and the quantity of marine nickel output could be the regulations tobe imposed by the International Sealed Authority (ISA) whose creation was
proposed at the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. A numberof countries have so far refused to be bound by certain aspects of theConvention on the Law of the Sea pertaining to the exploitation of sea-bedmineral resources.
MDF/W/21Page 9
9. Global resources of nickel are estimated to be sufficient to supportthe growth in projected demand well past the end of this century. Inaddition, new resources will likely be discovered, especially in thedeveloping countries, where exploration has been less thorough andsystematic than in the developed countries, and some resources currentlyconsidered subeconomic will become viable as a result of technological andmarket developments. Ocean resources are likely to provide a very largeaddition to potential world supply. The exhaustion of resources does nottherefore appear to be a significant possibility for nickel, at least forthe foreseeable future.
Secondary sources of nickel
10. Secondary or scrap sources of nickel form a significant component oftotal nickel supply. A typical nickel scrap flow is shown in Diagram I.Nickel scrap is derived from two sources. The first considered as newscrap is generated in forming and shaping operations in primary processingplants and fabricating plants that use nickel-bearing materials, such asstainless steel and superalloys. New scrap comprises home scrap which isgenerated and recycled within integrated steel mills, foundries and alloyproduction plants as "runaround scrap" without reaching an outside market,and "prompt industrial scrap" which is sold to mills and smelters bymanufactures or scrap brokers. The other source is old scrap which isrecovered from nickel-bearing equipment and consumer goods. This isnormally returned through scrap brokers to steel mills, smelters,refineries and foundries.
11. The largest source of secondary nickel that appears on the market isstainless steel scrap, which is an internationally traded commodity. Thisis almost invariably used to make stainless steel, while nickel alloy scrapis used for nickel alloys and nickel-based super-alloy scrap for superalloys. According to a study by United States Bureau of Mines, thequantity of scrap metal generated in making many nickel alloys is unusuallyhigh compared with that generated in making steel and non-ferrous alloys ofcopper, lead, zinc and silver. In producing and fabricating stainless andalloy steels, product yields average less than 60 per cent. In producingand fabricating high-nickel alloys, product yield is often as low as 20 percent. There is some loss in recycling in-house high nickel alloy scrap.Once the nickel bearing material leaves the primary plant, scrap loss is30 per cent or more owing to inadequate material segregation. Therefractory nature of most high nickel alloys makes processing them to yieldseparate elements both technically difficult and expensive. In the United.States high-nickel alloy scrap is normally not utilized unless itscomposition is known within close limits
Mineral Commodity Profiles - Nickel - Bureau of Mines, United StatesDepartment of the Interior, 1983 - page 10-11.
²Idem, page 11.
MDF/W/21Page 10
Diagram 1
NICKEL SCRAP FLOW DIAGRAM
_____ X~~~~~~~
- - - - - -Jl
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J~~~~
1 -- !1vlItS
_ ___ t__EXPORTS
Source: Mineral Commodity Profi les, 1983(Bureau of Mines - US Dept. of the Interior)
MDF/W/21Page 11
Except for the United States, no data are available about the exactmagnitude of nickel scrap in the industry , since nickel scrap is usuallyincluded without identification in the statistics on refined nickel output.United States data, however suggests that nickel scrap accounts for about25 per cent of output and consumption and the same ratio probably appliesworldwide.
4. Mining and processing
12. Most known oxide deposits occur near the surface and can be mined byopen-pit methods, and consequently labour costs are a small fraction oftotal costs. Sulphide ores, on the other hand, are generally found deeplabour intensive underground and are mined using underground methods andhence are more susceptible to increases in labour costs . On the wholeproduction costs for the two types of deposits are significantly differentand this has been discussed in greater detail in Section II of this study.The exploitation of sulfide ores accounted for as much as 66 per cent ofnickel mined in the world as late as the mid-1960s. The shift towardsgreater exploitation of laterite ores started in the mid-1960's aftertechnological developments permitted the economic development of theseores. Concurrently, the development of the argon-oxygen-decarbonization(AOD) furnaces enabled the use of ferro-nickel in the making of stainlesssteel, thus boosting the exploitation of laterite ores. Another factor wasthe marked rise in the price of nickel in real terms from the mid-1960swhich boosted the profitability of nickel mining. At present about 55 percent of nickel production is from laterites.
13. The metallurgical process for extraction of nickel is fairly complexand costly. The different types of nickel ores require differentproduction techniques, however, the processing chain could generally beconsidered to consist of the stages described below.
Sulfide ores
14. The nickel-bearing ores are first ground and carried through a seriesof flotation and magnetic separation processes. In the operations of INCOLimited, three distinct concentrates are isolated for separate processing:(a) nickel-bearing iron sulfide, (b) copper-bearing nickel sulfide and(c) copper sulfide.
¹A study by the United Nations indicates that on the average homescrap represents 30-40 per cent of the feed of mills and foundries. Promptindustrial and old scrap could account for an additional 20-30 per cent.Primary nickel therefore represents less than half of the nickel feed forsteel and alloy producers. (United Nations Department of TechnicalCo-operation and Development - "The Nickel Industry and the DevelopingCountries - United Nations, New York 1980).
Since 1980 INCO LTD has been adopting the vertical block mining (VBM)technique in its underground mining operations. This is considered moreefficient and less labour intensive than the existing method (mainlycut-and-fill-stopping) - (Mineral Commodity Profile 1983 - Nickel - UnitedStates Department of Interior Bureau of Mines).
MDF/W/21Page 12
15. The nickel-bearing iron sulfide is desulphurized in a fluid-bedroaster, reduced with carbon monoxide and hydrogen and then leached withammonia-carbon dioxide solution to remove the nickel. The nickel isrecovered as a basic carbonate. Sulphuric acid is also produced.
16. The copper-bearing nickel sulfide is partially desulphurized inmultiple-hearth roasters, melted and cooled under specially controlledconditions which allow subsequent magnetic and flotation separation intothree concentrates, i.e. nickel sulphide, copper sulfide and preciousmetals. The nickel sulfide is sintered for direct sale to the alloymarkets, and for further refining, both electrolytically and by thecarbonyl process.
17. Nickel-bearing sulfide ores are also treated by the Hybinette processwhich involves selective leaching of the copper with sulphuric acid from anickel-copper matte derived from a flotation concentrate. The crudeproducts are refined by a combination of electrolytic and concentrationtechniques.
18. Nickel sulfide concentrating plants to recover about 90 per cent ofthe nickel in the ore feed. Smelter recovery is estimated at 95 per centof the contained metal.
Laterite ores
19. Laterite (oxide) ores comprise two main types, the silicate type andthe limonite type which are also known as nickel-ferrous iron laterites andin which iron oxide minerals are prominent. Unlike sulfide ores, noeffective means have been found to concentrate laterite ores in the earlystages of processing and they must be treated directly using eitherpyromellurgical (smelting) or hydrometallurgical (leaching) processes.
20. The silicate ores of New Caledonia are partially treated by a mattesmelting process. The ore is fused with calcium carbonate, calciumsulphate and coke to yield nickel-iron sulfide concentrate or matte whichis further refined by smelting to eliminate the iron in silicon slag, andyield ultimately fairly pure nickel metal. Silicate ores can also betreated by electric smelting to yield ferro-nickel which can be solddirectly to the steel industry.
21. Laterite limonite ores can be reduced in multiple-hearth furnaces andthen selectively leached with ammonia-carbon dioxide solutions. Theammonia is recovered efficiently for re-use by steaming the solution whichresults from leaching, while the nickel is simultaneously precipitated asthe basic carbonate. The latter is calcinated to nickel oxide for directsale, or for further processing to nickel-oxide sinter or ingot nickel.Nickel can also be extracted from laterite ores by direct leaching withsulphuric acid solution at elevated pressure and temperature. A sulfideprecipitate produced from the leach solution can be chemically refined forthe production of metallic nickel. Plants that process laterites torecover nickel in ferro-nickel normally do recover 90 to 98 per cent of themetal contained in the ore. Limonitic ores yield cobalt as by-product andthis contributes to the economic justification for their exploitation.
MDF/W/21Page 13
5. Nickel products, industries uses and substitutes
22. The commercial forms of primary nickel fall into two main classes.Class I products are essentially pure, with a nickel content between 99 percent and 100 per cent, and can generally be used without constraints formany applications. True Class I products include electrolytic cathodes(99.9 per cent nickel) and carbonyl pellets (99.97 per cent nickel);briquets, rondels and nickel 98 are also accepted as Class I products,although their use is slightly restricted. Class II products have amoderate range of residual elements; the nickel content ranges widely from20 per cent to 96 per cent. They are usually suitable for specific limitedapplications. Class II products include various grades of ferro-nickel(40-50 per cent nickel in the United States, but 20-38 per cent outside theUnited States) and nickel oxide sinter (either 76 per cent or 90 per cent).A new product, incomet (94-96 per cent nickel, introduced in 1974, isreplaces oxide sinter in certain markets. Nickel salts, also includedunder Class II products contain 20-25 per cent nickel. Table 2 shows theclassification of the major commercial forms of primary nickel and theirmain uses.
23. Apart from the main products mentioned above, considerable quantitiesof by-products are recovered in the processing of nickel ores: about52 per cent of world production of platinum metals, 30 per cent of cobaltmine production and 4 per cent of world copper output.1 Sulfide ores suchas those found in Canada and the USSR are rich in these metals, whilelaterite ores contain a substantial percentage of iron.
24 The proportion of nickel consumed as Class I or Class II productsdiffers widely among intermediate uses and various markets. At present,slightly over half the nickel output is consumed in "pure" form - Class I.Ferro-nickel and nickel oxide sinter, both Class II, account for about 33per cent and 13 per cent respectively of total world nickel consumption.
25. For the future, it is expected that the growth in demand for Class Iand Class II nickel will be approximately in the same proportion ascurrently prevails. Ferro-nickel is the major component of Class II nickeland, while its share of the market grew rapidly in the 1960s as the resultof the introduction of the argon-oxygen decarbonization (AOD) steel-makingprocess, this growth rate slowed in the 1970s. For the latter half of the1980s and the 1990s, it is expected that, while ferro-nickel productionwill increase, its growth will not be significantly different from refinednickel. Much of the future increment of nickel production in marketeconomies will likely come from least-developed countries where most of theundeveloped nickel resources have been identified.
26. The consumption of nickel by major end use category is illustrated inChart I. It shows that in 1983 approximately 50 per cent of primary nickelconsumption was accounted for by the production of stainless steel, a
¹Dusseldorf Handelsblatt of 14 August 1978 - as quoted in Non-FerrousMetals - Their role in industrial development - by Lotte Miller-Ohlsen,p.16 - published by Woodhead-Faulkner in association withMetallgesellschaft AG.
MDF/W/21Page 14
Table 2
Commercial Forms of Primary Nickel
Class I
Cathode
Pellets
Powder
Briquets,
Rondels
Class II
Ferronickel
Matte
Oxide sinter
Incomet
Nickel salts1Nickel chlorideNickel nitrateNickel sulfate
Composition(percentage)
Nickel Iron Oxygen Main use
99.9
99.97
99.74
99.9
99.25
20-55
50-75
75-90
49-96
24.7020.1920.90
0.002
0.0015
0.01
0.02
0.087
Balance
0.3
0.15
0.04
Balance
Nickel alloys andelectro-plating
Nickel alloys
Chemical industry,powder metallurgy
Nickel-cadmiumbatteries
Nickel-alloys
Ferrous nickel alloys,stainless steel
Steel-making
Steel making
)Chemical industry
4 _____________________
¹Theoretical nickel content
Source: Nickel Handbook - World Bank 1981: Nickel Industry andthe Developing Countries U.N. New York 1980.
MDF/W/21Page 15
Chart I
1983 NICKEL CONSUMPTIONBY FIRST USE
Supplied by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada.Source:
MDF/W/21Page 16
further 10 per cent was consumed in the production of high alloy steels,20 per cent in non-ferrous alloys, 8 per cent in plating, a further 8 percent in steel foundry products with the remaining 4% going to other usesincluding chemical uses. Table 3 on the other hand, shows the evolution inthe various categories of end use between 1960 and 1983. It shows,inter alia, that the only categories which have increased their share ofconsumption over the period have been the stainless and heat resistantsteels and non-ferrous alloys. These two categories have also had thefastest annual growth rates. Although the percentage share of stainlesssteel had gone up between 1979 and 1983, there was a substantial fall interms of volume. The slowest growth and the biggest declines in usage havebeen in electro-plating and chemical uses. There was also a fall in thealloyed steels sector after experiencing a relatively fast growth between1960 and 1979.
Stainless steel
27. The share of stainless and heat resistant steel in the totalconsumption of nickel has grown from 33 per cent in 1960 to over 46 percent in 1979 and about 50 per cent in 1983. A number of factors accountfor the rapid growth of nickel use in stainless, particularly the adoptionof argon oxygen decarbonization (AOD) have facilitated the use in steelmaking of both inferior quality scrap and nickel products with lower nickelcontent, particularly ferro-nickel. Besides cost advantage, the greateravailability of ferro-nickel since the latter part of the 1960's hascontributed to the growth of nickel use in making stainless.
28. A second factor in the rise of nickel use in stainless steel is thefavourable welding characteristics and anti-corrosive quality ofnickel-bearing stainless steel (mainly the 300-series), compared withchromium-bearing ones (mainly the 200-series). In particular,nickel-stainless is preferred for piping for the chemical and petrochemicalindustries, for automobile making and in a number of cryogenic applications(i.e. applications requiring very low temperatures). Potential for futureexpansion in nickel-bearing stainless lies in the field of nuclear energyand in the transport and storage of natural gas.
Electroplating
29. Nickel electroplating accounted for about 14 per cent of total nickelconsumption in 1975, Il per cent in 1979 and about 8 per cent in 1983.Nickel is used in electroplating for decorative purposes and as aprotection of the base metal against atmospheric corrosion. A major use ofelectroplating is in the automobile industry where nickel is applied tobumpers. For electroplating purposes cobalt can serve as a substitute forup to 50 per cent of the nickel content, however, if cobalt is highlypriced it will not allow any widespread substitution of cobalt for nickel.The use of plating, in a number of applications in most durable and cheaperstainless steel categories, is expected to decrease while aluminium andplastics in particular are likely to increase, depending on relative futureprices.
In addition, but to a lesser extent, the electroslag and vacuumprocesses for remelting along with the Witten-process, have permitted theuse of furnace charges containing many more impurities than could betolerated previously.
Table
3
Nickel
-Wo
rld
Consumption
byUs
esin
Mark
etEc
onom
yCo
untr
ies
('00
0Tons)
Page 1
7
MDF/W/
21Source:
Joseph
Hilmy,
"Changing
Patt
ern
ofNickel
Consumption:
AGlobal
View
",Wo
rld
Bank
,Ec
onom
icAnalysis
and
Proj
ections
Department,
1981,
Draf
t.Wo
rld
Bank
Pric
ePr
ospe
cts
forMajor
Primary
Comm
odit
ies
Vol.
IVMetals
and
Mine
rals
(1982).
Grow
thRate
Per
Annum
Use
1960
1970
1975
1979
1983
1960-83
Stainless
and
heat
72
33
184
41
243
44
276
46
245
50
5.5
resistant
steel
Elec
trop
lati
ng33
1559
1378
1467
il39
80.
7
Non-ferrous
alloys
4219
7717
8816
100
1798
203.
7
Alloyed
steels
2813
50il
61il
67il
4910
2.5
Iron
and
stee
lcastings
2612
419
397
336
398
1.8
Othe
rus
es18
841
945
852
920
4-0.5
Total
219
100
452
100
554
100
595
100
490
100
3.6
MDF/W/21Page 18
Alloyed steels'
30. Nickel use for the production of alloyed steels accounted for about11 per cent of total nickel consumption in the 1970s and for about 10 per centin 1983. Nickel is an essential alloying element in the production ofalloy steels for structured applications because it increases hardness andstrength properties over a wide service temperature range. Typical uses ofalloy steels include crankshafts, axels, gears, shafts, frames, and otherparts of cars, trucks, cranes, and earth moving equipment, machine toolparts and frames, aircraft landing gear components, missile parts, and rockdrill parts.
Iron and steel castings
31. About 8 per cent of total nickel consumption is accounted for by theiron and steel casting industry. Nickel is added up to 5 per cent of totalcontent to impart toughness, machineability, and corrosion and wearresistance. The end product is used in the manufacture of engine blocksand parts for the automotive and heavy equipment industries and steel millrollers. The growth of this use decelerated in the past and in the 1970s adecline in absolute volume was experienced. Part of the decline has beenimputed to the decrease in the size of automobile engines in response tothe energy crisis. This decline has however boosted another nickel-bearingsector, that of alloys with higher chromium content, which provide betterresistance to corrosion. The slow growth in nickel use in castings hasthus been accompanied by an increasing use of nickel in the more advancedcategory of nickel super alloys.
Super alloys and other non-ferrous alloys
32. Nickel is an essential element in a number of super-alloys,nickelicopper alloys, copper-nickel alloys and other nickel alloys. Thesealloys account for about 20 per cent of total nickel consumption. Super
¹Steel may be divided into three categories: carbon, stainless andalloyed. The first contains .04 to .70 per cent carbon as well asmagnanese and minor additions of various alloying elements. Stainless isan alloyed steel that must have chromium among its constituent elements sothat the stainless quality may be developed. Alloyed steels (as used inthis study are those to which alloying elements - other than carbon andmanganese, and excluding stainless steels - are added to develop specificproperties. These alloying elements may include one or more of nickel(which makes a category of alloyed steel that is not "stainless"),molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, titanium and aluminium.
²"Super alloy" is a name used after world war II to describe a groupof alloys developed for use in high-temperature application inturbo-chargers and gas turbine engines. These alloys possess relativelyhigh tensile and creep strength under high temperature service environment,such as that normally prevailing in jet engines. A typical super-alloy hasthe following chemical composition: 19.5 per cent chromium; 13.5 per centcobalt; 4.3 per cent molybdenum; 1.3 per cent aluminium; 10 per centcarbon; 3 per cent titanium; 2 per cent iron; 0.001-0.10 per cent boron;and the balance nickel (Kiel Working Paper No 160 - op. cit. p.14)
MDF/W/21Page 19
alloys are used particularly in the civil and military aerospaceindustries, the manufacture of furnace elements and parts, nuclear powergeneration, and in a number of applications in the chemical andpetrochemical industries. Nickel-copper alloys comprise alloys of nickeland copper containing more than 50 per cent nickel. One of the best knownMonel 400 group of alloys have wide applications in food preparation andhandling equipment, and for interior trim. Cupro-nickel alloys which havecopper as the major constituent account for a further 3 per cent of totalnickel consumption and are used mainly in piping, tubing, pumps, and valvesfor marine service because of their excellenceResistance to corrosion anderosion under exposure to marine environment. They face strong competitionfrom titanium alloys. Nickel-molybdenum and certain other nickel alloysare mainly used in pumps, valves, pipe fittings, shafts and other processequipment used in the chemical and petroleum industries.
Other uses
33. Nickel is also used in alnico (aluminium-nickel-cobalt) alloys and inthe manufacture of magnets for loudspeakers, magnets and small generators,nickel-cadmium batteries etc. Nickel metal and salts are used as catalystsfor synthesizing gas, fuel oil and other chemicals. Nickel oxides are usedas an undercoating to promote the adherence of porcelain finishes to steeland cast iron products such as household appliances. Nickel metal is alsowidely used in coinage.
Substitutes
34. One of the major factors in the metals industry which help todetermine the level of overall consumption is the availability ofsubstitutes and nickel does not escape this phenomenon. Substitutionnormally takes place when nickel is in short supply over extended periodscharacterized also by high prices. Alternate materials are available totake the race of nickel in most of its uses, except super alloys inaerospace applications. However, with few exceptions, using alternatematerials might entail increased cost or some sacrifice in physical orchemical characteristics and hence would affect the quality of the product.In aerospace applications, considerable time and money must be spent forqualifying tests for specific aerospace usage.
35. The mosL likely areas in which other materials could be substitutedfor nickel are those in which nickel-bearing material is used for itscorrosion resistance, high-strength, or special magnetic and electronicproperties. For example, carbon steel clad with titanium could performsatisfactorily in many applications now filled by stainless steel andhigh-nickel alloys. Some plastics may have corrosion resistance comparableto nickel-bearing corrosion resistant materials under certain serviceconditions, but do not possess similar physical properties. While plasticor other coatings on steels are comparatively inexpensive, a high risk ofdamage in service limits their selection to less critical applications.Paint, enamel, or aluminium can be used in place of nickel-chromium indecorative trim. Cobalt may be used instead of nickel in electroplatingapplications. Several combinations of metals and non-metals are acceptablefor use in storage batteries in addition to, or as a substitute for,nickel-iron and nickel-cadmium combinations depending on servicerequirements. Some of these nickel substitutions were commonplace in1967-69, when nickel was in short supply, but were not always completelysatisfactory.
MDF/W/21Page 20
36. While each application must be usually considered on its own meritsand many criteria are taken into account in considering alternativematerials as potential substitutes for nickel, the following list providesa general indication of the range of substitution possible: aluminium,coated steel and plastics in the construction and transportationindustries; nickel-free speciality steels in the power-generating,petro-chemical and petroleum industries; titanium and plastics in serviceapplications; and platinum, cobalt copper in some catalytic uses.Stainless steel containing chromium, manganese, and relatively littlenickel can be used in place of the conventional 300 series steels for someapplications. Columbium, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium can replacenickel in some alloy steels, and cobalt-, chromium-, and columbium-basealloys can be used in place of some nickel-base super-alloys. Manganese,molybdenum, and copper can be used in place of nickel in some types of ironcastings, and the modified stainless steels described above can also beused in some cast forms.
6. Structure of the world nickel industry
37. The world nickel industry has undergone considerable changes in thegeographical pattern of production and trade in the past three decades. Inthe early 1950s, Canada alone produced over 66 per cent of the totalprimary nickel production with most of the rest being accounted for by theUSSR (about 20 per cent), New Caledonia (about 6 per cent) South Africa andCuba (about 4 per cent). Since then, various other countries have becomeproducers and some expanded their original small capacities considerably.Greece, Finland and Australia entered the production scene in the 1960's,and Albania, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, China, Indonesia, thePhilippines, Botswana and Guatemala during the 1970's. Since 1982Colombia and Yugoslavia have become producers. There are at presenttwenty-six producing countries and other countries with long-term mineproduction prospects include Burundi, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Zaire,Tanzania and Saudi Arabia. At the same time, production capacity has beenexpanded in various countries particularly in New Caledonia, Australia,Cuba the USSR and South Africa. The result of these developments is adecline of the Canadian share of world mine production to about 25 per centin 1983 and a much lower degree of concentration in the primary productionof nickel. The geographical pattern of smelter and refined production(ferro-nickel, oxide sinter, briquettes, powder, etc.) is less concentratedthan mine production, since part of the Canadian, New Caledonian,Indonesian, Australian and other mine production is exported to WesternEurope, the United States and Japan for refining.
38. In the past, corporate ownership of production in the nickel industrywas one of the most concentrated in the world metal economy . In 1950 there
¹In 1978 four leading companies in the market economy countriesaccounted for 64 per cent of the world nickel mining capacity and 60.4 percent of processing capacity. Comparative concentration ratios for othermajor metals were the following: alumina refining 51.5; Bauxite mining48.6; aluminium smelting 43.3; copper mining 37.6; iron ore mining 37.3;copper smelting 34.0; lead refining 27.7; copper refining 27.4; zincreduction 27.2; steel mining 21.2.
Source: Nickel Industry and the Developing Countries. United Nations, NewYork 1980-ST/ESA/100)
MDF/W/21Page 21
were three producers in two countries (i.e. International Nickel Company(INCO) and Falconbridge in Canada, and Societe Metallurgique le Nickel(SLN) in New Caledonia) accounting for practically all production in themarket economies with INCO alone controlling about 85 per cent of the totalworld output. Market developments in the mid-1950s and technologicalbreakthrough in the 1960s which led to greater development of lateritedeposits around the world resulted in the gradual decline in the dominanceof INCO so that by 1982 it controlled only 22.0 per cent of world mineproduction and 26.5 per cent of world metal production. In 1982 there wereforty- our producers in twenty-six countinue some of which are stateowned. Table 4 shows the corporate shares of nickel production in themarket economy countries while Table 5 shows the country distribution ofproducing companies.
39. The three companies mentioned above, INCO, Societe Metallurgique leNickel (SLN) and Falconbridge Limited accounted for about 35 per cent ofworld mine output and about 42 per cent of metal production in 1982. INCOcurrently operates of mines, ore concentrators, smelters and refineries inCanada, a refinery at Clydach in Wales (Great Britain), a mine and smelterin Indonesia and an integrated rolling mill at Huntington in Virginia(USA). Falconbridge (7.3 per cent of world metal production in 1982)operates mines and smelters in Canada and the Dominican Republic. Thesmelted matte from Falconbridge in Canada is shipped to the firm's refineryat Kristiansand, Norway, where cathode nickel, nickel plating anodes, andnickel sulfate are prod ced along with other associated metals. SocieteMetallurgique le Nickel (8.2 per cent of world metal production) operatesa number of mines and a smelter in New Caledonia as well as a refinery atSandouville in France. It also exports a substantial part of itsproduction of ore to Japan. About forty-one other companies account forthe remaining world nickel production in the market economies and theirshare of the market is likely to expand in the future. Western Mining ofAustralia, the NONOC Mining and Industrial Corporation of the Philippines,and the Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd., of Japan, and AMAX (NickelDivision) of the United States are the major companies among these.Western Mining Corporation Ltd., of Australia is the largest among thenewcomers. It started its operations in the late 1960s and has expandedrapidly to obtain about 4.8 per cent of world output in 1982. The AMAXNickel Division of AMAX Inc., which began production of nickel late in 1974from imported nickel-copper matte accounted for 4.6 per cent of world metalproduction in 1982.
40. Of the total nickel produced from centrally-planned economies theSoviet Union account for about 80 per cent mainly from its Norilsk mines.
¹It is estimated that Government ownership accounts for about 40 percent of current world production capacity. Besides the centrally-plannedeconomies and China, other countries where the governments own majorityinterests either directly or indirection in finished nickel producingcompanies are Cuba, Finland, Greece, Indonesia, New Caledonia, thePhilippines and Yugoslavia. Countries where the government owns less than50 per cent equity interest are Colombia and the Dominican Republic.
²ERAP, the French state-owned energy group bought 70 per cent of SLNin May 1983. Former owners of SLN, Imetal and Elf Aquitaine reduced theirshares to 15 per cent each.
Table 4
Corporate Shares of World Nickel Production 1982
Corporation Share of mine production S Share of netal production zProducer (ownership per cent) Producer (ownership per cent)
Inco
Falconbridge
ERAP¹
AAC²
Western Mlning
Marinduque
Amax
Free Port McMoRan
Metals Exploration
Aneka Tambang
BP
Hanna
Larco
Gencor
Outokumpu
Rio Tinto-Zinc
Sumitomo.
Nippon Mining
Total
TotalInco(100) CanadaPT Inco Indonesia(97) Indonesia
TotalFalcombridge(100) CanadaFalc.Dominicana(66) Dom.Rep.
Societe Le Nickel(70) N.Caledonia
TotalBCL (30) 5Rustenburg (57)
Western Mining (100)
Marinduque (100)
BCL3 (30)
Queensland Nickel(50)
Queensland Nickel(50)
Aneka Tambang(100)
Agnew6 (60)
Hanna (100)
Larco (100)
Impala Platinum(49.6)
Outokumpu (100)
BotswanaS.Africa
Australia
Philippines
Botswana
Australia
Australia
Indonesia
Australia
US
Greece
S.Africa
Finland
Rio Tinto Zimbabwe(58)Zimbabwe
22.0
2.8
6.94.32.6
6.1
5.02.82.2
4.8
3.1
2.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.6
62.9
TotalInco (100)Inco (100)
TotalFalconbridge(100)Falc.Dominicana(66)
TotalSociete Le Nickel(70)Societe Le Nickel(70)
Total 4Sherrit Gosdon (40)Rustenburg (57)
Western Mining (100)
Marinduque (100)
Amax (100)
Queensland Nickel(50)
Queensland Nickel(50)
Aneka Tambang(100)
Hanna (100)
Larco (100)
Impala Platinum(49.6)
Outokumpu (100)
Rio Tinto Zimbabwe(58)
Sumitomo (100)
Nippon Mining (100)
CanadaUK
NorwayDom.Rep.
N.CaledoniaFrance
CanadaS.Africa
Australia
Philippines
US
Australia
Australia
Indonesia
US
Greece
S.Africa
Finland
Zimbabwe
Japan
Japan
26.522.73.8
7.34.82.5
8.25.62.6
3.72.11.6
4.8
3.0
4.6
1.3
0.7
1.2
0.9
1.7
0.4
4.7
1.8
73.9
¹ERAP, the French State-owned energy group bought 70 per cent of SLN in May 1983. Former owners of SLN,Imetal and Elf Aquitaine, reduced their shares to 15 per cent each.
²AAC group. The head of the group is Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa. Other importantmembers of the group are MINORCO (Minerals and Resources Corporation, based in Bermuda) and De Beers.
³Bamangwato Concessions Ltd. BCL is 85 per cent owned by Botswana RST. in which AAC and Amax have a30 per cent stake each.
4AMC group (through MINORCO) owns 29 per cent of the British-based investment corporation ConsolidatedGold Fields, which owns 25 per cent of the US-based investment corporation Newmont Mining, which in turnowns 40 per cent of Sherrit Gordon.
5AAC directly owns 24 per cent of Rustenburg. AAC group bas another 33 per cent stake in Rustenburgthrough 40 per cent owned Johannesburg Consolidated Investment.
6BP owns the British-based investment corporation Selection Trust, which owns 60 per cent of Agnev.The balance is held by the US Copper Corporation ASARCO.
Source: Roskill's Metal Data Book 1983; Annuaire Statistique Minimet (edition 1982), Mining AnnualReview 1982; Corporate annual reports.
MDF/W/21Page 22
Tabl
e5
NICK
EL
Prin
cipa
lworidni
ckel
producers
Coun
try
.Company
Nick
elpr
oduc
ts-_
1- -
Botwana
Cuba
Fran
ceGreece
._
..
_
NewCaledonia
_Norway
Phil
ippi
nes
Sout
hAfri
ca,Re
publ
icof..
.
U.S.S.R
Unit
edKi
ngdo
m.UnitedSt
ates
West
ernMining
Corp
.Ltd
Cueensiand
Nickel
Pty
.....
.............
..
Western
SoicastPty
Ltd.
...........................
....
_...
..
MLIs
aMi
nes
Ltd.
......
......
.Bo
tswa
naR.nhla
o.S.T
....
....
....
....
..-.;
Morr
odo
NiquelZ
......
......
......
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
...
Comp
anhl
aToc
antins
......
......
......
......
...................
Codemin..
....
;.
"...
.......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
....
....
...
INCO
,Ltd.........
......
.....
.......................
Falc
onbr
idge
,Lt
d...
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
...
Sherritt
Gordon
MinesL
td..
....
....
....
....
..Ec
oniq
uel.
...........
.............
.....................
Cubaniquel
(Sta
teowned)
..............................................................
Falconbridge
Dominicana
C.Po
rA..
....
....
....
....
....
......
....
Outo
kump
uOy
(Sta
teown
ed....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.SociétéMet
allurg
iquel
e Nickel (
SLN)
......
......
......
......
......
......
...LA
RCO
Soci
étéM
inlè
reet
Meta
llur
gtqu
ede
Larymn
aS
.............:..........
Exploracionesy
Expl
otac
ione
sMinéras
Izab
el(INCO.Wd.).
.........
P.T.
InternationalN
ickelI
ndonosla
(INCO,
Ltd.).
......
......
......
......
......
P.T.
Anek
aTambang
..........................
Sumi
tomo
Metal
Mini
ng.C
o.,L
td...
......
....
Nippon
YakunKogyoCo
.,Lt
d........
Nippon
Mini
ngCo
.Ltd.
...............
Paci
fio M
etal
sCo.,Lt
d...
....
....
..Ni
ppon
Nickel
Co....
......
....
...TokyoNi
ckel
Co..
....
....
....
....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.SociétéM
etallurgique
leNi
ckel
(SLN).
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..Fal
conbdd
geNlkkeiverk
AS....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...MainduqueMl
nIng
Coip..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...Ru
sten
burg
Plat
inum
Mines,Ltd..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
Impala
Ptat
inum
Mines,
Ltd
..........
....
...;
Matt
eSme
lter
sPty
.,W.
.......
...
...
....
Stateowned
...
INC
,Ltd.
.....
.................
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
Hann
aMining
Co....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....
AMAX
Nick
elDM
son,AM
AXInc
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....
Stateo
wned
......
......
......
Nickel
andma
te.
Nickel
oxid
eand
mixe
dni
ckel
-cob
alt
sulfides
Nickel
matt
e.Nickel
matt
eNi
ckkc
oppe
r-co
balt
matt
e.Ferronickel.
Nickel
méta
lan
dni
ckel
carbonate.
Ferr
onic
kel
Nickel
oxid
esi
nter
,sol
uble
nick
elox
ide,
nickel
metal (
cathodea
ndpellets),u
tility
shotan
dpig
.Ni
ckel
-cop
perm
atte
.Nickel
meta
l.Ferronickel.
Nickel
oxidean
dsul
fide.
Ferronickel.
Nickel
meta
l.Nickel
métal,
oxide,
salts,
Ferr
onic
kel.
Nickel
matte.
Nick
elma
tte.
Fern
onic
kel.
Nick
elmet
al,fer
ronick
el,ni
ckel
chemicals.
Ferr
onic
kel.
Ferronickela
ndnickel
meta
l.Nickel
oxideandfe
rron
icke
l.Nickel
oxide.
Nickel
oxid
e.Fefronic
kel
shota
ndma
tte
Nick
elmetal.
Nick
elbr
ique
ts,p
owder,
nickel
-cobal
tsulfides.
Nick
elmé
tal.
Nick
elmetal.
Nick
elma
tte.
Nick
elme
tala
ndmatte
Nickel
meta
land
nick
el-c
obal
tsalt
sFerronickel.
Nickel
briquets
andpo
wder
.Ferronickel.
Sour
ce:
USbu
reau
ofMinies
Page3
3MDF
/W/21ç n -..
w'à
w
MDF/W/21Page 24
7. Pricing in the nickel industry
41. Until recently structure of prices in the nickel trade comprised threemain elements, the producer price set by the major producers and followedby most other producers, the free market price, and the London MetalExchange price quotations for nickel which have been practised since 1979.
42. The producer posted price at which most of the trade in nickel wastransacted until recently, was the result of the oligopolistic situationprevailing in the nickel industry in the 1950s and 1960s when the threemajor producers INCO, SLN and Falconbridge controlled the major part oftotal world production. The three acted as price-setters with their postedprices closely aligned, but in fact it was INCO which set and publishedprices. INCO's price was quoted f.o.b. refinery, Port Colborne, Ontario,or Thompson, Manitoba. Falconbridge quoted the same price f.o.b. Tharold,Ontario. The price of SLN, a major part of whose output is sent from NewCaledonia to France was quoted c.i.f. at a French port, based on the PortColborne price. The prices were quoted in US dollars and until 1965 theyincluded the United States tariff.
43. The other producers, the price-takers, have followed the producerprice thus set. However, many of them especially the newcomers have tendedto practise discounting in order to win a bigger share of the market.While producer prices are still posted, currently less than 2 per cent ofnickel sales are at these prices. Some high quality nickel is sold atthese prices in specialized markets, such as certain carbonyl powders fornickel cadmium batteries. In response to depressed market conditions in1982, producers were forced to basically abandon the producer pricingsystem and sell on the basis of LME or merchant prices, as is in the caseof most other metals.
44. In addition to marketing on the basis of the producer price, there hasbeen a smaller but growing open market for the sale of secondary nickel(scrap), as well as primary nickel. The latter has been fed partly by theUSSR and other centrally-planned countries until the nickel trading at theLondon Metal Exchange started in 1979, partly by independent producers inthe market economies, and partly by merchants or consumers who resell themetal they receive from the major companies. This is not an organizedmarket but price quotations attributed to it have been published in theMetal Bulletin since 1966.
¹The INCO price for electrolytic cathodes (99.7 per cent nickel)f.o.b. shipping has been selected as the benchmark prices. Prices of theremaining categories of nickel were usually established according to stapledifferentials. Since 1972, the prices of ferro-nickel, incomet and sinterhave been lower than the price of nickel cathode by about 6 per cent,10 per cent and 15 per cent respectively.
²The prices in this market are known to fluctuate heavily. In someyears when primary nickel supply has been extremely tight, the demand foropen market nickel and for pure nickel scrap has been very strong and saleshave invariably commanded a large premium over the producer price.
MDF/W/21Page 25
45. The third element in the price structure of the nickel market issupplied by the price quotations of the London Metal Exchange on whichforward nickel trading was introduced in April 1979 followed in July of thesame year by spot trading. The volume of nickel trading on the LME hasbeen relatively small but has been growing rapidly. Moreover, it handlesmuch of the nickel exported by the Soviet Union. The LME is not only amarket where metal is physically sold and bought, it is important as ahedging market and a clearing market for the production of marginalproducers. As an open market where the metal is freely traded its mostimportant function is that of a price settel,whose price quotations,reflecting fundamental market conditions but sometimes also ephemeralexternal influences have, since 1982, served as the basis for salescontracts concluded directly between producers and customers.
Price determination
46. Basically the producer price is expected to reflect the cost ofproduction, with adjustment for inflation, as well as the demand and supplysituation for primary nickel on the market and the level of stocks. Themost important direct cost factors are the cost of materials, energy,labour, freight and overheads. In this regard there are basic differencesdepending on the nature of the ore being mined and processed. Table 6gives estimated costs of nickel production in different mining operations.Chart II, on the other hand shows the levels of cash operating costs ofthirteen mining companies in ten different countries.
47. While nickel production from sulfides is labour-intensive that fromlaterite is relatively energy intensive. About two-thirds of the requiredenergy is used at the mining and primary processing stage. For laterites,energy is estimated to account for between 40 to 60 per cent of totaloperating costs. The lower ratio tends to apply where hydro-electric poweris the main source of energy (e.g. in some operations in New Caledonia,
¹The LME prices are established at the end of each daily tradingsession of the LME, indicating a spot price and a three month futuresprice. These prices are subject to wide fluctuations from a number offactors directly influencing the market such as production short-falls orover-production on the supply side and up-swings or down-turns in economicactivity in the consumer countries on the demand side. At the same time,developments unrelated to the industry as such, such as interest rate orexchange rate movements, may also lead to fluctuations in prices.
2For example energy costs per pound of nickel in 1974 were estimated
to be 10 cents (US) for Canadian sulfide ores, while the correspondingfigures for laterite ores were between 41 to 56 cents per pound. For moredetail see Hilmy (1979) p.53.
Tabl
e6
Esti
mate
dcosts
ofnickel
production
in19
75,
(Current
doll
ars
perpo
undof
nick
el)
Page6
MDF/W/21
befo
retax
0sN-
Falc
onbr
idge
-Falconbridge-
Soci
été
Japa
nese
Costa
INCO
Sudbury
Domi
nica
naLe
Nick
elproducers
Dire
ctconte
Labo
ur0.
460.50
0.22
0.53
0.26
Energy
o.o6
0.07
0.60
0.59
0.58
Ore
_-
-0.67
Frei
ght,
etc.
_0.24
0.07
0.10
0.21
Other
0.47
0.75
0.35
0.26
0.17
Total
direct
coste
0.99
1.56
1.22
1.14
81.89
Overhead
costs
Sellingandad
mini
stra
tion
0.14
.0.11
0.05
0.08
0.08
Depr
ecia
tion
0.10
0.17
0.15
0.34
0.19
Inte
rest
0.05
0.02
0.27
0.18
0.25
Othe
r0.
040.27
0.05
0.07
0.08
Tota
lov
erhe
adco
sts
0.33
0.57
0.52
0.67
0.60
TOTAL
1.32
2.13
1.74
2.15
2.49
Source:
Commodities
Research
Unit
,Ltd.
COSTINDEX
Souce:
a,)c"
c,a
ot
oo
oo
oO
oo
oo
o
INCO-T
HOMP
SON
O_.(
INCO-SUDBURY
~~~CD
WESTERN
MINING
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~
>FALCONBRIDGE-SUDBURY
QCERROMATOSO
'm
m>
FALCONBRIDGE
DOMINICANA
SLN
(ferro
nickel
only
)H
O
GREE
NVAL
EMARINDUQUE
zPT
INCO
u
|~~~
~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~AMA
X~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~|~
~~~~~F
ENI1
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~LA
RCO
~
MDF/W/21
Page73u
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~(a_
_
MDF/W/21Page 28
Indonesia and Brazil) while the higher ration applies where oil is used'(e.g. Dominican Republic). Until 1973, the operating cost of nickel fromlaterites was about 40 per cent more expensive than that from sulfides.The cost differential widened in the late 1970s due to the increase in theprice of petroleum, but has narrowed somewhat more recently with the fallin the real price of oils. The remaining part of the total operating costis generally divided between labour, materials and overhead in the ratio of2.5:1:1 respectively for production of nickel from su fide ores and 1:1.5:1respectively for obtaining nickel from laterite ores. In addition tooperating costs, capital requirements to produce a ton of nickel fromlaterites are generally about 70-80 per cent higher than those forproducing nickel from sulfides. On the whole it is estimated that the costof mining and processing laterite ores is roughly about 130-140 per centof producing nickel from sulfide sources.
48. Other than the cost elements discussed above the main short-termfactors which had greatly influenced prices have been the level of stockswhich are in turn influenced by the level of interest rates; labourproblems, especially strikes; and more importantly the oligopolisticstructure of the industry which had meant one major producer eventuallyacting as the price setter.
49. The producer prices should theoretically reflect market conditions andforces. In reality the three major producers acting as price setters havepreferred to practice a policy of price stability. This has implied thatprices were first set and then production planned according to the currentand expected market conditions. However, when expectations were provedwrong the price was usually maintained rather than letting it respond tothe market situation, thus placing the burden of market equilibrium on thesupply side. Consequently the industry has tended to experience periods ofshortage and over-production leading to production cut-backs, stockaccumulation and de-accumulation. Such imbalances, alongside with otherfactors did influence price and production plans of the next period.
¹Energy cost increases have a significant effect on the cost ofnickel. Estimates indicate that for every US$1 increase in the price of abarrel of crude oil, there is a corresponding cost increase of 5 cents perpound of nickel produced. Increased fuel oil prices affect the cost ofproducing nickel from laterites more than they affect the cost of producingit from sulfides. This occurs principally because fuel oil is used to drywet lateritic ores, which contain about 25 per cent moisture, and togenerate electrical energy used to smelt the dried unconcentrated ores tomatte or ferro-nickel, as is done in New Caledonia. On the other hand,nickel sulfide ores can be concentrated by flotation techniques, and nickelmetal can be recovered with generally cheaper hydroelectric energy, as isdone in Canada and Norway. The availability of hydroelectric power inColombia and Indonesia has been one important factor in permittingdevelopment of nickel mining and processing facilities in those countries.(Mineral Commodity Profile 1983).
²Nickel Handbook - World Bank - 1981.
³Kiel Working Paper No. 160 - Pg.19 - University of Kiel - Institutefor World Economy, 1982.
MDF/W/21Page 29
50. Demand and supply elasticities may also help to explain the policy ofprice stability yhich has been practised by the major producers. Theshort-term price elasticity of demand in the industrialized marketeconomies has been estimated to be less than a unit while long-term demandhas unit elasticity. This meant that short-term changes in prices were notlikely to affect demand significantly. The price elasticity of the supplyof nickel has been estimated to be close to a unit in the short-term butsignificantly greater than a unit in the long run. In the long-term pricetrends are determined by the shape of the industry cost curve and in thisregard one major factor has to be considered. In future the greater partof land-based production would come from laterite ores which are a highcost source.
SECTION II: Production, Consumption and Prices
8. Mine production (Tables 7 and 8)
51. Mine production of nickel has grown considerably during the last twodecades and a half, and especially between 1960 and 1980. From a total of342,000 metric tons mine production grew at 4.3 per cent per annum to740,000 tons in 1980. With the beginning of the world economic recessionin 1980 and a fall in demand, production fell drastically to 633,000 metrictons in 1982. The recovery in the world economy which began late in 1982led to a resurgence in mine production in 1983 with producers re-openingplants and reversing production cutbacks necessitated by the recession.New mines were opened in Colombia, Brazil and Yugoslavia. Table 7 showsthe evolution of the world's mine production of nickel since 1960 and itsgeographical distribution and Chart III gives the same information in adiagrarmatic form.
52. The trend of increasing production continued in the first half of1984, as both the major producers INCO and Falconbridge boosted productionrates, joined by several other producers eager to take advantage of theincreased demand. Capacity utilization in 1984 was estimated to have risenfrom 56 per cent (1983) to 66 per cent, compared with 80 per cent in 1980.
53. The geographical pattern of nickel mine production has also changedconsiderably since 1960. At 69,000 metric tons in 1960, the production ofthe developing countries increased approximately 6.8 per cent per annum toreach 257,000 metric tons in 1980 but fell to 217,000 metric tons in 1983.The production of the developing countries represented 20.2 cent of theworld total in 1960, approximately
'Nickel on the other hand is considered to have a relatively highincome elasticity of demand. This has been used to explain on the one handthe fast growth in consumption in the fast industrializing countriescharacterized by high rates of income growth and on the other hand therelative stagnation and even falls in nickel consumption in countries whereindustrialization has reached a mature stage. In this last casesubstitution might also play a role. For discussions on demand and supplyelasticities in the nickel industry (see Nickel Handbook - World Bank1981). For a study of price elasticity of supply (see Kiel Working PaperNo. 16 - "An Econometric Model of the World Nickel Industry - Institute forWorld Economy, University of Kiel 1981").
Tabl
e7
Worl
dProduction
ofNickel,
1960-1983
(inthousand
metric
tons
metal
content)
Mine
Prod
ucti
onSm
elte
rPr
oduc
tion
(l)
1960
1965
1970
1973
1975
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1960
1965
1970
1973
1975
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
Worl
d34
243
566
667
875
3674
740
716
633
655
325
413
607
643
693
663
750
700
620
686
Develo
pingc
ount
ries
6995
203
209
236
251
257
255
225
217
2843
7496
123
114
115
103
9211
4an
dterritories
of
Bots
wana
--
--
616
1518
1818
_-
--
--
--
--
Brazil
__
_4
33
47
13il
--
-2
22
22
5il
Colombia
__
__
516
__
__
__
__
113
Cuba
(2)
1429
40*
3537
3238
4038
4014
2638
*17
1819
2021
2121
Dominica
nRep.(3)
_-
_30
2725
1518
520
--
-30
2725
1619
620
Guat
emal
a_-
-6
7-
--
--
--
--
--
--
Indo
nesi
a-
2il
1615
3640
4548
38-
--
--
44
54
4Morocco
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
NewCaIedonia(4)
5361
139
113
129
8087
7860
46il
1628
3653
3033
2828
22Ph
ilip
pine
s(5)
__
-9
3335
2920
14_
__
-9
1923
1910
8Yu
gosl
avia
__
__
_-
23
l*_-
--
--
11*
Zimbabwe
_-
il9
1914
1513
IlIl_11
*13*
15*
15*
12*
15*
13*
Other
23
13-
--
--
--
31
8-
--
--
--
Deve
lope
dcountries
211
255
346
342
373
254
316
287
213
239
235
286
416
404
410
365
448
400
316
356
of which
_
Aust
rali
a-
-27
4076
7074
7488
79_
__
2033
3935
424.6
42Au
stri
a*_
_-
--
--
--
--
--
--
-1
22
Canada
195
235
279
249
242
126
185
160
89122
127
160
204
158
158
84152
109
6596
EEC:(6)
--
914
1515
14il
5*13*
4649
5761
6436
4346
1941
Germ
any,
F.R.
_--
--
2-
1-
--
--
--
France-
--
--
--
--
-10
8Il
10il
310
107
5Gr
eece
(3)
--
914
1515
14il
5*13
*-
-9
1415
1514
il5
13United
Kingdom
--
--
--
--
--
3440
3737
3919
1925
723
Finland
23
S6
66
67
65
-3
46
6il
1310
1315
Japa
n--
--
--
--
--
1926
9088
7810
610
994
8782
Norw
ay_-
--
1-
11
--
-30
3238
4337
3137
3726
29SouthAf
rica
3*5
1219
2125
2626
2220
1*3*
9*15
1418
1817
1718
United
Stat
es(7
)Il
1214
1313
il10
93
-12
1314
1320
4040
4441
31
Cent
rall
y-pa
lnne
d62
85117
127
144
169
167
174
195
199
6284
117
144
160
184
187
192
212
216
economics,
ofwh
ich:
Alba
nia
--
-6
68
89
99
--
--
-4
44
44
Chin
a,P.R.*
-_
_7
8il
ilil
1315
--
-7
8il
il12
1213
Czec
hoslavakia*
--
--
--
--
--
--
33
22
2I
3GermanyD.R.
__
-2
22
33
22
--
-2*
3*3*
3*3*
3*3*
Poland
11
2*If
1*1*
1*1*
1*-
11
22
22
2I
I-
USSR*
5880
110
110
125
145
143
150
170
172
5880
110
130
143
160
165
170
190
192
Other*
23
5_
__
__
__
23
5_
__
__
1)Pr
imar
ynickel
andnickel
cont
aint
edin
ferr
o-ni
ckel
,nickel
oxide
sinter
andme
tal
detailssm
elte
ddi
rect
lyfr
omor
es.
2)Sm
elte
rproduc
tion
figures
indicate
nick
elco
nten
tin
oxide
sint
er.
3Nickel
content
infe
rro-
nick
el(s
melt
er).
(4)
Since
1973
figu
resof
mining
prod
ucti
onin
dica
teth
enickel
contentonly,
anyco-content
beingex
clud
ed.
Nick
elco
nten
tof
ferro-nickel,
nick
elma
tteandexported
ores
tota
lled
asfo
llow
s:AA
AA
Smel
ter
Prod
ucts
Importes
Ores
1973
1915
1919
1'Ru
LWl
I9éz
157T
71-t
*42-
6148.tx
"i157
6.
6(in
thousid
nmtrictom)
50.6
43.3
38.5
36.9
29.8
27.8
19.9
5)Ex
clud
ing
nick
elnickel-cobalt
sulp
hide
s(smelter).
6)Forcomparative
purposes
total
figures
forth
eEEC
includetennumber
states
for
the
whole
peri
od.
7)Mi
ning
production
figu
res
indi
cate
recoverednickel
content
inferro-nickel
andas
by-product
inco
pper
refi
neri
es.
Nick
elco
nten
tof
ores
mine
din
thousand
metr
ictons
was
asfo
llow
s:1960:
12.8
;19
65:
14.7;
1970
:16.3;
1973
:16
.6;
1975
:15
.4;
1979
:13.7;
1980:
13.3;
1981
:11
.0;
1982:
3.6;
1983:
0.4.
*Figuresbasedon
estimates.
(-)
nilo
rless
than
500metric
tons.
Source:
MetalSt
atis
tics
1960-1970,
1973-1983,
Metallgesellschiaft
AG.
Page30
MDF/W/
21 - -)b
Tabl
e8
WorldPr
oduc
tion
ofNi
ckel
,19
60-1
983
(asa
percentage
ofworld
production)
Mine
Production
Smel
ter
Production(1)
1960
1965
1970
11973j
19751
1979j
1980
119
811
1982
198
[196
03916I
197
_1937
11975
L19
79'
180_9811_92
_1833
Worl
d10
0.0
100.
0100.0
100.
0100.0
100.0
100.
0100.0
100.
0100.0
100.0
1100.0
100.
010
0.0
100.0
100.
010
0.0
100.
010
.0100.0
Developing
coun
trie
s20
.221
.830.5
30.8
31.3
37.2
34.7
35.6
35.6
33.1
8.6
10.4
12.2
14.9
17.7
17.2
15.3
15.4
14.8
16.6
andterritories
Bots
wana
--
--
~~~~
~~~~~~0.8
2.4
2.0
2.5
2.8
2.7
-.-
--
Brazil
--
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
1.0
2.1
1.7
--
-0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3I0.8
1.6
Colombia
--
--
--
-0.
82.4
--
--
--
-0.2
1.9
Cuba(2)
4.1
6.7
6.0*
5.2
4.9
4.7
5.1
5.6
6.0
6.1
4.3
63
j,6.
3*2.
62.
62.9
2.7
3.0
3.4.3.1
DominicanR
ep.(
3)-
--
4.4
3.6
3.7
2.0
2.5
0.8
3.1
--
-4.
73.9
~3.8
2.1
2.7
1.0:
2.9
Guat
emal
a-
--
--
0.9
0.9
--
--
--
--:
..
..
Indo
nesi
a-
0.5
1.7
2.4
2.0
5.3
5.4
6.3
7.6
5.8
-'-
-0.
60.
-706
.
Morocco
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
New
Caledonia(4)
15.5
14.0
20.9
16.7
17.1
11.9
11.8
10.9
9.5
7.0
3.4
3.9I4.6
5.6
7.6
4.6
4.4
4.0
4.6
3.2
Philippines
(5)-
--
-1.2
4.9
4.7
4.1
3.2
2.1
--I
-1.3
2.9
3.1
2.7
1.6
1.2
--
--
--
-0.3
0.5
0.2*
--
--
--
-0.2
0.1*
---
1.6
1.2
2.8
1.9
2.1
2.1
1.7
--
-1.
7*1.
9*2.
3*2.0*
1.7*
2.4*~
1.9
Other
~~~0.6
0.7
2.0
--
--
--
-0.9
0.2
1.3
--
--
--
Deve
lope
dcountries
61.7
58.6
52.0
50.5
49.6
37.7
42.7
40.1
33.6
36.5
72.3
69.2
68.5
62.8
59.2
55.1
59.7
57.1
51.0
51.9
Australia
--
4.1
5.9
10.1
10.4
10.0
10.4
13.9
12.1
--3.
14.
85.
94.7
6.0
7.4
6.1
Austria-
--
-.-
--
--
--
--
-0.1
0.3
0.3
Cana
da57.0
54.0o
41.9
36.7
32.1
18.7
25.0
22.3
14.1
18.6
39.1
38.7
33.6
24.6
22.8
12.7
20.3
15.6
10.5
14.0
EEC:
(6)
--
1.4
2.1
2.0
2.2
1.9
1.5
0.8*
2.0*
14.2
11.9
9.4
9.5
9.2
5.4
5.7
6.6
3.1{6.0
German
y,F.R.
--
--
--
-0.6
-0.
2-
--
--
France
0.1
1.9
1.8i
1.6
1.6
0.5
1.3
1.4
1.li
0.7~
Gree
ce(3
)-
-1.4
2.1
2.0
2.2
1.9
1.5
0.8*
2.0*
-.-
1.5
2.2
2.2
2.3
1.9
1.6
0.8
1.9
United
King
dom
--
--
--
--
--
10.5
9.7
6.1
5.8
5.6
2.9
2.5
3.6
1.1
i3.4
Finl
and
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.8
-0.7
0.7
0.9
0.9
1.7
1.7
1.4
2.1
2.2
Japa
n-
--
--
--
--
5.8
6.3
14.8
13.7
11.3
16.0
14.5
13.4
14.0
12.0
Norw
ay-
--
0.1
-0.
10.
1-
--
9.2
7.7
6.3
6.7
5.3
4.7
4.9
5.3
4.2
4.2
SouthAf
rica
0.9
1.1
1.8
2.8
2.8
3.7
3.5
3.6
3.5
3.1
0.3*
0.7*
1.5*I2.3
2.0
2.7
2.4
2.4
2.7
2.6
United
States(7)
3.2
2.8
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.3
0.5
-3.7
3.1
2.3
2.0
2.9
6.0
5.3
6.3
6.6
4.5
Cent
ral
planned
18.1
19.6
17.6
18.7
19.1
25.1
22.6
24.3
30.8
30.4
19.1
20.3
19.3
22.4
23.1
27.8
24.9
27.4
34.2
t31.5
economies,of
which:
,
Alba
nia
--
-0.9
0.8
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.4
--
--
-0.
60.5
0.6
0.6
06
Chin
a.P.
R.*
--
-1.0
1.1
1.6
1.5
1.5
2.1
2.3
--
-1.
11.2
1.7
1.5
1.7
1:9
1:9Cz
echo
slov
akia
*-
--
--
--
--
--
-0.5
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.4
Germany,
D.R.
--
-0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
--
0.3*
0.4*
0.5*
0.4*
0.4*
0.5*
IPo
land
0.3
0.2
0.3*
0.1*
0.1*
0.1*
0.1*
0.1i
*0.
2*-
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.2
USSR*
17.0
18.4
16.5
16.2
16.6
21.5
19.3
20.9
26.9
26.3
17.8
19.4
18.1
20.2
20.6
24.I
22.0
24.3
30.6
Othe
r*0.
60.7~
0.8~
--
--
--
-~
0.6
0.7
0.8*
--1:
--
(1)
Primaryni
ckel
and
nick
elcontained
infe
rro-
nick
el,*
nickel
oxid
esi
nter
andmonelme
tals
smel
teddirectly
from
ores
.(2
)Sme
lter
prod
ucti
onfi
gure
sindicate
nick
elcontent
inox
ide
sint
er.
(3)Ni
ckel
cont
ent
infe
rro-
nick
el(S
melt
er).
(4)Si
nce
1973
figu
res
ofmi
ning
prod
ucti
onin
dica
teth
eni
ckel
cont
ent
only
.an
yco
-con
tent
being
excl
uded
.Ni
ckel
cont
ent
offe
rro-
nick
cel,
nickel
matt
ean
dexported
ores
follows:
1973
1975
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
Smel
ter
Products
-57
71.1
AV
"-t
-4.
35"
26
(lnthousand
roetric
tons)
Expo
rtedOres
50.6
43.3
38.5
36.9
29.8
27.8
19.9
(5)
Incl
udin
gmi
xed
nick
el-c
obal
tsu
lphi
des
(Sme
lter
).(6)
Forcom
parati
vepuposes
tota
lfi
gure
sfor
the
EECin
clud
ete
nme
mber
stat
esfo
rth
ewhole
peri
od.
(7)Mi
ning
prod
ucti
onfi
gres
Indicate
recovered
nick
elcontent
inferro-niquel
and
asby-product
incopper
refineries.
Nick
elcontent
ofor
esmi
ned
inth
ousa
ndme
tric
tons
was
asfo
llow
s:19
60:
12.8
;1965:
14.7
;1970:
16.3
;19
73:
16.6
;1975:
15.4;
1979:
13.7
;19
80:
13.3
;1981:
11.0
;19
82:
3.6;
1983:
0A.4
Figu
resba
sed
onestimates.
nil
less
than
0.1
per
cent.
Sour
ce:
Meta
lStatistics
1960
.-19
70,
1973-1983,
MetaIlgesellschaft
AG.
CHART
III
WORLD
MINE
PRODUCTION
OFNI
CKEL
-------
------
-------
-------
--------
-----
--------
----------
----
------------
----------
-
------------
--------
Page
32MDF/W/21
rJ
WORLD
OTHER
CUBA
INDONESIA
AUSTRALIA
NEW
CALEDONIA
USSR
CANADAANADA
Il
1'i
iI
1956
1960
1965
..
..-.
..
Iu
uII.
.I
III-
1980
1970
1975
Source:
Supplied
by
the
Department
of
Energy,
Mines
and
Resources,
Canada.
800-
700-
600-_
o500-
400-
300-
,
200-
100- 19
50
MDF/W/21Page 33
34.7 per cent in 1980 and 33.1 per cent in 1983. Among the developingcountries themselves the pattern of production has also changedconsiderably. In 1960 New Caledonia and Cuba accounted for practically allthe share of developing countries, by 1983 this share was accounted for,other than New Caledonia (21.2 per cent), by Botswana (8.3 per cent),Brazil (5.1 per cent), Colombia (7.4 per cent), Dominican Republic (9.2 percent), Indonesia (17.5 per cent), Cuba (18.4 per cent) Philippines (6.4 percent), Yugoslavia (0.5 per cent) and Zimbabwe (5.1 per cent), not countingGuatemala where production has been suspended since 1981 by INCO as arationalization measure in view of the fall in world demand. Theproduction of New Caledonia has fallen from a high of 151,000 metric tonsin 1971 to 87,000 metric tons in 1980 and 46,000 metric tons in 1983. Theproduction of Cuba has stagnated around 40,000 metric tons since 1970 witha low of 32,000 metric tons in 1979. It is, however, expected to increaseproduction in the late 1980s with a ney 30,000 tons per annum mine andplant coming on stream at Punta Gorda. It remains however, the fourthlargest producer in the world after USSR, Canada and Australia. The otherdeveloping countries where production levels were fairly well maintainedduring the 1980-82 world economic recession were Botswana and Indonesia,however in the case of the latter country there was a sharp fall from48,000 tons in 1982 to 38,000 tons in 1983. Morocco has a small productionequivalent to about 500 metric tonnes of metal content. As developingcountries possess over 50 per cent of world resources, they haEe long-termprospects of producing the major part of world mine production , however,as high-cost laterite ore producers they are bound to be more vulnerable tocyclical changes in demand.
54. The developed market economy countries accounted for about 61.7 percent of total mine production in 1960 with a total production of211,000 metric tons. In 1980, with a production of 316,000 tons the shareof these countries had fallen to 42.7 per cent and in 1983 this share stoodat 36.5 per cent. In 1960 Canada was the only major mine producer amongthe developed market economies with 57 per cent of total world production,the other producers were Finland, South Africa and the United States.Australia became a major producer in the early 1970s and together withCanada accounted in 1983 for 84 per cent of the total production ofdeveloped market economies and 30.7 per cent of total world production.Canada's share of total world mine production stood at 18.6 per cent in1983, compared with 57 per cent in 1960. The United States has for a longtime been only a minor mine producer and in 1982 its only nickel mine wasclosed
¹Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities Vol. IV. World Bank1982, page 51.
²Among the developing countries contemplating expansion of existingmind production or the development of new projects in the late 1980s andearly 1990s, are New Caledonia, Indonesia, Colombia, Brazil, Yugoslavia andVenezuela. Whether or not these projects will be implemented would dependupon medium and long-term market prospects. Other developing countrieswith production ambitions include Burundi, Ivory Coast, Saudi Arabia,Tanzania and Zaire.
³After a temporary shut down in 1982 Hanna resumed ferro-nickelproduction in December 1983.
MDF/W/21Page 34
55. While it is probably safe to conjecture that in future the share ofthe developed market countries would decline further, it should be kept inmind that the major developed market producers are in a strong competitiveposition because of their technological expertise, financial resources andmarketing experience and because they possess ready-developed, relativelylow-cost ore deposits from which production can be increased more quicklyand more cheaply than would be the case for new "green fields" projectselsewhere.
56. The centrally planned economies have increased their productionconstantly from 62,000 metric tons in 1960 when they accounted for 18.1 percent of total world production to 199,000 tons in 1983 when they accountedfor 30.7 per cent of total production, the same as the developed marketeconomies. In 1960 the only major producing country among them was theUSSR; in the early 1970s it was joined by Albania, the People's Republicof China, Germany D.R. and Poland. China's production has increased from7,000 metric tons in 1973 to 15,000 metric tons in 1983. USSR with aproduction of 170,000 metric tons in 1983 has become the worlds' largestmine producer accounting for about 26.3 per cent of total world production.Under a five year plan started in 1977 the production capacity of USSR,currently the highest among nickel producers, was to be expanded by 44 percent from 231,000 to 310,000 tons of nickel content.
9. Smelter production
57. Smelter production of nickel amounted to 324,000 metric tons in 1960and by in 1983 the volume of production has more than doubled to686,000 metric tons. Smelter production of nickel is more diffused thanmine production. On the one hand due to the corporate structure or theindustry some producers in the developing countries export their primaryproduction in the form of ores or concentrates or matte, for smelting andrefining in the developed countries. Such has been the case of NewCaledonia which exports part of its matte production for refining inFrance. On the other hand a significant amount of INCOs new output, andthe output of Falconbridge from Canada are refined respectively in theUnited Kingdom and Norway which are not primary producers. Japan processesores, matte and concentrates imported from New Caledonia and Indonesia.The statistics of smelter production shown in Tables 7 and 8 indicate thatin 1983 developing countries including Cuba accounted for 16.7 per cent ofthe total world smelter production compared with 33.1 per cent of mineproduction. The 16.7 per cent share of the world production in 1983compares favourably with the meagre 8.6 per cent in 1960, although it showsa drop from the 17.8 per cent achieved in 1975. In terms of volume,production increased from 28,000 metric tons in 1960 to 114,000 tons in1983. While New Caledonia and Cuba practically accounted for all smelterproduction in 1960 it has been joined by other producers such as Zimbabwe,the Philippines, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic and Indonesia. Asferro-nickel is increasingly used in the manufacture of stainless steelthus favouring the
¹Joseph Hilmy - "Old Nick" - An Anatomy of the Nickel Industry and itsFuture, Commodity Note No. 13, World Bank (September 1979).
MDF/W/21Page 35
exploitation of laterite nickel resources the share of developing countriesin smelter production is expected to grow under normal market conditions.The share of developed market countries in smelter production has, on theother hand declined in percentage terms continuously from 72.3 per cent in1960 to 51.9 per cent in 1983. In volume terms however, production by thedeveloped market-economy countries did grow from 235,000 metric tons in1960 to 448,000 metric tons in 1980. Since then the economic recession hasnecessitated production cut-backs and plant shut downs resulting in aproduction of 356,000 tons in 1983, compared with an estimated productioncapacity of 658,000 metric tons. This shows a capacity utilization rate of54 per cent. As has already been pointed out earlier many developed marketcountries, who are not mine producers or only minor producers such asJapan, United Kingdom, France, United States, Finland and Norway aresubstantial producers of smelter and refined products. As in mineproduction Canada is by far the largest smelter producer among thedeveloped countries, accounting in 1983 for 14 per cent of total worldproduction and about 27 per cent of the production of the developedmarket-economy countries as compared with 39.1 per cent and 54 per centrespectively in 1960. In volume terms the smelter production of Canadaincreased from 127,000 metric tons in 1960 to about 204,000 metric tons in1970, since then production has fluctuated downwards to 96,000 metric tonsin 1983. Canada is followed in order of importance by Japan, where smelterproduction has more than quadrupled from 19,000 tons in 1960 to 82,000metric tons, or 12 per cent of world production, in 1983; Australia, wheresmelter production has more than doubled over the past ten years from20,000 tons in 1973 to 42,000 tons in 1983; and the EEC, where productionfluctuated upwards from a level of 46,000 tons in 1960 to 64,000 tons in1975 only to fall back to 41,000 tons in 1983, after a record low of 19,000tons in 1982.
58. Smelter production in the United States has more than tripled from12,000 tons in 1960 to 40,000 tons in 1982. The 1983 production figure was30,800 tons. Refinery production in Norway has been fairly stable with alevel of 29,000 tons in 1983 compared with 30,000 tons in 1960. In SouthAfrica where nickel is produced as a by-product of platinum production thelevel of production has remained fairly stable in recent years at around17,000 metric tons of refined nickel.
59. The volume of smelter production of the centrally planned economiesgrew consistently from 62,000 metric tons in 1960 to 216,000 metric tons in1983. Their share in world production has grown from 19.1 per cent in 1960to 31.4 per cent in 1983. As in mine production USSR is by far the largestsmelter producer among this group of countries with a production of192,000 metric tons in 1983, compared with 58,000 metric tons in 1960.This makes USSR the largest producer in the world with 28 per cent of totalworld smelter production.
¹In 1981 Falconbridge - Dominicana temporarily closed its plant in theDominican Republic which has a capacity of 30 thousand tons per annum ofnickel contained in ferro-nickel, while INCO- Guatemala permanently closedits 13 thousand tons mine and matte plant. In November 1981, theMarinduque Mining and Industrial Corporation, the major nickel producer inthe Philippines shut down its operations with a capacity of 34 thousandtons per annum. (Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities - Vol. IVWorld Bank 1982).
MDF/W/21Page 36
60. The other major producer is China.
10. Semi-manufactures of nickel
61. In many nickel consuming countries with refining plants part of theunwrought nickel is fabricated into semi-manufactures and more finishedproducts for final use. Products concerned here fall under CCCN headings75.02-75.06. CCCN 75.02 covers wrought bars, rods, angles, shapes andsections as well as nickel wire. CCCN 75.03 covers mainly wrought plates,sheets and strips, nickel foil, nickel powders and flakes of all typesregardless of their intended use. Depending on their physicalcharacteristics, powders and flakes are used in the unalloyed states inplates for nickel-cadmium batteries, in the manufacture of nickel salts, asbinding agents for metal carbides, in the manufacture of nickel coinageblanks for the production of nickel alloys (e.g. alloy steels) and ascatalysts. Tubes, and pipes and blanks thereof of nickel, as well ashollow bars, tubes and pipe fittings of nickel fail under CCCN 75.04, whileelectro-plating anodes of nickel fall under CCCN 75.05. Under CCCN 75.06fall miscellaneous nickel products including nickel nails, tacks, nuts,bolts and screws, structures such as window frames, household and sanitaryarticles and parts thereof of nickel. Production statistics for theseproducts are not available on a global scale, but the trade flows will bediscussed-in the section of this study dealing with individual countrytrade analysis.
11. Consumption
62. Nickel is a metal essentially used in the production of stainlesssteel, alloy steels and non-ferrous alloys. (See Chart I on nickelconsumption by first use). Its demand is a derived demand for the aboveproducts, especially steel whose production accounts for about 60 per centof total nickel consumption. Chart IV shows the correlation between worldcrude steel production and world nickel consumption. Stainless steelproduction tends to be coincident with the durable consumer sector, whilethe production of non-ferrous alloys (as measured by nickel consumption) ismore closely related to developments in the capital goods sector, thusmaking nickel responsive to market developments in both sectors. Theoverall consumption of nickel, its volume, rate of growth, intensity, andgeographical distribution, could be considered to reflect closely thecurrent stage of industrialization, the pace of industrial andtechnological development, and the sectors of the economy which are ofpredominant influence in metal consumption at any given period. As astrategic metal the consumption of nickel is also influenced by the stateof international relations; during periods of military strife and hightension the demand for nickel has tended to rise.
1It has been postulated that the amount of nickel used per unit of GNPvaries over the different phases of economic growth. Early stages ofindustrialization are normally accompanied by a sharp rise in nickelconsumption per unit of GNP. This was probably the case during the late1940's and in the 1950's when countries were trying to catch up on theUS level of nickel consumption. In the more advanced phases - e.g. in the1960's nickel consumption growth matched that of GNP. However in the moremature stages of development, e.g. in the seventies, the pattern of demandchanges in favour of services using less metals in favour of goods withhigh value added and low metal content, such as computers and electronics.Thereon nickel consumption per unit of GNP starts to decline.
MDF/W/21Page 37
CHART IV
CHANGES IN WORLD NICKEL CONSUMPTION AND
CRUDE STEEL PRODUCTION, 1953-1983.
55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Source: Metals Analysis and Outlook - No. 22. Fourth Quarter 1984.
MDF/W/21Page 38.
63. The primary nickel consumption picture is further complicated by thestainless steel scrap cycle. As stainless steel production varies inresponse to the economic cycle the amount of home and prompt industrialscrap available varies with respect to the desired level of stainless steelproduction: as production rises scrap availability decreases, pricesincrease and primary nickel consumption goes up with the reverse occurringas production falls.
64. Table 9 gives information on global nickel consumption between 1960and 1983, its volumes and geographical distribution while a diagramaticpresentation of the evolution of global nickel consumption is given inChart V.
65. Nickel consumption has in the past shown a marked cyclical tendency.Consumption of nickel almost doubled from 1948 to 1959. This apparentgrowth of approximately 9 per cent per annum was also maintained from 1959to 1969 when nickel consumption again doubled from 249,200 metric tons in1959 to 502,800 metric tons in 1969. These were, however, periods ofexceptionally rapid.growth when the industrialized nations of Europe werecatching up, from the World War II levels, on the US level of per capitametals consumption. Other factors which contributed to the high rate ofgrowth in global nickel consumption during this period were the increase inthe military spending occasioned by the Korean War, the "Cold War" and theVietnam War, and the fast expansion of capital goods industries. The highrate of growth in nickel consumption over a fairly long period of time ledproducers into extrapolating this trend into the future, and new miningprojects were developed in a number of countries in the late 1960's and theearly 1970's. Nickel consumption grew at a fast rate from 502,800 metrictons in 1969 to 710,700 metric tons in 1974 after which the effect of theeconomic recession in the market economies which followed the first"oil-shock" began to be felt. From 1975 to 1978, the annual worldconsumption of nickel fell well below the 1974 level. Following theeconomic recovery in the market economies which began in 1978 there was asharp rise in nickel consumption from 680,800 metric tons in 1978 to ahistorical peak of 748,000 metric tons in 1979. From then on the recessionof 1980-1982 caused consumption to fall to 651,00 metric tons in 1982.Consumption increased by about 6 per cent in 1983 to 690,000metric tonsprimarily on the basis of a 40 per cent increase in stainless steelproduction in the US. In 1984, global consumption of nickel is estimatedto have grown by about 10 per cent over the 1983 level and a furtherincrease is projected for 1985 when the world economy is expected to reachthe peak of its current cycle. Apart from the cyclical slowdown ineconomic activity in industrialized countries one of the fundamentalreasons-given for the reduction in nickel consumption in recent years isthe decline in steel consumption per unit of GNP in the major nickel
¹Scrap price increases also tend to draw greater amounts of obsoletescrap back into the system, limiting the run-up in scrap prices, and whenproduction is curtailed, exacerbating this decline.
²Metal Bulletin Monthly - No. 166 October 1984, p. 11.
Table9
Worl
dCo
nsum
ptio
nofNickel(l),
1960-1983
inth
ousand
metr
ictons
asapercentege
ofworldconsumption
1960
1965
1970
1973
1975
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1960
1965
1970
1973
1975
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
World
293
429
572
657
577
748
709
664
651
690
100.
010
0.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.
0100.0
100.0
100.0
100.
0
Developingc
ountries
38
1621
2743
4849
4552
1.0
1.9
2.8
3.2
4.7
5.7
6.8
7.4
6.9
7.5
Argentina
--
-1
II
1-
-1
--
-0.
20.
20.
10.
1-
-0.
1Br
azil
--
-5
48
il7
58
--
-0.8
0.7
1.1
1.6
1.1
0.8
1.2
Indi
a-
--
13
67
9il
13-
--
0.2
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.4
1.7
1.9
Korea,
Rep.of(2)
_-
--
-1
34
22
--
7-
-0.
10.4
0.6
0.3
0.3
Mexico
__
_1
32
33
31
--
-0.2
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.1
Roma
nia*
__
_3
56
66
55
--
-0.
50.
90.8
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.7
Spain
13
55
99
78
8-
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.2
Turkey
__
__
__
__
I--
--
0.2
0.1
Yugoslavia_
11
22
22
2*2*
--
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3*
0.3*
0ther(3)
37
124
48
6il
8il
1.0
1.6
2.1
0.6
0.7
1.1
0.8
1.7
1.2
1.6
Deve
lope
dco
untr
ies
216
311
426
496
388
522
480
435
420
450
73.7
72.5
74.5
75.5
67.2
69.8
67.7
65.5
64.5
65.2
Aust
rali
a(in
cl.Oc
eani
a)2
23*
52
55
44
40.
70.5
0.5*
0.8
0.3
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
Austria
33
65
45
54
44
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
Cana
da4
812
1111
810
97
8*1.
41.9
2.1
1.7
1.9
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.1
1.2*
EEC:
(4)
80100
135
145
125
184
161
143
142
147
27.3
23.3
23.6
22.1
21.7
24.6
22.7
21.5
21.8
21.3
Germ
any,F
.R.
2331
4155
4376
6862
5863
7.8
7.2
7.2
8.4
7.5
10.2
9.6
9.3
8.9
9.1
Belg
ium-
Luxe
mbou
rg2
12
44
54
44
50.
70.
20.
30.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
France
1921
3630
3239
3834
3232
6.5
4.9
6.3
4.6
5.5
5.2
5.4
5.1
4.9
4.6
United
Kingdom
2837
3531
2735
2322
2222
9.6
8.6
6.1
4.7
4.7
4.7
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.2
Ital
y7
920
2317
2727
2024
222.4
2.1
3.5
3.5
2.9
3.6
3.8
3.0
3.7
3.2
Neth
erla
nds
11
11
11
1.1
11
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
Finl
and
1-
--
-7
87
910
0.3
--
--
0.9
1.'1.
11.
41.4
Japa
n18
2799
114
83132
122
105
107
115
6.1
6.3
17.3
17.4
14.4
17.6
17.'
15.8
16.4
16.7
Norway
-1
1I
1-
--
--
-0.
20.
20.2
0.2
--
--
-SouthAfrica
--
-5
55
66
66
--
-0.
80.
90.
70.
30.9
0.9
0.9
Sweden
913
2327
2222
2016
1516
3.1
3.0
4.0
4.1
3.8
2.9
2.8
2.4
2.3
2.3
Switzerland
I1
2I
21
11
I1
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
United
Stat
es(5
)98
156
145
182
133
153
142
140
125
139
33.4
36.4
25.3
27.7
23.1
20.5
20.0
21.1
19.2
20.1
Cent
rall
y-pl
anne
deconomes,
ofwh
ich:
74110
130
140
162
183
181
180
186
188
25.3
25.6
22.7
21.3
28.1
24.5
25.5
27.1
28.6
27.2
Bulg
aria
*-
--
-1
11
12
2-
--
-0.
20.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
Chin
aP.
R.*
--
-18
1819
1819
1919
--
-2.7
3.1
2.5
2.5
2.9
2.9
2.8
Czechoslovakia
--
-7
910
1010
88
--
-1.1
1.6
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.2
Germ
anyDR
.*-
--
89
il10
1010
9-
--
1.2
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.3
Hungary--
-I
22
22
33
--
-0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
Pola
nd5
79
87
67
-_
_0.8
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
0.9
1.0
74|
110
130
100
115
130
13I14
$025
.325
.61
22,7
15:2
19.9
17:4
18:1
212
201
(1)I
nclu
dingni
ckel
cont
ent
infe
rro-
nick
elandnickel
oxide
sint
er;
sinc
e19
73excludingco
nsum
ptio
nofnickel
chem
ical
s.(2)
Figuresfor
1973
included
inother
develo
ping
counties
cons
umti
on.
(3) I
nclu
ding
Taiwan.
(4)F
orco
mpar
ativ
epurposes
total
figures
for
the
EEC
include
tenme
mber
stat
esfor
thewhole
period.
for
1965
and
1970
provided
bytheUS
Bure
auof
Mine
swhi
leth
ose
indicatedby
International
Nick
elCo.
were
167.8and
1978
reported
cons
umpt
ion
isin
dica
ted;
begi
ning
1979
apparent
cons
umpt
ion.
*Figures
base
dan
esti
mate
s.-
nilo
rless
than
500
metric
tons
or0.1
per
cent
ofwo
rld
consum
ption.
Sour
ce:
Metal
Stat
isti
cs19
60-1
970
and
1973-1983,
Meta
llge
sell
scha
ftAG.
149.7
thousandmetric
tons
respectively.
From
1973to
Page39
MDF/W/21 -. ru
CHAR
TV
Sm
~~~~~~~~~~~~~O
N
WORLD
NICK
ELCO
NSUM
PTIO
N1950-1983
800
700
600
500
400
200
1_
1950
1960
1970
1980
Supp
lied
bythe
Department
ofEn
ergy
,Mi
nes
and
Reso
urce
s,Canada.
Sour
ce:
MDF/W/21Page 41
consuming nations which are entering the advanced stages of economicdevelopment where metal consumption falls as a result of the shift indemand towards services and other goods which are not metal intensive.¹
66. The global picture portrayed above hides wide regional differences inconsumption levels and their evolution. In 1960, 73.7 per cent of totalworld consumption of primary nickel was accounted for by the developedmarket economy countries, 25.3 per cent by the centrally-planned countriesand more specifically the USSR, and the remaining 1 per cent by thedeveloping countries. The share of the developing countries has since thengrown steadily at differing annual rates to reach 7.5 per cent in 1983 anda volume of 52,000 metric tons compared with 3,000 metric tons in 1960.Developing countries with the largest share of consumption are India,Brazil, Spain, Romania, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Yugoslavia andArgentina. As industrialization gathers pace in developing countries andincomes rise their consumption of nickel is bound to continue rising.Table 10 which shows the relative growth rates of nickel consumption in thedifferent economic regions indicate that developing countries have thehighest rate of growth in nickel consumption.
67. The share of the centrally-planned economies in the consumption ofnickel has remained fairly stable since 1960 increasing only slightly in afluctuating manner from 25.3 per cent to 27.2 per cent in 1983. In volumeterms, however, consumption has increased considerably from 74,000 metrictons in 1960 to 288,000 metric tons in 1983. The USSR is not only thelargest consumer by far among this group of countries, but it has alsobecome the largest consuming country in the world to the tune of 140,000metric tons, in 1983 representing 20.3 per cent of total world consumption.At 19,000 metric tons, the consumption of the People's Republic of Chinahas remained practically the same since 1973. In 1983, it represented2.8 per cent of world consumption. The other major consumers among thecentrally-planned economies are Czechoslovakia, Germany, D.R., and Poland.
68. The consumption of nickel by the developed market economy countriesmore than doubled between 1960 and 1983, rising from 216,000 metric tons to450,000 metric tons. This overall picture, however, hides a marketevolution closely related to the level of economic activity in thedeveloped countries. After a very fast growth which reached a first peakin 1974 consumption dropped sharply during the following four years ofeconomic recession. Demand started to pick up in 1978 and quickly moved toan all-time peak in 1979, but started a steep decline in the 1980-82economic recession. The 1983 consumption of 450,000 metric tons whichrepresents an increase over the previous year's level of 420,000 metrictons is still below the 1973 consumption level. Between 1960 and 1983, thedeveloped market economy countries lost eight percentage points share of
¹By the late 1960's, there was beginning to be a flattening of thedemand for nickel products. The economies of North America Europe andJapan were reaching something of a saturation point in consumption of steelproducts, the largest single outlet for nickel production. There was, andstill is a long-term slow down in the so-called "mature industries" such assteel and auto, in North America and Western Europe (Raw Materials Report1983 vol. 2. No. 2.).
²Nickel has a high income elasticity of demand.
MDF/W/21Page 42
Table 10
Relative growth rates of nickel consumption until 1990
Source: Bundesanstalt für GeowissenschaftenInstitut für Wirtschaftsforschung, Untersuchungenmineralischer Rohstoffe - X (Nickel ), (Stuttgart,Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1978).
und Rohstoffeand Deutschesüber Angebot und NachfrageE. Schweizer Bart'sche
Taken from "The Nickel Industry and the developing countries - UN New York 1980
Consumption grovthShare of world nickel consumption 1976-19901966 1976 1980 1990 (percentage)
Developed marketeconomies 74.2 70.8 71.2 70.8 3.8Western Europe 27.7 28.5 27.4 27.3 3.5Japan 7.8 17.3 17.9 19.3 14.6United States ofAmerica, Canada,Australia, SouthAfrica 38.7 25.0 25.9 24.2 3.7
Centrally plannedeconomies 224.6 26.1 25.0 24.2 3.3
Developing countries 1.2 3.1 3.8 5.0 7.4
Brazil 0.2 0.6 0.7 1.4 10.1Mexico 0.0 o.6 0.9 0.9 6.8Developing countriesof Asia 0.3 1.0 1.2 1.4 6.5
World 100 100 100 100 4.0
MDF/W/21Page 43
the total world consumption mostly to the developing countries and to alesser extent to the centrally-planned economies. The US is the largestconsumer among the developed market economies, with a volume of consumptionwhich has grown from 98,000 metric tons in 1960 to 139,000 metric tons in1983 after reaching a peak of 194,500 metric tons in 1974. Its share ofthe world market has, however, fallen considerably from around 33 per centin 1960 to around 19.2 per cent in 1982. When it fell for the first timebehind the USSR in 1983 its share was around 20 per cent.. The share of theEEC has fallen from 27.3 per cent in 1960 to 21.2 per cent in 1983 with theGerman Federal Republic, France, United Kingdom and Italy as the leadingconsumers. Consumption in the EEC grew from 80,000 tons in 1960 to 184,000tons in 1979. It then declined to 142,000 tons in 1982 and rose somewhatto 147,000 tons in 1983. Japan which is the third largest nickel consumingcountry in the world has had the fastest growth in consumption outside thedeveloping world since 1960. From a level of 18,000 metric tons in 1960consumption in Japan had grown to 115,000 metric tons in 1983 after peakingat 132,000 metric tons in 1979. This represented a market share increasingfrom 6.1 per cent in 1960 to 16.7 per cent in 1983, and reflected the rapidadvancement in nickel application technology in this country.
12. Prices and Stocks
69. Table 11 provides information on nickel prices in current and constantUS dollars during the period 1950 to 1983. The price series are based onINCO producers contract prices for electrolytic cathodes. Until 1965 theseprices included US tariffs. Constant prices have been calculated by usingthe industrial countries' unit value (c.i.f.) index of manufactured exportsto developing countries. Chart VI provides the same information on pricetrends in a graphic form.
70. One of the salient features of the nickel industry during the past fewdecades has been the relative price stability which has prevailedespecially between 1950 and 1965 in spite of a market situationcharacterized by periods of shortages and overproduction. This, as hasbeen explained earlier in this paper, is the result of a deliberate policypursued by the major producers especially INCO eventually at the expense ofa decline in their share of the market. During periods of shortages theyhave preferred to draw on stocks and ration supplies rather than allowprices to rise in response to market forces. Similarly they responded toany excess supply situation by cutting back production and or by buildingup stocks. ¹ This policy vas most effective in the 1950s and 1960 when INCOand the other major producers largely dominated production and trade andwhen demand was generally strong. Another feature of this policy ofstabilizing prices was that producer prices have for most of the periodbeen much lover than the free market prices.
Historically nickel, like most other metals, has experienced widecycles in inventories in response to demand cycles. The reasons given forthis behaviour include an inability to forecast the timing and severity ofmarket downturns accurately, a desire to utilize capacity at economiclevels, and such factors as market share expectations and the aggressiveparticipation of eastern world producers in western markets. When a marketalso suffers from chronic excess capacity as nickel has since theseventies, the inventory cycle can be amplified greatly.
Tabl
eIl
Nick
elPrices,
1950-1984
(US$/M
etric
Ton)
Cana
dian
¹LME CashSetlement
²
Year
Curr
ent
$$/lb
Constant
S³$/lb
Current
S4$/lb
1982
$/lb
Cons
tant
$³current
Constant
$³
1950
988
0.45
4.29
61.
9519
511.191
0.54
4.36
31.
981952
1,24
60.
564.
450
2.02
1953
1.32
10.
604,929
2.24
8954
1,33
40.61
5.072
2.30
1955
1,422
0.65
5,306
2.41
1956
1,43
70.
655.245
2.38
1957
1,63
10.
745.703
2.59
1958
1.631
0.14
5.401
2.45
1959
1.63
10.
745,
683
2.58
1960
1,631
0.74
5.54
82.
521961
1.711
0.78
5.80
02.63
1962
1,76
10.80
6,03
12.
1419
631.742
0.79
5.92
52.
691964
1,742
0.79
5,807
2.63
1965
1.73
50.
795.764
2.61
1966
1.13
90.19
5,4S
I2.47
1961
1,936
0.88
5.97
52.
711968
2,075
0.94
6,848
3.11
1969
2.363
1.07
1.748
3.51
1970
2,84
61.
298,420
3.82
1971
2,93
21.33
8,011
3.63
1972
3.080
1.40
1.681
3.48
0913
3.313
1.53
7,042
3:19
1974
3,825
1.74
6,364
2.89
1915
4.57
02.07
6.701
3.04
1976
4,973
2.26
7,155
3.25
1977
5,203
2.36
6,910
3.13
1978
4,60
92.
095,190
2.35
1979
5,98
62.
72.6,040
2.74
1980
7,52
83.
417,
016
3.18
6,536
2.96
6,09
12.
7619
817.
500
3.43
7.405
3.36
5,985
2.71
5,85
62.66
1982
7,05
53.20
1,05
53.
204,816
2.18
4,816
2.18
1983
7,055
3.20
1.05
5.3.20
4,853
2.20
5.071
2.30
1984(Jan.-June
7,055
3.20
7.45
83.38
4,76
92.16
5.041
2.29
¹Ele
ctro
lyti
ccathodes,
cont
act
pric
e.f.o.b.
shipping
poin
t,US
duty
included.
²Ref
ined
meta
l,melting
grade.
LME
contract
opened
for
trad
ing
July
1979
.³T
hede
flat
orus
edis
the
indu
stri
alco
untr
ies'
unit
valu
e(c.i.f.)
index
ofmanufactured
expo
rte
tode
velo
ping
coun
trie
s.4T
hest
erli
ngpr
ice
quot
atio
nsha
vebeen
conv
erte
dto
USdollars
atth
eperiod
average
rate.
Sour
ces:
Comm
odit
yTrade
and
Pric
eTrends
1983
-84.
IBRD
/The
World
Bank
Worl
dMe
tal
Statistics
Bulletin,
World
Bure
auof
Metal
Stat
isti
csIMF
International
Fina
ncial
Stat
isti
cs,
October
1984
MDF/W/21Page 45
CHART VI
Canadian Nickel Prices 1950-1983
(US$/metric ton)
Source: Commodity Trade and Price Trends 1983-1984 IBRD/The World Bank
10000
zo1--ci
p-w
inm
MDF/W/21Page 46
71. On the basis of 1982 constant dollars nickel prices rose from US$1.95per lb. in 1950 to US$3.20 per lb in 1982 a rise of 64 per cent comparedwith the six-fold rise in current prices, and there vas a rise of 39 percent in 1982 constant prices between 1950 and 1967. The first period ofprices upheaval was 1967-1972 when producer prices increased sharply. Thishas been imputed to three factors. The prolonged strike in Canada in1967-68 and the resultant shortages of supplies, the market rise inproduction cost which took place at that time and the rising level ofconsumption.
72. The result of the fast rise in prices between 1967 and 1972 and thetechnological breakthrough in laterite ore processing in the 1960s vas asurge in the development of and output from laterites which aresignificantly more expensive then sulfide ores. Consequently, althoughproduction increased considerably between 1965 and 1975, prices were kepthigh te meet rising production costs. The world economy entered into arecession in 1974-1975, with the result that consumption declinedconsiderably in 1975. During 1975 and 1976 world production of nickel isestimated to have exceeded consumption by 221,000 tons, as the expectedeconomic recovery failed to materialize. With producers holding largestocks of nickel and market demand weak the stage was set in 1977 for aconsiderable lowering of the official producer price and a reduction incapacity utilization by the major producers. This did not prevent theproducer price from becoming the target of discounting by some producers,sometimes by as much a 5 to 10 per cent below the official posted price.Faced with increasing inventories, a decreasing market share and heavydiscounting by other competitors, INCO, in the course of 1977 rescinded aprice increase implemented in October 1976 and stopped publishing itsprices.
73. In early 1978 nickel stocks amounted to about eight months' suppliescompared with the normal level of two to three months and prices stayed atpre 1977 levels. In the course of 1978 there was improvement on the nickelmarket as consumption, following the recovery in the world economy, rose by9 per cent at the same time as production declined by 23 per cent from theprevious years' level. Producer stocks began to fall so sharply that bymid-1979 they amounted to four to five months consumption, still aboutdouble the normal inventory requirements. Similar reductions in consumers'stocks were observed as high interest rates outweighed the benefits ofholding large stocks. With the rapid depletion of producer stocks in early1979 caused by high demand, curtailed production, and the continuing workstoppage at nickel mines in Canada, INCO reinstated posted prices inFebruary and by the end of the year the producer price was at a levelconsiderably higher than that of 1978. Table 12 shows the evolution ofworld stocks of unwrought nickel in the markets economy countries betweenthe years 1976 and 1984. This Table also shows the current United StatesGSA strategic stockpile of nickel to amount to 29,000 metric tons comparedto an objective of 181,000 tons, virtually unchanged since 1976.
1Institute for World Economy - University of Kiel, - Working Paper No.160 -(1982).
Tabl
e12
Worl
dStocks
ofUnwrought
Nick
el,
1976-1984
nickel
plus
nickel
contained
infe
rro-
nick
el,
nickel
oxid
ean
dfo
nte,
excl
udin
gnickel
in
scrap
form.
Latest
avai
labl
einformation
contains
stocks
held
by:
Japanese
and
Brazilian
producers
for
months
of
-United
States
consumer
for
June.
-LME
and
Unit
edSt
ates
Stoc
kpil
efor
Augu
st.
3Nickel
metal
stocks
held
byJapa
nese
smelters
are
incl
uded
.4Opened
for
trading
July
1979.
5Nickel
instockpile
was
sold
tothe
United
Stat
esBureau
ofMi
nt,
unde
rlo
ng-t
erm,
contract.
July
and
April.
u
Source:
-Wo
rld
Meta
lSt
atis
tics
Bull
etin
,World
Bureau
ofMe
tal
Stat
isti
cs.
-Office
ofPreparedness,
Ceneral
Serv
ices
Administration,
Non-Ferrous
Metal
Data
1976
-198
3,American
Bure
auof
Metal
Stat
isti
cs,
INC,
New
York
.
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
198>
4
Commercial
stoc
ks
33
3Producers
130
225
145
65108
111
8564
7
Cons
umer
s44
2328
3120
2717
2613
Merc
hant
s5
73
33
28
7n.
a.
LME4
--
64
27
2820
Total
179
254
176
106
136
142
117
124
n.a.
Non-
Comm
erci
alSt
ocks
Stra
tegi
cSt
ockp
ile:
USA
n.a.
3432
30
329
2929
29
(cur
rent
stockpile
objective)
(185
)(1
85)
(185
)(185)
(181)
(181)
(181
)(181)
n.a.
¹Sto
cks
ofrefined
(in
thousand
metric
tone
s)
MDF/W/21Page 48
74. The upturn in the nickel industry however did not last as the worldeconomy entered a recession in late 1980 which lasted until 1982.Reflecting a 10 per cent decline in world nickel consumption in 1980 withthe ensuing rise in inventories, INCO effected in November 1980 a 6 percent discount on its prices which had been listed at US$3.42 per lb.Meanwhile, nickel trading in the London Metal Exchange which had beenintroduced in 1979 was beginning to influence free market prices which weregaining in importance. Although posted prices in the second half of 1981averaged US$3.41 per lb, many producers were offering nickel at prices aslow as US$2.80 per lb including up to 150 - day credit terms. By the endof November 1981, INCO and the other major producers had reduced theirprices to US$3.20 per lb together with 6 per cent discount for nickeldelivered up to February 1982. The fall in prices continued in 1982 andreached dramatic proportions in tce third quarter when free market pricesreached as low at US$1.56 per lb. INCO producer price quotations stillmaintained at US$3.20 per lb were by now only of nominal significance.
75. However by the end of the year the recession had begun to ease and therecovery continued in 1983 resulting in greatly increasedd stainless steeland nickel consumption. Although mine production picked up in 1983 thiscould not prevent a supply devicit and there was a substantial producerdestocking, bringing inventories to their lowest level for a long time.However, the coming on-stream of new projects such as Cerro Matoso inColombia, Codemin in Brazil and Feni in Yugoslavia and the reopening ofmines by INCO, Falconbridge and Marinduque helped to maintain the market ina continuous state of over-supply. The free market price averaged US$2.13per lb throughout 1983, and realized producer quotations were only slightlyhigher with INCO prices averaging US$2.25 per lb and Falconbridge averagingUS$2.16 per lb. With world economic recovery well established in 1984consumption of nickel in the developed market-economy countries isestimated to have been 10 per cent higher than the 1983 level of512,000 tonnes, thus surpassing the 1979 record high of 522,000 tonnes.The rise in prices was however modest with free market prices in 1984averaging US$2.16 per lb. This has been imputed to a number of factors,among which was the fact that nickel production rose substantially andwhatever supply deficit remaining was made up by removal from LME stocks.
SECTION III: International Trade
76. Primary nickel is heavily traded internationally by virtue of itsimportance as a major industrial raw material. Nickel products tradedinternationally can be classified into four main groups; ores andconcentrates; intermediate products such as matte, and speiss; refinedproducts such as electrolytic cathodes, pellets, briquets, rondels, nickel89 as well as nickel oxide sinter and ferro-nickel; and semi-manufacturedrefined products. Old nickel scrap is also traded internationally andoften classified under unwrought nickel.
All the main producers responded to the collapse in prices bproduction cut-backs, production suspensions and mine shutdowns. INCOabandoned the Eximbal project in Guatemala indefinitely.
²It must be pointed out that due to the rise in the value of thedollar, these prices, low as they appear, compared favourably withpre-recession prices. Moreover, the major producers in developed count-ieshave managed to cut down costs and have again become marginally profitableeven at the prevailing low prices.
MDF/W/21Page 49
77. This section is devoted to an analysis of export and import trade inthe first three groups of products mentioned above. The analysis ishowever, greatly handicapped by the absence of well established andclassified statistical data in certain countries. There is also an absenceof statistical uniformity in the product classification, and in some majorproducing countries quantum trade figures are not provided in availablestatistical sources. The accompanying export and import trade Tables mustonly be considered as indicative since aggregation has been done with somereservation. The pattern of trade in all three groups of products isdetermined by two main factors; the normal trade flows between the primaryproducers and the main consuming countries, and the corporate structure ofthe nickel industry. Thus, semi-processed nickel is either shipped betweenthe mining and processing facilities of the same company but in differentcountries or, between independent companies in different countries. Mattefrom Canada is exported to the United Kingdom by INCO and to Norway byFalconbridge for refining and, in the same way, SLN exports matte from NewCaledonia for refining in France. On the other hand, normal commercialtransactions take place between producers in Canada, New Caledonia,Indonesia, Australia, Philippines, Botswana etc., and refinery producers inthe United States, Japan and Western Europe. Cuba exports a large part ofits production to the centrally planned economies of Eastern Europe.
78. The centrally-planned economies are by and large self-sufficient innickel and have for a number of years been exporting significant quantitiesto the market economy countries, with the USSR as the main exporter.Detailed statistics from these countries indicate, as Table 13 shows, thatexports from these sources to the market economies estimated from importingsources reached about 327000 metric tones in 1980 but declined slightly toabout 31,000 metric tonnes in 1983.
79. Available statistics indicate that exports of unwrought nickel rosesteadily in the 1960s and 1970s. From a level of 301,000 metric tonnes in1960 exports from the market economy countries reached 529,000 tonnes in1970. Since then exports have tended to fluctuate considerably followingthe overall trends in the world economy. They reached about 617,000 tonnesin 1974 but fluctuated downwards to around 512,00 tonnes in 1980. Therewas a sharp fall in exports during the 1980-82 economic recession so thatby 1982 they were standing at an estimated 335,000 tonnes. Despite theeconomic recovery in 1983 exports hardly increased over those of thepreceding year.
80. The share of developing countries in total nickel export hasincreased substantially during the last twenty years. In 1960 this sharewas estimated at 17 per cent, by 1970 it has increased to 35 per cent andin 1980 it was estimated at 40 per cent.² This share is estimated to havefallen to about 37.5 per cent in 1983 but is expected to recover eventuallyto the pre-recession level.
Nickel Handbook - World Bank 1981
²Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities. Volume IV - Metalsand Minerals - page 53. (World Bank - July 1982)
Tabl
e13
Exports
ofNi
ckel
-llitwrought
Prod
ucts
Main
Expo
rter
s
World
Tota
l
Develo
ping
unties¹a
Braz
ilBo
tswa
na²
Cuba
Dominican
Rep4
Indo
nesi
a5Ne
wCaledonta
Philippines
Zim
babw
e6
DeveIopedCountries
Australia7
EEC9
Finl
and
Japan
Horway
Unit
edStates
South
Africa10
Cent
rall
yanneaiIdountalrs11aa'
German,
D.A.
Hungary
USSR
Ores
and
Concentrates
1970
96.0
82.1 6.3
15.2 1.2
0.5
1912
;1.4
61.3
16.7
40.8 5.8
10.1
9 0.4
19)5
_._
12.8
44.J 0.5
4.5<
0.4
11
)1102
41.0
117,1
28.0 7.5 ,.8
1 0.5
64.1
fil.
.
17.7
368
9.6
0.6
0.6
3.8
53.6
16.8
29.8 7.0
0.2
41.9
14.4
27.3 S.)
0.4
0.1
53.9
35.6
10.1
20.3 5.0
18.3
18.0'
0.3
Hatte,
apeissand
other
inte
rmed
iate
1aa.
products
19101
1)9
1119
15
n.9
17.8
15.6
145.
0
10.0'
127.
57.5
*Fer
ro-n
icke
l"E
stim
ates
¹Colombia
star
ted
production
in19
82an
dth
eannual
ferr
o-ni
ckel
prod
ucti
onis
esti
mate
dat
22.5
thousand.
Expo
rtin
1983
was
12.3
thousand
tons
of
nickel
content.
²Exports
are
inthe
form
ofco
pper
-nic
kel
xuit
tesh
own
here
innickel
cont
ent.
³Exports
ofCuba
aremainly
matt
ean
dni
ckel
oxide
sint
er.
4Exp
orts
ofDominican
Republic
are
inth
efo
rmof
ferr
o-ni
ckel
s.Expo
rts
ofIn
done
sia
are
ores,
matte
and
ferr
o-ni
ckel
.6Exports
ofZi
mbab
weare
all
inrefined
nick
elpr
oduc
ts.
Sources:
Nati
onal
Stat
isti
cs.
1II1Commodity
Trade
Statistics
-various
trades.a
IiHYe
arbo
okof
International
Trade
Stat
isti
cs-
various
issu
es.
Mining
Annual
Review
-various issues
Worl
dMeta
IStatistics
-various
issues
Metal
Bull
etin
Handbook
-va
riou
sissues
Minerals
Yearbook
-v.aious
issu
es.,
sa.,
nà
17.1
20.6
12.0
114.2
4.2
6.4
16.6
19.4
153.5
0.1'
'822.9
0.5_
1918^
176.
6
16.1
16.2
12.2
16.5
115.6
,47.
166
.9 L.6
184.
1
15.4
16.1
30.5
16.4
105.1
5170,
42.6 4.1
1.4
19H1
11982
1983
18.4
18.(
32.1
17.6
108.1
1,8.0
53.5
4.1
2.1
7In
the
absence
ofdetails
145.
0
17.1
16.2
25.0 7.9
141.6
68.5
18.2
28
3.7
18.1
13.3
47.3
29.51
21.0
40.1
2.01
3.21
1.8
0.3
1910
269.1
62.3 2.0
16.2
16.2
27.9
206.8
1.0
139.
012
.1 4.4*'
3.0
0.1, 5.5
3.5
1972
('000
metric
tons
ofmetal
content)
Ferro-nickel,
nick
elox
ide
sint
er,
unwrought
nickel
and
nick
elal
loys
1915
339.
3
1978
379.9
92.6
jL14-4
IWII
2.0
12.3
16.6
12.3
39.4 e00
1
16.5
109.
7
18.6
6.1te
4.7
6.0e'
40.2 1.9
10.2
2.0
12.6
2S.2
12.6
42.7 6.3
13.0e
32.9
90.1
14.3
17.80a
5.8
1.5
1IMe
29.s 6.1
10.7e
14.0
0.1
0.1
13.6
19.5
20.0
19.5
25.2
12.0
16.5
317.3
105.
710.2.
14.3
*é5.
9
3.0 7.6il
40..
10.6
21.S
0.2
0.3
21.4
1980
396.
1
129.2
19.4
19.4
32.1
24.*
14.4 I]
105.1I
8.4
93j0
11.1 1.3
60*
6.0
31.2
12.*
6
14.2e
12.4 0.2
0.2
31.0
1951
395.5
11S.
7
19.5
19.6
19.5
27.3
18.1
I11.
7
42.5
94.3
14.0
15.S
an11
.11.3
1.2*'
36.9
IS.1
15.0e
26* 0.2
0.5
2S.6
ofAustralian
expo
rttr
ade,
figures
give
nhere
are
for
1982
1l98i
90.1
17.2 5.6
17.2
26S
Il.}
12.0
_221.5
45.9
76.8
8.1 4*'
9.t
0.3
1.5*
29.2
31.3
13.20
31.0
0.1
0.1
30.8
351.3
110.
0
0.1
19.0n
20.9
19Oe
22.9
12.1
16.0
216.
6
41.8
78.1
11.3
5.2*
'11.3
0.3
30.0
20.1
13.6e
30.1 0.6
10.1
Inte
rmed
iate
prod
ucts
are
esti
mate
san
dthose
for
refined
prod
ucts
reflect
smel
ter
production.
8Products
ofintermediate
meta
llur
gyexported
byCanada
arema
tte
and
nickel
oxid
e.Ot
her
expo
rts
are
refined
unwrought
nickel
i.e.
anodes,
cathodes.
ingots,
rode
etc.
9For
purp
oses
ofcomparison
figu
res
aregiven
for
EEC
often.
Intr
aEEC
trad
eis
also
excluded.
10South
Africa
expo
rted
refi
ned
nick
elproduct
mostly
briquettes.
11The
figures
inthis
tabl
erefer
only
toex
tra-
CHEAtrade.
Stat
isti
csfor
the
years
preceeding
1975
are
not
avai
labl
e.
l
:
inMn
ID-fl X:
V%.
.CD
1\j
178.
418H.
7I9
0 j6.S
11.41
IR.21
L.2.L.
1Él.
01..
1j66
.9
11-3_-'
i11
-'(_-'D
1LI.-
S.31
12S
3-'l
MDF/W/21Page 51
81. In the sub-sections which follow an attempt is made to analyse tradeflows in the different categories of nickel products.
13. Ores and concentrates
82. Raw nickel ores are exported by only three major producers, NewCaledonia, Indonesia and the Philippines, in order of importance.Virtually all exports go to Japan, which is the only major importer ofnickel ores. Exports of ores have, however, tended to decline in recentyears. Estimated at a gross weight of about 4.7 million tonnes in 1970,imports by Japan have declined to about 2.3 million tonnes in 1983.Exports of concentrates are more diffused and as in the case ofintermediate products such as matte and nickel oxides, intra-company flowsplay a major role. Thus, matte from SLN operations in New Caledonia areshipped for smelting and refining in France while INCO and Falconbridge inCanada export nickel oxide and matte to refineries i the United Kingdomand Norway respectively. Australia is the only other exporter ofconcentrates in significant quantities. The amount of trade inconcentrates is not easy to estimate since trade statistics often groupores and concentrates together or ores, concentrates and matte together.Their share of world trade in nickel products is however in decline asproducers increasingly prefer to export products il a more processed form.
14. Intermediate products
83. As implied in this study intermediate products of nickel compriseproducts other than ores and concentrates which are subjected to furtherprocessing before the refining stage and they include matte, speiss andnickel oxide. In 1983 they accounted for about 28.7 per cent of totalexports of nickel products. As the export Table shows developed countriesaccount for most of the intermediate products which are internationallytraded, with Canada as the largest exporter. The Canadian exports ofintermediate products which are mainly in the form of matte and nickeloxide have declined from 127,500 metric tonnes in 1970 to about 40,000tonnes in 1983. Estimated exports of Australia have, on the other hand,increased from about 25,500 metric tonnes in 1970 to about 42,000 tonnes in1983. Until the recession of 1982 exports of matte by New Caledoniaaveraged between 15,000 and 20,000 metric tonnes destined for refining inFrance and Japan. Other major exporter of matte among the developingcountries are Botswana and Indonesia. Until recently most of the export ofnickel-copper matte from Botswana vent to AMAX refining plants in theUnited States and some to Zimbabwe. Matte exports of Indonesia go mainlyto Japan. After the production cut backs resulting from the recentrecession exports of matte from New Caledonia which reached a low point of3,700 tons in 1983 are estimated to have gone up in 1984. Some oxide isalso exported by Cuba to Japan, the EEC and India, etc.
15. Refined nickel products
84. Products being considered in this study as refined products comprisethe normal Class I products such as electrolytic cathodes, pellet,briquets, rondels and nickel 98 as vell as nickel alloys. Nickel oxidesingers and ferro-nickel are also considered as refined products. Refinedproducts accounted for about 65 per cent of total exports of nickel
¹Exports of matte and ferro-nickel in 1984 are estimated to havereached 36,000 metric tonnes of nickel content, compared with 26,648 tonnesin 1983 and 34,753 tonnes in 1982.
MDF/W/21Page 52
products in 1983. The export table shows that in 1983 five developingcountries other than Cuba were substantial exporters of refined nickelproducts. They were the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Indonesia, NewCaledonia, which export mostly ferro-nickel, the Philippines, which exportsbriquettes and other products and Cuba and Zimbabwe, which export mostlyrefined products. In contrast, New Caledonia vas practically the onlydeveloping territory exporting ferro-nickel in 1970. Developing countrieson the whole accounted for about 29 per cent of total exports of refinednickel products by the market economy countries in 1983 and this share isexpected to grow in the future as production from laterite deposits gain anincreasing share of the market in nickel products. Canada is the largestexporter of refined nickel products in the world accounting in 1983 forabout 24 per cent of the total exports of the market economy countries.This, however, shows a considerable fall from its share of about 61 percent in 1970. Other major exporters are Norway, United States, Japan,Australia, EEC and Finland.
85. The larges importer of refined nickel products is the United States,followed by the EEC and Japan, which together with other industralizedcountries of Western Europe, accounted in 1983 for over 90 per cent oftotal imports of the market economy countries. Import trade in nickelproducts is analysed in Table 14.
16. Direction of Trade
85. Tables 15 and 16 show the direction of import and export trade innickel products. As has been indicated earlier, trade flows in nickelproducts follow a pattern typical of many other metals. Ores, concentratesand semi-processed products are often shipped from production centres indeveloping and developed countries mostly to developed countries forsmelting, refining and fabrication. Exports of refined and sometimessemi-refined products are shipped, in most cases, from producing toconsuming developed and developing countries. In view of the ratherconcentrated corporate structure of the world nickel industry,intra-company operations also influence the direction of trade considerably(the overall number of exporters of nickel products is rather small).Table 16 indicates that among the developing countries the principalexporters of nickel products are New Caledonia, Cuba, Indonesia,Philippines, Dominican Republic, Zimbabwe, Colombia, Botswana and Brazil,while the principal developed country exporters are Canada, Norway,Australia, EEC, United States, Finland and Japan. This Table, like manyother statistical tables on nickel, is deficient in a number of ways. Manynational statistics differ in their product classifications, figures aresometimes given in gross weight instead of metal content or in valueinstead of quantities, and some countries fail to list export markets.
87. New Caledonia is by far the largest exporter among the developingcountries. It exports ores to Japan, nickel matte to the EEC and morespecifically to France and ferro-nickel to the EEC, Japan, Spain, Swedenand the United States. Indonesia exports substantial quantities of ore toJapan, which also receives most of its export of matte. The rest of itsmatte export goes mainly to the EEC; its ferro-nickel exports go mainly tothe EEC, Japan, Sweden and the United States. Dominican Republic exportsall its nickel production in the form of ferro-nickel to the EEC, Canada,Japan, Spain, Sweden and the United States. The Philippines exports somenickel ore and sulfide concentrates to Japan and the rest of its productionin the form of ferro-nickel and refined products goes mainly to the EEC,
Tabl
e14
Importsof
Nickel
(Unwrought)
(000'm
etric
times;
metal
content)
Ores
and
conc
entr
ates
Matt
e,speiss
and
other
inte
rmed
iate
prod
ucts
Ferro-nickel,
nick
elox
idesinter,
ofnickel
meta
llur
gyunw
rought
nick
elandn
icke
lalloys
Impo
rter
s19
1019
7219
1519
7819
801981
1982
1903
1910
1972
1975
1978
1980
1981
1982
1963
1910
1912
1975
1978
1980
1961
1982
1983
WorldTotal
153.1
104.7
100.6
105.
812
0.8
111.
494
.283.8
166.
315
0.4
146.2
159.1
209.
418
5.7
138.6
147.
129
9.9
314.
529
9.7
311.1
288.4
293.3
257.
5308.5
Developing
Coun
trie
s_
__
2.6
_0.
1n.
a.n.a.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.7
3.1
2.4
0.5
0.4
4.4
3.5
3.3
14.1
17.9
17.9
15.2
19.6
Arge
ntia
____
n.a.
..
..
..
n.a.
__0.6
0.8
0.4
0.4
n.n.
Braz
il_
__
_.
..
..0.3
2.7
-_
__
3.0
S.7
4.9
1.7
0.2
India
__
_-
0.1
n.a.
n.a.
__
__
0.2
1.9
n.a
n.a.
2.9
2.4
3.1
3.6
3.2
6.9
L.lP
7.Ot
Spain
--
-2.
6_
n.a
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.3
--
-6.
76.3
3.6
5.0
11.0
Yugoslavia
--
--
__
__
_0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
1.5
1.1
0.2
0.2
1.9
2.1
1.1
1.4
Develo
pedCountries
153.
110
4.1
100.6
103.
2120.8
111.
394
.283
.8165.9
50.1
146.
015
8.4
206.
3183.3
138.1
146.7
295.
5311.0
294.
9297.0
267.1
273.
6240.1
286.5
Aust
ria
--
--
--
-_
0.8
0.8
0.7
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.5
2.5
2.4
1.9
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.1
5.9
Aust
rali
a-
--
-0.
1-
-_
0.8
0.8
0.4
l.2
2.0
--
0.3
2.2
1.1
1.4
3.2
1.7
1.5
1.9
1.4
Finl
and
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3
-_
_1.8
7.5
6.3
7.8
9.9
0.2
0.1
0.3
2.3
4.3
2.4
2.9
5.0
EEC¹
--
--
0.1
0.2
0.0
64.2
59.9
56.9
5,0.6
55.3
56.8
34.2
38.3
100.9
87.1
69.4
69.1
88.6
75.5
81.6
77.5
38.
46.
69.5*e
33.
4.25.60
27.5
44.(
yCanada²
26.9
22.1
17.9
3l.9
26.1
23.8
22.3
29.3
--
__
__
__
11.2
16.8
11.9
4.0
5.2
2.9
3.6
3.3
Norway
--
--
--
-_
54.
50.9
44.1
35.9
57.7
44.5
33.2
33.4
--
--
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
Swed
en-
--
--
0.2
-_
2.1.
52.
05.4
4.4
3.1
2.6
4.0
18.7
15.4
13.9
8.3
10.8
8.0
10.9
9.5
Japa
n3125.9
81.9
82.4
70.9
91.5
80.9
70.1
54.2
14.
10.1
21.4
24.0
42.8
30.4
33.4
30.7
7.6
12.3
8.6
10.9
15.6
17.4
19.9
21.01
1.6e
2.3
3,4P
1.10
.9.
3*e
10.4
12.8
*Un
ited
States4
--
--
2.8
5.8
1.3
-29
.426.1
20.5
38.5
35.6
41.6
26.3
29.6
106.5
113.7
98.5
13.2
122.6
128.
279
.299
.85.8
13.1
16.1
*e20.4
--
--
Cent
rall
y-Pl
anne
dCountries5
1.5
0.7
3.4
1.8
2.2
2.4
Czechoslavakia
0.4
0.4
0.7
1.1
I.1
1.2
Germ
an,
D.R.
-0.
10.
30.
10.2
0.5
Romania
0.3
-1.6
0.2
0.3
0.7
NorthKo
rean
_0.
80.2
0.8
0.4
0.6
-
*Fer
ro-n
icke
l.Est
imates
.For
purpos
esof
compar
isont
hefigures
for
the
EECco
ver
tenmem
bercou
ntries
.2 Ores
andco
ncen
trat
esfi
gure
sco
veralso
scraps
andmatte.
Japan
impo
rtsores
and
concentrates,
aswell
asmat
te,fe
rro-
nick
el,
unwrou
ghtrefinedni
ckel
and
nick
elal
loys
.4F
igur
esfo
rintemediate
products
includenickel
oxide
ingr
oss
weight
(000'm
etric
tonn
es)
i.e.
1970
-5.
7;1972
-5.
4;19
75-
4.0;
1978
-5.
5;1980
-4.2;
1981
-3.91
1982
-2.8;
1983
-3.
8.
The
figures
inth
istableexcludes
tradeamongm
emberco
untr
ies
ofth
eCMFA.
Statistics
for
theyears
preceding
1975
arenotav
aila
ble.
MDF/W/21Page 54 Table15
Direction of Trade by MainImporters, 1983(thousandmetrictons)
Matte, speiss and otherImporting countries Ores andconcentrates intermediateproducts of Uuwrought Nickel
nickel metallurgy _
Total (Ni contant)AustraliaAustriaBrazilChileEECNorwayPeruSouth AfricaUnited States
Total
Total (gross weight)Norway
TotalNetherlands)
29.3
0.30.10.15.82.70.11.3
L2.3
0.1
12.212.2
0.1:TT
Total
Australia
AustriaCanada
CubaNew Caledonia
South AfricaSpainSwedenUnited States
Toctl (Ni contant)AustraliaCanada
UCEEC
Total
CubaEEC
63.6
7.20.426.62.25.7O.L0.2
0. L0.10.L
9.9
4.90.4
1.9
0.81.0
TotalDominicanRap.EEC
NorwayUnited States
(i) Total (ferro-nickel)Austria
BrazilColombiaDominican
lndonesiaJapanNew Caledonia
(ii) Total (unwrought)htavr=ths)
Canada
Cuba
NorwayphilippinesSouth AfricaSwitzerlandUnited States
USSRZimbabweOther
TotalAustraliaCanada
USSROther
TotalAustraliaCanadaCuba
NorwayFinland
PhilippinesSingaporeUnited States
USSR
3.'
0.30.7L.01.4
125.82.2,
5.95.1
L4.0.4
7.G9.*
79 *8
0.6
77.5
7.1
0.34.99.50.97.70. 113. &15.44.00.5
5.OL.21.70.30.31.C40.1
9.3
1.60.24.20.20.30.11.10.2a.*
¹Includesscrap.
²For theyear 1981-82.
3Ferro-nickel.
4lncludes mixed oxide and nickel salts.Sources: Canada, Finland, Japan: Metal Statistics Bulletin, January 1985, World Bureau of Statistics, London.
EEC: Nimexe 1983, Analytical Tablesof ForeignTrade, Exports, Eurostat.
Finland: Foreign Trade 1983, Vol I, Official Statistics of Finand, Board of Customs,Helsinski1984.India: Monthly statistics of the ForeignTrade of lndia, Vol II- Imports, March 1982, Diractorate Generalof Commercial IntlligenceaelTac*ti&tice,and Stalasies. Calcutta.Japan: Exports and Imports/83.12, Japan Tariff Association.Spain: Estadistica del ComercioExterior de Espans, Tou I, Enaro-Diciembre 1983, Direccion General de
Aduanas.
Sweden: Utrilkeshandal 1983, Kwartals Statistic import, Januari-december, Statistika Contralbytan.Norway: Commodity Trade Statistics: Jan-Dec 1983, UN Statistical Office.
Canada
EEC
Finland
India²
________.___ ._____________________ . =iw
Table 15 (cont'd)Direction of Trade by Main Importers, 1983
(thousand matric tons)
MDF/W/21Page 55
Matte, spaise and otherImporting countries Ores and concentrates intermediate products of Unwrought Nickel
CamA__
Total (gross weight)IndonesiaNew Caledonia
Philippines
Total (grossweight)AustraliaCubalndonesia
Total (gross weight)
CanadaEECFinlandlndonesiaSouth AfricaUnited States
Total
CubaEECNorwayUnited StatesOther
chr
otalOther
Total (millioncoutant pouned)
SEC&I
3S.:
0.:21.;
63.1
56.1
1.0.0.
0.0.2.8
O4.
1.O.
2.8
0.4
______________________________________________ I~~~~~~~~~~~~
(1) Total (ferro-nickel)(grossweight
ColombiaDomonicanRep.lndonesiaNew Caledania
(iil) Total (refined nickel)AustraliaCanadaEEC
NorwayPhilippinesSouth AfricaUnited StatesUSSR
Other
Total
CanadaDominican Rep.EECFinlandNew Caledonia
NorwayphilippinesSouth AfricaUnited StatesZimbabwe
TotalAustriaBrazilColombiaDominicanRep.EEClndonesiaJapanNew CalendoniaYugoslavia
(i) Ferro-nickeltotal (Ni content)Total(grossweight)Other
Total (millioncontent pounds)BrazilColombiaDominican Rep.EEC (Netherlands)lndonesiaJapanNew CaledoniaYugoslaviaOther
(ii) Refined nickelTotalAustralia
CanadaEECFinlandJapanHorwayPhilippinesSouth AfricaUSSRZimbabweOther
36.7
2.37.010.6L6.8
il.) 2J. 1
7.40.50.8L.92.30.62.05.'2.00. 1
11.0
1.60.76.10.10.3
w 0.20.10.40.60.6
12.930.52.S0.62.20.71.30.94.00. L
15.1W.732.1
31.3
1.94.316.00.61.01.8S.10.30.1
84.710.10.1
38.32: ._. _
5.33.1L0.111.3L. 14.04.0S 4
2 297. 1
1. 135. 7452.6
.TaPc
Spin
United States
MDF/W/21Page 56
Table 16
Direction of Trade by Main Suppliors, 1983(thousand matric tons)
Matta,speiss and otherExporting countries¹ Ores and concentrates intermediate products of Unwrought Nickel
nickel metallurgy
Australia Total (gross weight) 863.7 Total n.a. Total n.a.EEC 412.1Japan 466.9Philippines 1.4Other 1.7
Brazil Total 15.5
Switzerland 1.6United States 2.7
Canada Total (Ni content) 40.15 Total6 78.1 |EEC(United Kingdom) 17.3 UEC 19.6Norway 22.8 United States 42.9
Other C
Colombia7
Cuba8 Total 37.8Austria 0.8Czechoslovakia 3.5EEC 6.6Germany D.R. 1.4Hungary 0.6India 0.3Japan 1.4Korea, Rep. of 0.5Mexico 0.2Poland 0.5Romania 1.4Spain 1.0Sweden 0.7
. . USSR 18.1Other 0.8
Dominican Republic * Total (gross weight) 53.8EEC (Netherlands) 1.3United States 8.2Other 44.3
¹Botawana exports copper and nickel matte mostly to the United States - detailed crade information is notavailable.Zimbabwe exports refined nickel productsavailable.
to Western Europe, and theUnited States - detailed crade information is not
2Quantity exported of domestic production.3Value of USS205.6 million (quantity and destination are country confidential)4Value of USS132.4 million (quatity and destination are country confidential)5Contains nickel matte6lncluding nickel oxide sinter7Since mining stated in 1982 the annual ferro-nickel production estimates at 22.5 thousand matric tonshas been
exported to Europe, Japan and the United States - detailed trade information is not available.8Figures for 1980. Cuba export matte, nickel oxide, and nickel oxide sinter9Value of USS94. 7 million (quantity and destination unspecified)
Sources: Canada, Dominican Republic, Finland, Japan, New Caledonia, Philippines, United States: Metal StatisticsBulletin, January 1985, World Bureau of Statistics. London.Australia: Foreign Trade, Exports and Imports, 1982-83, Part 1, Australian Bureau of Scatistics.Brazil: Comercio Exterior do Brasil, Vol.1, Exportacao, Banco do Brasil SA., CACEX.Cuba: Commodity Trade Scatistics, Jan-Dec 1980, UN Statistical Office.EC: Nimexe 1983, Analytical Tables of Foreign Trade, Exports, Eurostat.Indonesia: Exports 1983, Buro Pusat Scatistik; Mining Annual Review 1984, published by Mining Journal,London, June 1984.Norway Commodity Trade Statistics, Jan-Dec 1983, UN Statistical Office.South Africa: Foreign Trade Statistics, Vol.I, Imports and Exports, Calendar Year 1982.
Exchange rates: (i) Australia 1983: US$O.9025 per AS; (ii) South Africa 1982: US$0.9228 per rand.International Financial Statistics, IMF, 1984.
Table 16 (cont'd)
Direction of trade by Main Suppliers, 1983(thousand metric tons)
Matte,speiss and otherExporting countries¹ Ores and concentrates intermediate products of Uwrought Nickel
nickel metallurgy
EEC
Finland
Indonesia
Japan
New Caledonia
Norway
Philippines
South Africa
United States
Total (gross weight)Norway
Total (gross weight)Japan
Total (Ni content)Japan
Total (gross weight)Finland
Total (Ni content)
1.01.0
515.0515.0
20.320.3
10.010.0
5
Total (gross weight)AustriaCanadaSpainSwedonOther
Total (Ni content)Total gross weight)EECNetherlands)JapanSingapore
Total (Ni content)EEC (France)Other
Total
S.50.11.30.70.92. 5
17.146.012.833 00.1
8.07.0L.0
9i.a.-
(i) TotalAustriaFinlandlndiaSpainSweden
(Ferro-Nickel)
(ii) Total (unwrought)AustriaCanadaChina, P.R.CzechoslovakiaGermany, D. R.Hong KongIndiaIranJapanPakistanSpain
SwiterlandTurkeyUnited StatesOther
Total (Ni content)CzechoslovakiaEECGermany, D.R.Hong KongJapanPortugalRomaniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited StatesOther
Total (Ni content)
Total (gross weight)EECKorea,Rep.ofUnited StatesOther
Total (Ni content)EEC (France)Other
TotalArgentinaAustriaBrazilCanadaEECHong KongIndiaIndonesiaJapanKorea, Rep.ofMexicoSingaporeSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited StatesOther
Total
JapanUnited StatesOther
TotalCanadaEEC (Neherlands)Other
1) 14.91.34.70.64.63.8
11.304
1.60.70.90.30.20.60.30.70. 10.91.00.20.22.01.1
- 11.30.35.20.20.30.90. 10.20.20.80.22. 7
0.2
5.7
L3.78.10.25.00.4
23.0
11.0
30.00.20.10. 11.58.51.90.60.1180.10. 10.20. 10.41.1
L3.00.4
12.1I.04.05.8L.2
20.3
17.42.5~~~~.
MDF/W/21Page 57
MDF/W/21Page 58
Japan, United States, India and Spain. Brazil exports most of its nickelproduction in the form of ferro-nickel and the rest in the form ofelectrolytic cathodes, with exports going mainly to the EEC, Switzerlandand the United States. Botswana has been exporting copper-nickel mattefor about a decade mostly to AMAX in the United States, and until recentlyto Zimbabwe (RTMZ). Zimbabwe has been a major developing country exporterof refined nickel since 1972. Its exports, mainly in the form of nickelcathodes, go to the EEC, Japan, Spain and the United States. Nickelproduction in Colombia began in mid 1982 and the totality of its productionis exported as ferro-nickel to the EEC, Japan, United States and Sweden.Cuba exports some oxide to the EEC, India, Japan and Spain, but its mainexports are nickel oxide sinter which go to the EEC, India, and otherunspecified countries.
88. Exports of Canada, the biggest exporter of primary nickel in theworld, comprises of matte, soluble nickel oxide, nickel oxide sinter andrefined nickel. Matte and nickel oxide are exported by INCO andFalconbridge to their refineries in the United Kingdom and Norwayrespectively, while most of the oxide sinter exports go to the UnitedStates and the EEC. Canada's refined nickel exports go mostly to theUnited States and the EEC with the rest going mainly to Finland, Norway,Spain and India. The only other developed country which exportsintermediate nickel products in substantial quantities is Australia.Although no detailed list of export markets is available in Australiannational statistics, importing sources indicate that most of the exports ofAustralian nickel concentrates, matte and other intermediate products go toJapan, United States, EEC, Canada, and Finland.
89. Developed country exporters of refined nickel, including ferro-nickel,are numerous since many developed countries have refineries which producefor both domestic consumption and export. Exports comprise refined primarynickel as well as end use semi-manufactures. Canada, Norway, Australia,United States, South Africa, EEC, Finland and Japan are the main exportersof refined nickel among the developed market economy countries. Apart fromtrading among themselves, exports go to other developed countries withoutor with only limited nickel refinery production, such as Sweden,Switzerland and Austria. Exports also go to consumer developing countriesand some centrally-planned economy countries. The direction ofinternational trade in nickel scraps is not always shown in availablestatistical sources, but by virtue of being the main consumers of refinednickel products, developed countries are also the main exporters of usedscrap which normally find markets in countries with nickel refiningfacilities depending on the nature of the scrap.
A fourteen year agreement has been signed (March 1985) by whichFalconbridge International of Bermuda will replace Amax of the UnitedStates as the main customer for Botswana's nickel matte exports.Falconbridge will take 6,500 tonnes of matte in 1985, 21,000 tonnes in 1986and 42,000 tonnes annually from 1987 until the agreement expires in 1999.It will refine the matte at its Kristiansand refinery in Norway. It ishoped that the remaining 6,000 tonnes of Botswana's annual production willbe taken up by Zimbabwe (RTMZ).
MDF/W/21Page 59
90. Among the centrally-planned economy countries the main exporters ofnickel products to the non COMECON countries are the USSR, Hungary and theGerman Democratic Republic. Exports of the USSR, which are mainly in theform of electrolytic cathodes, go to the EEC, Finland, Japan, India, theUnited States and a number of other markets.
91. Table 15, which gives an outline of the direction of import trade innickel products, shows that Japan is the main importer or nickel ore whileCanada and Finland appear to be the other major importers of nickel rawmaterials mainly in the form of concentrates. The main importers ofintermediate nickel products mostly in the form of matte, and nickel oxide,are Norway, Japan, United States, EEC, Finland and Spain. The imports ofNorway are mostly matte from Falconbridge mines in Canada. Japan's importsare mainly nickel matte and speiss, while intermediate imports of theUnited States include matte, nickel salts. The member countries of the EECimport matte and oxides mainly from Australia and Canada. Finland receivesits import of matte and nickel oxides mainly from Canada and Australia.The EEC is by far the largest importer of refined primary nickel includingferro-nickel, followed in order of importance by the United States, Japan,Sweden, Spain, India and Finland.
SECTION IV: Commercial Policy Situation
92. This section discusses commercial policy measures affecting trade innickel and nickel products. First, it describes tariff concessions made bydeveloped countries on nickel in the Tokyo Round negotiations referring topre- and post-Tokyo Round rates. It also lists tariff concessions made byother countries. This part is followed by an analysis of trade follows innickel under different tariff treatment for countries participating in theTariff Study. Information on tariff treatment and trade flows for certaindeveloping countries is also presented. Some reference is made to theproblems of tariff escalation and effective tariff protection in the nickelindustry. This section is concluded with a description of non-tariffmeasures applied to trade in nickel and its products which have beennotified to GATT.
17. Tokyo Round Negotiations: tariff assessment
93. In a series of trade negotiations held in GATT, m.f.n. duties onnickel and nickel products have been reduced and bound in many countries.In this section, the main attention is focussed on the Tokyo Roundnegotiations and its results. It should however be borne in mind that anyattempt te measure the trade importance of tariff reductions encounters anumber of technical difficulties. "The main problem stems from theimpossibility to correctly assess the volume of trade which will begenerated by the agreed duty reductions. Instead of the future tradeincrement the past volume of trade is usually taken into consideration whenthe depth of the duty cuf on individual customs tariff lines is combined inthe overall assessment". The methodology worked out by the GATT WorkingParty on the tariff study was based on the comparison of the average levelof duties in the reference period before the negotiations on the agreedconcessional rates. Two tariff averages were used: the first tariff
1The Tokyo Round of MTNs, Report of the Director-General of GATT.
MDF/W/21Page 60
average was a simple arithmetic average of duty rates; the second vas aweighted average giying to each duty the weight of imports on which suchduty was collected.
94. Table 17 presents a comparison of pre- and post-Tokyo Round averagetariffs on all industrial products (excluding petroleum) with tariffaverages on unwrought nickel, nickel semi-manufactures and metalmanufactures (other non-ferrous metals included) for nine developed countrymarkets. eriff averages of all duty rates are calculated usingthe m.f. the national tariff llne level (in 1977, in somecases 19- -ntry concerned. Simple and weighted tariff averagesare bro ree groups of products divided according to thestage of lable 17 shows that tariff averages, both simple andweighted, : nickel and nickel manufactures are, in mostcountries, an those on all industrial products taken together. Theonly exception is the weighted tariff average on nickel semi-manufacturesin Japan. With respect to metal manufactures (other non-ferrous metalsincluded) eight out of nine country markets listed in Table 17 have higherthan average tariffs on either a weighted basis or on both simple andweighted basis. -le only exception is Sweden. However, in examiningtariff averages gven in Tables 19 through 30 it can be noted that inCanada, Japan and the United States the simple tariff averages on nickelmanufactures are higher than the simple tariff averages on all industrialproducts. In contrast, Canada and Japan excepted, simple tariff averageson nickel manufactures are in most countries lover than those of metalmanufactures (other non-ferrous metals included). The weighted tariffaverages are not comparable as they refer to different trade years. Thesmall difference between simple tariff averages of unwrought nickel andnickel semi-manufactures given in Table 17 and simple tariff averagesindicated in Tables 19 through 30 is due to the fact that in Table 17 thewhole of the products falling under CCCN positions 75.04 and 75.05 areconsidered as vrought products (including powders and flakes and unwroughtnickel anodes).
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"1The two methods can lead to very different results and suchdifference is easy to explain. In the weighted average the more trade isflowing under the duty, the more importance the duty is given in thecalculation. At the same time, logically, the lower the duty the largertends to be the volume of trade which flows under such duty. Thus, theweighted average will tend to give more importance to low duties and, atthe other extreme, will ignore duties which are se high as to beprohibitive. For these reasons, the weighted average has a downward bias.On the contrary the simple average gives the same importance to each dutywhatever its level. It could thus assign excessive importance to residualtariff items or to duties facing products of little importance in worldtrade. Therefore, the simple average should in principle give an upwardcorrection of the weighted average bias." The Report of theDirector-General on the Tokyo Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations.
2Tariff study based on more recent trade statistics is not availablefor all markets covered in Table 17.
MDF/W/21
Table 17 Page 61
Pre-Tokyo Round and Post-Tokyo Round Tariffsin nine Developed markets
(Percentages)ll
Allindustrial Nickel Metal¹products Unwrought semi-manu- manufacturesexcluding Nickel facturespetroleum
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Nine tariffscombined S 10.4 6.4- 4.0 1.6 7.7 4.3 9.8 5.9
W 7.0 4.6 0.6 0.2 4.5 2.9 9.3 5.7
United States S 11.2 6.3 0.0 0.0 9.5 5.1 9.9 7.9W 6.3 4.3 0.0 0.0 1.8 1.2 5.5 4.5
Canada S 12.6 7.3 11.7 6.8 5.9 3.5 14.6 8.5W 12.7 7.8 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.9 16.1 9.4
Japan S 10.2 6.0 16.1 4.5 12.1 5.5 10.4 5.4W 5.4 2.7 4.0 1.4 12.7 5.6 9.3 5.2
Austria S L1.7 8.1 0.0 0.0 8.2 5.0 15.9 9.6W 8.9 7.7 0.0 0.0 9.9 5.9 19.8 13.4
Finland S 13.2 11.4 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.7 8.8 6.8W 6.9 5.5 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.3 7.7 6.2
Norway S 8.5 6.7 0.0 0.0 2.1 1.6 7.8 5.3W 4.2 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.9 4.5
Sweden S 6.0 4.8 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.0 5.1 3.8W 5.6 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.7 5.3 3.9
Switzerland S 3.7 2.9 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.9 3.2 2.4W 2.9 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 3.8 2.7
EEC S 9.1 6.4 0.0 0.0 5.1 3.7 7.8 5.6W 6.5 4.6 0.0 0.0 5.6 3.9 5.8 5.8
S: Simple average.W: Weighted average.
¹Metal manufactures include all non-ferrous metals
Source: GATT, Tariff Study, 1980.
MDF/W/21Page 62
95. Tariff concessions granted on nickel and nickel products in the TokyoRound vary according to different products and countries. On the basis ofthe information on pre- and post-Tokyo tariff treatment of nickel andnickel products in the countries participating in the MTNs presented inAnnex 1, the following observations can be made:
(i) With the exception of Australia, m.f.n. duties on nickel andnickel products are bound by all developed countries.Australian m.f.n. tariffs are unbound and m.f.n. duties shownin Annex I under the post-MTN represent m.f.n. rates appliedas from 1 January 1985. New Zealand does not bind m.f.n. dutyon ex CCCN 75.02 - Other.
(ii) Most m.f.n. duties are ad valorem. Switzerland applies lowspecific duties to all nickel products. M.f.n. specificduties are also applied by Austria on ex CCCN 75.02 - nickelwire, by Japan on ex CCCN 75.01 - unwrought nickel,ex CCCN 75.03 - foil, powders and flakes and CCCN 75.05 -electroplating anodes. In the Tokyo Round the United Statesreduced its specific rate on TSUS 620.30 - flakes toduty-free.
(iii) In the Tokyo Round, the majority of the positive m.f.n. rateson nickel were reduced. Only some low specific rates onnickel chemical compounds, ferro-nickel and unwrought nickelin Switzerland remained unchanged. Tariff cuts were between6.7 and 100 per cent. According to the "harmonization" tariffcutting formulae used in the Tokyo Round, tariff cuts onhigher rates were more significant than on low rates. Thisapproach has contributed to the dimunition of the incidence oftariff escalation. However, although most developed countriesapply duty-free treatment on nickel ores and concentrates,they grant tariff protection to further stages of nickelprocessing. In Canada and Japan tariff protection startsbeyond the mining stage while in other countries suchprotection is accorded to nickel semi-manufacturing andmanufacturing (Austria, EEC, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, andthe United States). In most developed and developingcountries, tariff protection increases with a higher degree ofprocessing.
18. Trade in nickel and nickel products under different tariff treatmentaccording to stages of processing
96. The purpose of this discussion is to give an indication of themagnitude of trade flows in nickel and nickel products under differenttariff treatment according to stages of processing for a number ofcountries for which more detailed statistical information was available.Three sets of Tables, with varying degrees of detail have been establishedfor this purpose. First, Table 18 provides a summary of trade in nickeland nickel products under different tariff treatment in twelve developedcountry markets and some developing countries. Second, Tables 19 to 30give information on trade flows for the same twelve developed countries attariff line level broken down by stages of processing as well as bydifferent tariff treatment. Thirdly, flows in nickel and nickel productsby the major developing country importers included in Table 18 are shown inTables 31 to 41 based on information gathered from relevant national
Table
18
Summ
aryof
lmportsof
Nickel
andNickel
Prod
ucts
unde
rDi
ffer
entTa
riff
TreatmentinTwenty-Three
Coun
trie
s(US$'000)
Tota
llmp
orts
GSP
Other
Pref
eren
tial
Trea
tmen
tCoun
tryYeartal
Import
___
,y.
___
__
-_L
boJr
d-
dRCountrte
wch
tées
tothild
Value
X%
%Value
ntia
lRat
eatm
ente
xRateValue
Xpre
fereIv
ua[tre
n__Unbound
Bound
Valu
e|
Val.
|X
i.is
let
1Ira
nced
Astralla
198-
160,448
100.
049,001
81.2
1,71
32.8
4.0-
20.0
12.5-25.0
4,528NZL,
PNG,
CAN,eeCommonwealth.1
Frea
5,022
8.31ICC,<e
sth
(airtuies
Dac1ar
eden
ioun
preferittalca
trie
s
|-lr
la1e
8290,849
10EF
TA,
EEC,
ESP
85,924
94.9
0.4-8.0
672
0.7
2.5-
4.0
-|
Fre
4,253
4.17
DYEIEa:,VY
Cabada
19Fr
206.
077
100.
0ommonwealth
106,643
51.7
4-12
.593
,271
45.3
Froe-8.0
5.101
2.5
Viee
-10
1,02
20.
5NZ
L,Cmawatl
miitrîis
ottI
rthmta
h
ac
re
1982
907,6r2
100.
0FTA,
Mediteranean,AC
P0.
5-12
58,389
6.4
Féeo
19,5
642.
2Ft
ee29,557
3.3
DEA,
1cer
awla
,MP
dOv
eîec
ou«iea
aid
comtrles.
BCRpbd&ld
1982
72,7
60100.0
72,0
1399.0
1.8-
5.I
152
0.2
Ffee
-FM
ee59
50.
8EI:Em&,I3SID(1<,
S,CSK
,DO
R,1902
24,313
100.
013
,447
55.3
3.8-10.4
7,51
430.9
hee-
-Free
3,35
213
.8Aloe,(lI
(s;WR
Japa
n19
82584,636
100.
037
2,99
863.8
3.1-10.0
150,
606
25.8
Frea
571,130
9.8
S,CA
N,SPARTECA
(Pacific)
18,974
100.0
17.905
94.4
564
33.
4Fr
e1
0.0
Fi..
426
2.2|ICM4,S'llô(Fc1f1c),
tkavay
FTA,EEC
cont
ries
167,785
100.0
161,190
99.6
2.2-
4.6
300.0
Fiee
-Fm
e56
50.
3EME
eaum
rien
ES62
120,259
100.0
113,39
l94
.31.4
-5.8
2.853
2.3
Frec
-Fte
e4,0
153.
3LF
f,.E
E;P
SwMtze
îiElTA
,EEC
ESP
40,439
100.
029
0.5
0.1-
2.7
6,80
116.7
Free
409
1.0
Frie
33,2
0082
.3FMECES?
United
Stat
eN,
NTI6
372
3,78
0100.0
667,536
92.2
2.5-
10.0
52,8
487.
3Fr
ee3,388
0.5
Free
80.
0CA
mIWI
Arment
ibLA
DI98
16,
988
100.
010
-38
30-4
06,923
n.a.
650.
9ADl
braz
ilLADI3
6,41
510
0.0
Fiee-SI
10-15
6,361
9.2
n.a.
540.8AI
Colk
aia
198ALA
4,174
1OU.
05-
304,
746
99.4
a.a.
280.6
"JDI
fka
WX9
1983
35,0
89100.0
35,089
100.
0
lUia
1980-81
49,9
52100.0
40-1
0049
,952
100.0
Kurea,
Rep.
of1983
24,8Q4
100.0
Free-30
2024,
8.É100.Q
vola
ysla
1982
12,9
29100.0
Fice-lO
12,9
29100.0
Stit
pore
1983
38.7
1310
0.0
38,713
100.0
SFal
1982
E,EFTA9
100.0E
e-24
.4Fte--20
34,9
5163
pree-18.3
20,478
3.9
DEXC.fl
¶hailatd
1982
8A4)ANB
100.0
1-50
8,406
IW.0
0.9
-PS
EFM
Yujp
slîv
la1980
57,833
100.0
5-15
351
,833
MDF/W/21Page 64
statistics. ln addition to the individual country Tables, Table 42indicates m.f.n. rates on nickel and nickel products applied by somecountries.
97. Tables 19 to 30 were established on the basis of the tariff assessmentlisting for the countries participating in the GATT tariff study. Thetrade flows in value terms (US$'000) refer to 1982 data (1980/81 forAustralia, 1981/82 for New Zealand and 1983 for the United States). TheTables indicate imports on tariff line basis from m.f.n. sources, importsfrom GSP beneficiaries and imports under other preferential treatment.They also show shares of imports under different tariff treatment indifferent stages of processing as well as in total imports of nickel andnickel products. Additional columns give the principal exporters undereach treatment.
98. Each tariff line shows tariffs granted to the item under differenttariff treatment. The m.f.n. treatment relates to MFN final rates. Incertain cases footnotes indicate lower rates actually applied (New Zealand)or imports under by-law provisions (Australia). For the purpose ofcomparability, specific rates of Switzerland were converted to ad valoremequivalents on the basis of 1982 trade figures and reference is made toAnnex I where specific rates are indicated. The m.f.n. rates are brokendown into duty-free and dutiable rates, bound and unbound. The GSP ratesfor Austria and Canada refer to final GSP rates. The current GSP rates aregradually being reduced in step with staged m.f.n. reductions. GSP ratesfor other countries refer to 1982 schemes (1980/81 for Australia, 1983 forthe United States). Other preferential treatment refers to preferentialrates of duty granted to certain countries or regional groupings.
(i) Developed Countries
99. Australia is a major producer and exporter of nickel products. In1983 it had the third largest mine production of nickel in the world,coming after the USSR and Canada. Its range of production extends fromprimary ores and concentrates to semi-manufactures. Although it is a majorexporter of nickel products it imports certain nickel products such asscraps, unwrought nickel and alloyed products, chemicals, semi-manufacturesetc. Australia's total imports of nickel products in 1980-81, excludingchemicals,¹ amounted to about US$32.6 million. Estimated together withchemicals, total imports amounted to about US$60.4 million. Imports ofores and concentrates were marginal amounting to about 1 per cent of totalimports excluding chemicals. The pre-MTN tariff on these items was unboundat zero. However, the operative rate as of 1 January 1985 was 2 per centwhile GSP imports enjoyed duty-free access. Australia imported only asmall amount of intermediate nickel products.
100. Imports of matte accounted for 3 per cent of total nickel imports,excluding chemicals, mainly from Canada. The import duty on this item isthe same as that on ores and concentrates. Imports of ferro-nickel(ex73.02) accounted for about 5.2 per cent of total imports of nickelproducts, exluding chemicals, and come mainly from New Caledonia. The pre-and post-MTN rate of import duty is zero and is partially bound.
¹Statistics on nickel chemicals are combined with those of otherchemicals falling under the same CCCN heading.
²This is a fiscal duty which has now been incorporated into the importtariff system.
Table
19
lmpo
rts
ofNi
ckel
and
Nick
elPr
oduc
tsunder
different
Tariff
Treatment
Acco
rdin
gto
Stages
ofProcessing
country:Australia
YEARtu-M&
(in
US$'00
0)
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___
__
Id.
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ic.
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ta&.
am,_
as
a.1i.
sa
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lieeîI13
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MDF/W/21Page 66
Australia's imports of unwrought nickel and nickel alloys (75.01) accountedfor about 54.3 per cent of total nickel imports other than chemicals.Imports of unwrought nickel come from Canada, the EEC and Sweden. Whilethose of unwrought alloys come only from Canada. The post-MTN rate of dutyas at 1 January 1985 was 2 per cent but zero under by-law. Imports ofbrought nickel products falling under CCCN headings 75.02 to 75.05accounted for about 33.4 per cent of total Australian imports of nickelproducts other than chemicals. The pre-MTN duties on imports under CCCNheadings 75.02 and 75.03, mainly from the EEC, Japan, Sweden and the UnitedStates, were unbound at zero, but post-MTN rates as of January 1985 werequoted at 2 per cent unbound. Imports of nickel products falling under75.04 were subject to pre-MTN duty of 20 per cent (free by by-law) and GSPrate of zero. The post-MTN rate as of January 1985 was 20 per cent fortube and pipe fittings and 2 per cent for others, but were all free underby-law. Import of electroplating anodes of nickel (75.05) were negligibleand were subject te pre-MTN zero duties. Post-MTN duty rate in January1985 was 2 per cent and GSP imports were duty free. Imports of otherfinished manufactures of nickel accounted for less than 1 per cent of totalimports of nickel products in 1980-81; pre-MTN imports were subject to ahigh compound rate but were zero under by-law and the situation was aboutthe same in January 1985.
101. Australia's imports of nickel salts and chemicals appearing inTable 19 under CCCN headings 28.28 to 28.48 are difficult to evaluate sincethey are only part of their respective CCCN headings and are not identifiedindividually in trade statistics. With the exception of chlorides andoxychlorides of nickel (ex 28.30) all imports of this group of productsenjoyed a pre-MTN unbound zero duty. Chlorides and oxychlorides of nickelwere subject to a partially bound pre-MTN duty of 25 per cent reduced to12.5 per cent under by-law. The post-MTN rate of duty was 2 per centunbound as of January 1985. The post-MTN rate on all the other chemicalproducts also stands at 2 per cent as of January 1985 with the exception ofcyanides and complex cyanides of nickel (ex 28.48) which are duty-free.Imports from GSP sources are duty-free for all thes products.
102. Austria has a small refined nickel production capacity and is a netimporter of nickel products vith imports ranging from matte to finishednickel manufactures. Although Table 20 indicates imports of ash andresidues, these comprised all metallic ashes and residues including that ofnickel. Table 20 shows that total importation of nickel products byAustria amounted to US$90.8 million in 1982. About 30 per cent of this,however, consisted of all chemical products falling under the same tariffnumbers as nickel chemical products. Ferro-nickel imported from the EEC,Norway and Yugoslavia was the most important nickel product by valueimported by Austria. Imports of matte, unwrought nickel and nickel alloysconstituted the next important group of imports. They came mostly from theEEC, United States and Canada. There were also imports of wrought nickelproducts from the United States, Canada, Hungary and Japan.
103. All imports of crude nickel products, nickel chemical products,unwrought nickel products and ferro-nickel enjoy bound zero m.f.n. duties.Wrought nickel products as well as finished manufactures are subject torates of duties varying between 5 and 8 per cent. The pre-MTN rates variedbetween 8 and 15 per cent. A form of unworked nickel wire (ex75.02) issubject to a specific duty. Austria is a member of EFTA and as such allimports from other member states as well as industrial imports from the EECare admitted duty-free. Austria also offers GSP concessions on alldutiable imports of nickel products at a rate roughly equivalent to 50 per
Impo
rts
ofNickel
andNickel
Products
under
diff
eren
tTariff
Trea
tmen
tAccording
toStages
ofPr
oces
sing
M1§
A-ai
e.
!àto
a3(i
nUS$
'000)
Tota
lOther Pref
eren
tial
Treatmentl
Tîta
îla
Valu.
Oris
Vala.r_.
iae
Vol-
.Il.ca
ae
Vau
Oril
a
àà
Iy
à10
lala
133à
6al
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la33
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lé.f
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la
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MDF/
21Page
67O
MDF/W/21Page 68
cent of the prevailing m.f.n. rate. The Table shows that 85.2 per cent ofimports of wrought nickel come from duty-free EFTA and EEC preferentialsources with the rest coming from the United States, Canada, Japan andEungary. On the whole, about 99.3 per cent of imports of nickel productsincluding chemicals entered the country duty-free and only 0.7 per cent ofimports were subject to duties.
104. Canada is the largest producer and exporter of prrmary nickel productsamong the developed market economy countries. Its exports range fromnickel concentrates and matte to finished nickel manufactures. It is,however, also a substantial importer of nickel products ranging from scrapsand concentrates to finished manufactures. Total Canadian import ofnickel products in 1982, as shown in Table 21, amounted to about US$206.1million including imports of chemical products containing nickel. Importsof unwrought products. including matte and ferro-nickel, accounted forabout 36.2 per cent; imports of brought nickel and of finished nickelmanufactures accounted for 24.7 and 16.7 per cent respectively of totalnickel imports.Imports of ores and concentrates accounted for 8.6 percent of nickelimports while imports of nickel chemicals accounted foranother 13.8 per cent.
105. As indicated in the detailed tariff information in Annex I imports ofnickel ores and concentrates, as well as of ash and residues containingnickel, enjoy bound post-MTN zero m.f.n duties. Matte imports enjoypre- and post-MTN duties bound at zero. Imports come mainly fromAustralia, United States and the Republic of South Africa. Imports offerro-nickel (ex 73.02) are subject to a bound post-MTN rate of 4 per cent(GSP free). In 1982 about 67 per cent of ferro-nickel imports came fromdutiable sources (United States, EEC, and South Africa), 28 per cent fromfree GSP sources (Brazil, Chile and Dominican Republic), and the restduty-free from Commonwealth preferential sources (Zimbabwe). Unwroughtrefined nickel, of which Canada is a major producer, is subject to apre-MTN m.f.n. rate bound at 5 per cent, (GSP free), while the post-MTNrate is bound at 4 per cent (GSP free). Unwrought alloyed nickel in theform of ingots, blocks, shots, billets, pigs, blooms and slab (ex 35500-1)enjoy a zero bound post-MTN duty, while other unwrought nickel alloys(35530-1) are subject to a post-MTN bound rate of 10.2 per cent withceiling binding as against a pre-MTN bound rate of 17.5 per cent. There isa GSP concession, but current imports of these products from all sourcesare temporarily free. The post-MTN bound rate on import of nickel wasteasked scrap is 10.2 per cent with a ceiling binding. There is no GSPconcession on this product however, import from all sources aretemporarily free.
106. As has already been pointed out above, imports of semi-manfuactures ofrefined nickel accounted, in 1982 for about 24.7 per cent of Canada'simports of nickel products with imports coming mainly from the EEC, UnitedStates, Japan, Sweden and Norway. About 91.8 per cent of the imports arebound duty-free on an m.f.n. basis and about 8.2 per cent are dutiable withbound rates ranging between 4.2 per cent and 10.2 per cent, some withceiling bindings. Duties on imports from GSP sources range from zero to4.5 per cent. Duties on import by Canada of nickel chemicals, mostly fromthe United States, EEC and Japan, are all bound at post-MTN rates rangingfrom zero in the case of sulphides and polysulphides of nickel (ex 28.35),cyanides and complex cyanides of nickel (ex 28.43) and salts andperoxysalts of inorganic acids (ex 28.48); 9.2 per cent in the case ofsulphates and persulphates of nickel (ex 28.38) to 12.5 per cent in the
Tabl
e21
>mpf
orts
ofNi
cklt
andd
NicklL
Prou
ccts
under
Diff
eren
tTaD
riff
Tea_
muen
tAccordigo
toStgoes
ofProessin
Diuy
Frae
eODtiable
cGpP
(in US$'0
00)Oth
erPreferential
Treatmen
tTariff
No.LD
C,(d
uty
free)
otherth
antheU
nited
Kingdo
mValue
Orig
inVa
lue
Origin
Rate
Valu
eOrigin
Rate
Value
Origin.1
ighted
eiSi
mel
Vae.l
Vaeu
an
Uund
saBound
____
I2
35
I76
8yI9
O1011
il12
13Il
14115
Il6
118
19a
It20
212l
232
il24
Znd.
di32
1,00
111,642
17.642
0
aresidues
aa48
1050
1-
Su-botalî
11.642
100.
011,642
100.
0_____
________
______
Natt
a1111001,
~~~11,600
12,410
àsu.a
mal1
041
aa1=
1114
I0.21
1usa
Fe..U
154000
1414
USA
..64000101
14,4
0124
,411
usa.auO,<Zc
P.."<
ai
xra 9...
a311
000
11,01
ISfu.
Far-îkl
,,.%
110401
2"16,
0114.
11,301c
USAt<,zV
ra4,3
U.,IlU
re
11
aa3110000
.
0.2
-
EimC
Uirc
Vraa.àc.s
la-total
4,10
1100.0
3.0
340.
030
,010
12.1
e5¹
410I
.21
20,4
4530.4_
vro
4..î'
6.Fr
e-1y
7101
11100
.1,60
11366
,uNumIc
211000
43
-SA
uI2R
Ic33
1601
01,221
4,23.4
1,22
1S,
3111001
12,121
2u
.eu
I111
S012
7la102
yî3540001
4,43
.611110
61
.064641
004i
40,0
14.1
..0
1141
003î
~~2,
264.
,64
un
Mtaa6
10001
:1.0
2C04
UIFr
.NO1
4mae.
100001
,3,à
01,30
IOSIZAV,
lub-
tcta
l10,010
100.
01.3
44,4
0301.4
4.10.31
4,14
74.2
Fr...11.0
Vrae
1.07
0.0
Ch-!-alae300
12.1
-il1
,I1aa
2101
.l11.
53eMi
uSAU
CJ1
ucmt
Fîa
..02.00
la.-
SALc,1
cm
Ia
aaOU
3lOl
1,60
01,
403
014,
13Vri
cm1<V
mi*
aaOl
IIIO
l637
9.,4
C,0,l
tra
.4CUUBZ
Ir.
4U
.4204201
14,1103
12.1
lm
S,*C2IVa
13oee
fr..
.412
4430
1.41
447
imu,
123
1,54UAUM.V.
4O.Va
aa204101
110
eelm
uFr
Ircm
..*1254402
Ilil.î
osCua
119
r
ecilîGOOl0
(1,220>
10.3
o1bi>RCU2,2
u6-t
oeal
14,410
100.
0ee
1.1
0.2
14.410
100.
0Fr
a-60
Tota
l206,011
100.
034
0.0
104,
64S1
.14..31
2,1
11Fi.I
111.
21.-10
00,
022
FIn
tern
atio
nalF
inancisl
Statistica,1
984.eA4.
rate
1982:
1.21
3Cii
Ollr-
p,W,
11IM
en.itt
si-tF
toct
lSt.ls.tîci,
1114.
icat
edby
the Cand
ian
author
itie
s.Ins
ome c
ases,the
same
tari
fflinesap
pear
indi
ffer
entav
aera
goftllea.
lawo
_a,
.-
taita
ir.
ap.g.
tli&Iratate
etearein
dica
tedon
lywit
hinoneta
riff
line.Tradewe
ighted
tariff
averageh
ave
notbee
ncal
culate
dowin
gtothei
mpossibility
ofi
rlraca
iam
t4c.
lelup
oaolht
lgty
ofin
gstag
esvcrasea
l.
utdtO
Uerait
proe
mllu
tlas.
sbee
nuse
dfor
the
calc
ulat
ionof
theta
riff
averag
e.Ch.
tulta
ett
îfltttaver.
.
onaccountof
veryin
gta
riff
ratesand
thereforeappears
more than
etinthe
table.
Theco
rres
pond
ingtradeflow
has
not
beendisgranated
andis
meil
iaag
ains
tasi
ngle
timppîai
r4Appliedra
teis
5pe
rcent
andthis ratehasbeenused
fort
heca
lcul
atio
nof
the
.rna
.rmi
taei
8Imp
orts
ormet
alma
nufa
ctur
esarecovered by
seve
ralas
tariff
lines.
Figures
isbr
acke
tst-.
impo
rtsof
the
tari
ffitem, including
other
ntub
-total
lta
taae
I.'al
uai
olel«s
cuactt
ur.C
19012
-oty
,a*.
pLtidb
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authat
utlea.
fcon2
Total
l'ar
ts
M3
oso
DÇ2 E
ta
MDF/W/21Page 70
case of the other nickel chemicals. Imported products from GSP sources areduty-free, except in the case of nickel oxides and hydroxides which aresubject to a duty of 8 per cent.
107. Mine production of nickel within the EEC is small, restricted only tosome ferro-nickel production in Greece. There exists however an importantnickel refining and fabrication industry in the EEC with production rangingfrom intermediate products to semi-manufactures and finished products. TheEEC is a net importer of nickel products. Imports range from ores andconcentrates to finished manufactures. Table 22, which analyses the importtrade of the EEC in nickel products and their tariff treatment, shows thattotal imports of nickel products into the EEC amounted to about US$903million including nickel chemicals. Imports of matte, unwrought nickel andnickel alloys constitute the bulk of EEC imports. Matte is imported mainlyfrom Canada, Cuba, Australia and New Caledonia. Unwrought nickel comesmainly from the United States, Norway, Finland, Canada, Republic of SouthAfrica, Zimbabwe, the Philippines, Australia and the USSR. Unwroughtnickel alloys are imported mainly from Canada, Cuba, United States, SouthAfrica and the USSR.
108. About 88.2 per cent of total EEC imports of nickel products in 1982enjoyed m.f.n. duty-free access. Another 1.9 per cent was admittedduty-free on the basis of GSP treatment and 3.1 per cent more had duty-freeaccess under other preferential arrangements. This meant that only 6.3 percent of imports were subject to duties. Table 22 also shows that importsof ores and concentrates of products of intermediate metallurgy, such asmatte, as well as ferro-nickel and unwrought refined nickel, enjoy boundm.f.n. duty-free access. On the other hand, imports of wrought nickelproducts were subject to bound duties which varied from 3.8 per cent to5.3 per cent. The simple average duty is 4.4 per cent and the weightedaverage duty is 4.7 per cent. Imported wrought products subject to dutiescome from the United States, Canada, Japan, USSR and the German DemocraticRepublic, while duty-free imports come mainly from Sweden, Austria,Switzerland and Norway. Imports from duty-free GSP sources come mainlyfrom Malaysia, Hong Kong and Singapore. Imports of nickel chemicalproduct are subject to bound duties ranging from zero for nickel oxidesand hydroxides to 12.0 per cent on cynides and complex cynides of nickel,reflecting a fairly high degree of protection. Imports of oxides comemainly from Cuba, Australia and Canada, and chemical imports subject toduties come from various sources including the United States, Japan and anumber of centrally-planned economy countries. Some chemical imports comefrom duty-free GSP sources such as China, India and Romania and a largepart come from the duty-free preferential sources such as Switzerland,Finland, Spain, Israel, Austria and Sweden. It must however be borne inmind, that these chemical imports included products other than nickelchemicals falling under the same tariff heading.
109. Finland has a sizeable nickel industry based on domestic mineproduction and imported raw materials. It is therefore both an exporterand importer of nickel products. Exports are mainly in the form ofunwrought refined nickel and occasionally also in the form of concentratesand matte. Imports include mostly ores and concentrates, scrap, matte,ferro-nickel and unwrought nickel. Imports into Finland of nickelproducts, including chemicals, amounted to US$72.8 million in 1982, US$32.5million of which comprised matte from Canada, Australia and the EEC, andUS$12.4 million unwrought unalloyed nickel from the USSR, Canada and thePhilippines.
Table
22
ImportsNickel
and
Nick
elPr
oduc
tsun
der
Differen
tTar
iffTreatment
Acco
rdin
gto
Stag
esof
Processing
TariffAverage
UnboundBound
Value
Origin
Overseas
countriesandterritorides
13
24
56
78
91011
1213
1415
16171819
20
»_
__
_
SaS-
lota
l3,11.3
100.
013
by6
100.0
LIS~~~~~S0.1
.$4
amW
as
I.Y.
4110
1.11i
ausus&,a
11.0
1.2
10.1
06îS
*396
ama
15.ti.
1000
20es
3.
eci
V..
-
S
l
.airds
Sà(e<a
2005
,91
10.
.00911,0
9.l.11l
09
.1Ie
13,4
911.
WAto
Prie
1.06
3
31.04.2000
1,596
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
419?1
-9«gt
-
11.05.0100
201
Free
toe,
*ioem~
~~~~~~
~~e.
mse
r"
19
ncma
5.6è
12b
4Luim.
jree
4IJ
Wr.
l831m1c
meii
UB21.30.1000
244
~~
~~~~~
~~~~~.3
3311
vSu0I
W.-lme
1aa
mmi
.mO.0.0
61205.14
*a10.10.5.000
1,12
65.0
419
4,Cl6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3
41**
»AS
1.16.6144
11.102~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ia
34
~Ir.
10o
*a1tlo.4.05
*g4 5:
I&41
.1*a
3.4.
000
.132
6.6
O.6
Cà*
".lu
I<W
r.56
uu.JM
'b.tri
elaWr
..46
me0.1.00
11
.12
boeuSw
soi
Ire
IS
swîs
lui4.1
4e<al
21,34
rude6.
Iom-as
061
3.
elai
ci15
.06.
1000
lOI~~S
1..1
15»-u
mat
14S-
M11.
060000
,10
461,01CNVS0Jmti
1f101U
r.
,1
5.a6ie<el1,4
4110.
.P.
6,04
6e0i
t-a
41
a.0________
ui.
..IL..i
solaIm
103012
10.
0,11
0.
4.0
~141
,06.1ftt
1,90
19
ru.
33310
1
3TerîSl
geais.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.0F
i>Ige<lala
2cîe
rdu
.u
*eIl.
ue.cî
ImleaiS
el
retesaa1115mSr
îeIai
l.
iae
îa.ue<cai
tcIecl
rill
le
leLieue.
marIai.
S.1.
ilacaifle
<Saat,.
ii.e
rdub
esSiu
allmiae
aueclauil
aura
<iea
r«eucl
4musa,.116,ooo
.t111e
eam.
aatle
.4ueiperiîledi
rîsi
e<îu
etli
iaîl
ell.~~~
~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r44le
~WSI
I0,0
0,.5
îh.îe
uet
I.mi
iag.
erll
leseIgle.43
.410
864
tlu
:Ola
TA Ir
------
Table
23
lmports
ofNickel
andNickel
Prod
ucts
under
Different
Tari
ffTr
eatm
ent
Acco
rdin
gto
Stages
ofProcessing
Valu
eoUIIC
0rs
tIKr...Mbll
.c.
4...1
U..a...!ol.ov1vQll
t1RId.f1$
e___as
z~
~10~
116
12
9 13
4516
1718
19
2021
22
23
LSlà
11
^X
*la
le-
le24}
de&
a3ut01.03
1.36
l.2U4w
.
6Md
u«24.a..g
4SU)
(SU)
sa.t
u..
8..6-&
o<aA.366
106.0
18.2à
I.o._
*aSS
a51.01.10
12::
.5»a6
cm*auUc
Itle
ja15.
11.100
161161
'CIAS
'&&l
e4.Ba
ealuS.
i.ffl
15,510
15
0*ao
au
.
auto_
_cée
11
III
2141S
M:III
110
.I11
:10.
IS0
-i.c
|
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||l
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.-
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11.010
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10.0
50
SIUU
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.010
.01_
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8.O.
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u.
n.
...
__
t1
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lA,
UP
3.S01000
-Sc
-c.
sw*a4.
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0.8
0.3
0.0
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pe..
Us..
351.0
*,~3
3~5_
6_'6
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:.a8
.30.
100
1.063
3.00
1EKCo00o
0.164.0_,_11
A.",-.
..29.61.00_
la?
SEC
SubLOt
aIff
ils3100.0
litkW1
31.
8.-5.I
12M4.0
5.1
5..1
31431
.6visé
une.
aie
66.6
Resu
13.5
60100.0
1330ts
00.0
1.iiS.i>
lis
*.2
lia
-Um.0
dist
inug
tchghalebetweenunw
roug
htwrought
electr-plating.lbauTrade
figu
resu
nder
three
trad
eha
vebe
enin
clud
edinun
wrou
ghtnic
kel.a.d
uBam
hît"
.1.
alproductsare
notspecifiedse
para
tely(indicated
front
ofthetariff
number)thetradefl
owfigures
may
incl
ude
imports
ofchemicalproductsSale
Wetffl
.d'à
icke
lai
b...
ai
el
11
ma.
ri'b.
3:3W,
o n
t
MDF/W/21Page 73
110. Imports of all unwrought nickel products and chemicals into Finlandenjoy zero bound duties with the exception of carbonates and percarbonatesof nickel (ex 28.42) which are subject to a bound duty of 1 per cent withceiling binding. Imports of wrought nickel products are also duty-freewith the exception of brought bars, rods, angles, shapes and sections ofnickel and nickel wire (75.02) which are subject to duties bound at 1.8 percent; tubes, pipes and blanks therefor of nickel etc., (75.04) are subjectto duties bound at 1.8 per cent; other articles of nickel (75.06) aresubject to a bound duty of 5.1 per cent. Since Finland is a member ofEFTA, most imports of wrought nickel come from duty-free EFTA and EECpreferential sources. Imports from GSP sources are duty-free.
111. Hungary has no domestic mine production of nickel and imports almostall of its needs. Excluding chemicals, total import of nickel productsamounted to US$13.4 million in 1983, 70 per cent of which was accounted forby matte, unwrought refined nickel and alloys, nickel waste and scrap.Ferro-nickel accounted for a further 6.3 per cent and the rest by wroughtnickel. Table 24 shows that there were practically no imports of nickelores and concentrates (ex 28.01) nor of ash and residues (ex 26.03). Allimports other than ores and concentrates, chemicals, and ferro-nickel enjoya pre- and post-MTN bound duty-free entry. Imports of matte and unwroughtrefined nickel and alloys come mainly from the USSR, Australia and Sweden.Imports of ores and concentrates are subject to a bound post-MTN duty of3.8 per cent. Ferro-nickel which is imported mainly from the EEC andBrazil is subject to a bound m.f.n. duty of 6.2 per cent. Imports ofnickel chemicals from the market economy countries are subject to boundpost-' - m.f.n. duties ranging from 3.8 per cent to 10.4 per cent; pre-MTNduties, anged from 5 per cent to 2,5 per cent. Imports of chemicals comemainly from the EEC, Austria, Canada, Sweden and Switzerland. Duties onimports from GSP sources range from zero to 9.8 per cent. Chemical importsfrom the member countries of the CMEA are duty-free.
112. Japan is one of the largest importers of nickel products with importsranging from ores and concentrates to finished manufactures. It is alsothe second largest producer of refined nickel among the developed marketeconomy countries and is a substantial exporter of refined nickel.Including nickel chemicals, Japan's total imports of nickel products in1982 amounted to about US$586.3 million. About 21 per cent of this wasaccounted for by imports of ores and concentrates, of which Japan is thelargest importer. Imports of nickel ores come from New Caledonia,Indonesia and the Philippines free of duty on an m.f.n. basis. Imports ofnickel ash and residues, which are also duty-free, come from Australia,Philippines and the United States. Imports of matte, also duty-free on abound m.f.n. basis, constituted about 30.3 per cent of total imports ofnickel products in 1982 with Indonesia, Australia and New Caledonia as themain source of imports. Imports of ferro-nickel, accounting for about7.6 per cent of total nickel imports, are subject to a bound m.f.n. duty of6.5 per cent. Most imports of ferro-nickel come from Indonesia and theDominican Republic which enjoy duty-free GSP treatment. The remainingimports come from New Caledonia and are dutiable. Japan's imports ofunwrought refined nickel and nickel alloys constituted about 19.2 per centof total nickel imports in 1982 and comprised nickel oxide, sinter,unwrought unalloyed nickel and unwrought nickel alloys,. All imports ofnickel oxide, and singer come from Cuba and are duty-free on the basis ofthe GSP. Most imports of unwrought unalloyed nickel come from Canada,Australia and the USSR and are subject to a bound m.f.n. duty equivalent toabout 5.8 per cent. The remaining imports came mainly from the Philippines
COUNTRY:
Hungary
Tabl
e24
lmports
ofNickel
andNickel
Prod
ucts
unde
rdi
ffer
entT
arif
fTreatment
According
tostangeso
fPr
oces
sing
(in
US$'
000)
Tariff
No._
__U
hisoti.ht.
UC<
ylii
i>*18
,Z:Oe.6
c,V4
9a-
--
O<f|Ii
V*lsa
0rIla
lit
Valsa
Odlt
eOa.
Vlsi
0 #881
21
22
I23
I4
I6
IB
g14
IlIlIl
1as
sila
te»
la3it
1'
e.(m
CSX
_0.
.ea.
si<4)
tO«aatîig
~aa2.Ol&4.89
<30).
Icic<M
i"*îil
d*.
1s.0
ot(SI
).SI
LI
Is*tat
II1-80I.
18Iim
I1<
-I
I
ll-4
0<48
4o,îî
st
,a..a
.itagi
d18sI.01.u
no
s*i<Msos
11,1
i1Z>
35.01.
00u
*r.-
alc
a"''
1'1.
.I1
103.
000
1"a
i41
II1
tt.IîI
15.0
5.00
au
11
11
1c
grog
'"
-~~~4.6.
1.0IPu
..43
«.Cm.-1.s
,**s.
#ss^*
,_,Xa0
rasodeso."
Sib@o0l
1111
îoo.
U<11
110.__
3.unl
a0
1333
1Ucaaa,
-1«^
*,l
ll5
I6.
0.1
--
Ule
A.
lA."
se^^ss^s^e
^*~~
~~l
ai6t
*^|
9z4"
* t^.|s4sXf
^s^I
lu1te
*d
_lys4
0.20.84
310.1
38
CAC
U.-lià
.à
ne
0.
es
.aei
asîO
.IS.
03It
l0.
0O
UC
g.ê
Usda
l.1.
834
005
Uic»
5.0-
UOum
le0410
tu3410
31104
ne<u
aitu
Vr
ialO
.41.
01154
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
18.448U
.Uy.
"so
iialO.48.00
1,140.4
lavu.uc(
Utae.
10lis
falilié
31~I.06.00
Ilîî
U
làtiu15
00.
I100.0
vuît
lb4a31
to.0
as."?1
58.1
1.4.
18.4
1br
0.ca
-5uc
.e1<
313
81.0
<M
ussisc
i.ts49
.MA
.ib<M4
caîldias
ici
sotipa
aftfd
44paes
a.11(
tietC.
t4db,
%am
lairaé
,itab<
.cutî
rmi
lan
the
trfais
flossfig
mcsSa
MId
fai4ots
at«ai
<M
.-ss
-48.
s44sU
so4M4
noI.
lisa
saclir
<bai
<basa
aIsk
iai.
iauil
ahg.a
MirA
i4V4
aeî&a
bas
bais
ua41i.
<84Adkra
AicaIti..
Ut18
auJi
roai
4fi
h.basa4
saBa
ià6o.t8d8s4
4spîrta&.lîst
gs
atla
<tai
S&ada
.ItidI.f
MOI.
Isol
,1-lissa<Ma
t.Is
gcit
8.44I.Sla
valiii
4so8si
i4<Mie
Mmoglk
tai
.<.1
%âub
sla
516.
<iaa
<cli..rs
as'
4paitl
.a..Otaes<i
(lskî.
d9..4
by'a
s0la
luit
ai<huo
4î suréi
sar4
tii
<sida
il-
-JP'
<s.
stua
.ldf
arta
aiCbs
atuil
Prid
4t4i
4bar
<laiC.o.
sEskI
aI.4
lb1<
4<Ils
«ir.4S<
aai
iael
tyai
CtiCbAiS44
feadii
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84elil
4sieso
sbas
4basa
C&i<ul
îîid.
3Ts4
8lI
C0*4..
MDF/W/
21 Page74
Table25
Importsofnickel
and
nickelProducts
tUDifferent
Tari
ffTreatment
Accord
ingtoStages
ofPr
oces
sing
Tariff
8015
81,1
0118
111,1228
6:,84.4
810,1il 9613 %6.sQ
3s,885 816
1801
6
lii
MI'
28,81,
9.199 l li
8,6166 910
24.,949
800.
0
l88.0.
800.0
<8ga.14.(1
a
Tari
ffav
erag
e Unbound
Boun
dVs
,88
~~~~~~<a
.,l
s02,
011
kn00.0
14,150
ausV18
LUSt
1.à
4.0
1.0 .1. 8.1
811,
11> 16
9,811
186,
4f.s
i
'4,102
11.2
20.0
850N
.AuU
S,8-
u1AUEC,0d1
USAO
an.e
tcES
C
etc
Il11 1. 6:.0
6.1
1,.0-9
.0, 1.2 1.0 1.i
6. 1.a 2.a '41 1:.3
'4. C'.9 1.11
06,4.8
81,8s0
le,928
m801,4
.
2,3 81.1 8,08
2,021 1-1 64,9
11,4.82
a,99
0Ili 64. 2,Il
116
20,0
22
20.1
11.6
B'.'
CA8,S00I.aI
ailsCa
mur2
,IS,8
USA
8S6,VSC,CIE
EScArUA,1
liAsàSgCS1
*40.
CAM
ttrc
C2SU
SAUSA
Cau:
USA,
tic
U54,
SA,I
USA
Ut0
WASl
SC1,
C
COi,
000,
1sa
frZ,882,i80
USA
etc
iV,IJSA
18cV
80,U
SAaKC
0LouS
arct
0
ESV,I1>
i..
VrI.
Vrai Fi.:
Fri.
Vrai Ila VI..Vrai
VIsa
Visa tria
VIe Vr::
Fia
t..*
Fies
Fia. Vlai
ti..
'asa rIo trio
Vîlue
là 6,264.
102139 60
21,1
06
$126
16 106
8,84.9 202
1,20 26
'4,888
'4 19 81.0 2.6
86.2
il.<lai 20
Cul ViN.zwoAO
8N400,
0
M.us~.au
rom okL.
CIJE
om
"a' cm.4leio'I
liu CHI
ONOAN
cauEtieau
scao
eeaioo>'
m
il,,
L'S0
49J
otIe
rtîe
-ni.lXîalrî
1ale
----f--
-*--
-.Va
lue
10'8a8
la24
ai.' uai
a18.
06.21>
091,
90I
SA"
I;:
Il.106
21JO
216a
i.i:_
salai
1106
100.0
210,9W
..soi4.
9.9J
19
562190
800.
010.1
0.
71.0
-115
.1
i3.1
9.11ousoeauv
aiUS
S1,4
0.fl
,0ît
aeî
atagîs
ut-.
«oill.0
selgî
-à
llrsîsa.
under
this
tari
ffpo
siti
onandth
eref
ore
the
8,0.
iu.lirs.
th.i
uslaAtifl
5ApptilW.ra
ea
tIai
sisgi
Ilm
lasa
ria-
dibIs
Sali
6.b..u
...d
Sûabs
.uth.
uiiaa
loriSi
...qa.
tspecified
eiai
la(ind
icated
by
"en"
to
fron
tof
the
tariff
number)
the
trade
flowfigures
may
includei
mports
of
unspecified
origin.iaj.e..ii
l.ata.fia.
1uas5teili4sui
alesa.
..8
ts
Isii
lie..
.dect
..
ûsA.
.1962
liaàIl'
1%4..la
Lamic
o.0
t,-a
csaId
iate
fl.ailrole
26.08.081
but-
Ca.et
11.01.8210
21.0
822
.181
.120
911
CJ'4228
11.11,
1I1-
l.1888
.l"11
.02824
.
110"
'2.7
10
-Il8.
Il
11.01.
340
21.C
0'.1
04
..20
14.62a
sai
101411
aîli1.11A13
1il.18
.100
0.20e4
.1.10
ailO1.41
.1.00
(-":
a)rCJ
-11
-
MDF/W/21Page 76
and Zimbabwe and enjoy duty-free GSP treatment. Imports of unwroughtnickel alloys come mainly from the United States, EEC and the USSR and aresubject to a bound m.f.n. duty of 9 per cent. Imports of nickel waste andscrap are duty-free and come mostly from the EEC and the United States.The simple average duty on unwrought primary and refined nickel products is3.8 per cent and the weighted average is 2.2 per cent.
113. Japan's imports of wrought nickel and nickel alloy products accountedfor only 4 per cent of total nickel imports. Out of the total wroughtnickel imports of about US$22.5 million about US$4.5 million were duty-freeon a bound m.f.n. basis. Most of the remaining imports are subject tobound m.f.n. duties ranging from 4 per cent to 7.2 per cent. Imports comemainly from the United States, EEC, Sweden and various other developedcountries. Imports from GSP sources are duty-free. The simple averageduty on wrought products is 5.2 per cent and the weighted average is4.0 per cent. Japan also imported modest amounts of various finishednickel manufactures mostly from the United States, EEC and Switzerland.Apart from small imports from GSP sources which are duty-free, imports aresubject to bound m.f.n. duties of 5.8 per cent and 10 per cent. The simpleaverage duty on finished nickel manufactures is 7.9 per cent and theweighted average 6 per cent. About 83 per cent of imports of nickelchemicals were subject to bound m.f.n. duties ranging from 3.7 per cent to7.2 per cent; imports from GSP sources were duty-free. Dutiable importscome from Canada, United States, EEC, Norway, Finland and variouscentrally-planned economy countries.
114. New Zealand imports only a modest amount of nickel products. Table 26shows total imports, excluding chemicals, amounting to US$4.2 millionalmost half of which were accounted for by imports of ferro-nickel.Imports of unwrought nickel products including matte, unalloyed refinednickel and nickel alloys come from Canada and Australia duty-free on anm.f.n. basis. Ferro-nickel imports which come from Australia, EEC and theRepublic of South Africa, as well as, imports of nickel powder and flakesfrom the United States, EEC and Canada enjoy bound m.f.n. zero duties.Imports of wrought nickel products amounted to US$978,000 of which 59 percent coming from the United States, EEC, Japan and Norway were subject to abound duty of 5 per cent. The rest of wrought nickel imports come from 1Canada and Australia duty-free on the basis of preferential arrangements.Imports of nickel chemical products come mainly from the EEC, Japan,Norway, Canada, United States and Australia and do enjoy bound m.f.n. zeroduties. Imports from GSP sources of all dutiable nickel products treatedin Table 26 are duty-free.
114. Norway has a significant nickel smelter production industry based uponimported raw materials mainly in the form of matte. On the other hand, itexports unwrought refined nickel and alloyed nickel products. Table 27shows that in 1982 total imports of nickel products by Norway amounted toabout US$167.8 million, about 95.5 per cent of which was accounted for bymatte imported mostly from Canada, and to a lesser extent from the EEC andSouth Africa. Import of wrought refined nickel accounted for only about1.2 per cent of total nickel import while nickel chemical imports
¹Imports from Canada enjoy Commonwealth preferences, while those fromAustralia enjoy preferential concessions under the Australia-New Zealandcloser Economic Relations Agreement.
Table
26
Impo
rts
ofNi
ckel
and
Nick
elProductsunder
Different
Tariff
Trea
tmen
tAccording
toStages
ofProcessing
TotaI
111<c»'~~
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~SCtIw
rVrlemi«,a
ITrmae
Valu
e%
Origin
Valu
eRa
teRat
eVal
ue%
Origin
Rate
Value
%Ori
gin
16
78
9Io
IlIl
1384
851
16I
la8
2028
2223
Z'.
Ash
andre
sidu
es.26.03.000
(6>
(6)
JPN,A
US,CHA
MO
--
-.
75.01.
0m81)
~15.01
.1800
)7
7
Wast
e andsc
rap
75.01.0m08
Ferro-
nichel
ue11.0
2.000
2,410
2.410Z1.1,
Powder
sandflakes
15.03.009
241
2A..CN
Electr
o-plat
ing75.
05.000
5.0
43I.E'r
-F-
1
s1.635
IM.0~
0.1
0.1
3,58
59.m.
431.2
F.
r.7.
I.65.0
SUSA,EEC,JPN
15.0
5.00
08-9
I5.
0-j
.k5,
(Ie
Fr-
-8__________
____________
5.0
529
51.2
-ru
Fr..
39As.
752.04.OW
oO
2M
ex.I
0.00
2.56
32.
563
i.WN.ec~
exIU
.35.
000
2.321
2.32
1121.(31.JIN
«ciâ.38.O0'
8.362
1,628I.UA..1U
iex8
.39.
0oC
569
569
IS.8H.0
exA8
42.£80
5,65
75,
651
15.o
E.ma
BI .
,28L4.oe00
864
864
».SG
ue1848
.tM0
682
602
EU.CM4.LS4
I9h-cot
aL>C
.M14.320
100..0
4.32
0100.0
T.W15.
914100
.05.0
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~11.
'STZfl
ntu
cirls
çmUlo
OrWgn.
3Av
aila
ble
trade
flowi
nfornation
does
notdi
stin
guis
hbe
twee
nunwrought
electro-plating
good
s.Tr
adeflow
figure
for
this
item
have
been
included
unde
rwr
ough
tnicke
l.4Where
the
nickel
chem
ical
prod
ucts
are
not
spee
cifi
edse
para
tely
(indicated
by"ex"
infr
ont
ofta
riff
number)thetr
ade
flow
figu
res
may
include
imports
ofch
eemi
cal
productsotherthan
thoseof
nickel
.
a:
161
-
(inUSS
'000)
-- ,
Table
27
Imports ofNickelproductsunder Differentrifftreatm
entTariff TreatmentAccordin
gto
Stages
ofPr
oces
sing
filn .%.
N
(inUS$'000)
1hl8~a.I
U1a~1.
Valua
ZValua
Ilh*«
aa1dn
a
I2
34
96
1S
9Io
slI2
I14
IS56
Ie19
20l1
Xlil
24
Oresand
26.0
1.30
1m_
Asha
ndresidues
3.%0
(2.611
.(2.
613)
D.M."
S_
100~
~~~.0
_m0
».os.l.oe
60.309
160*
30 9.c.lk.y.
11.01.
2l01»
12424
CAll
oyed
11.01.
31024
24CAN
,EEC
Wast
ean
dscrap
15.01.6000
loi
t2EC
Ferro-nickel
«13.02
.ÇEX1
161ill
:.omE
P.kr
Mdil"1S.01.M
11004lS
Iuc
sEl
ectr
o-pl
atin
gSS.
0.ïvi
l10
uc,5
w,Su
b-to
tal
14.3
11MA.O
165.31
110.0
~n.k
0da
1.2.
001
>14.
6_
w._
a~.
»Zs
11.0
2.00
90W
894
1S.03.01
274.4
àUSA
_IM
2471
.03.
2040
4ag*:"A
n7504Q1îm
_2.
22S
V_
Vise
,
aàl-ccnt
1,
0 *)0.0
0.0
1.9
à.]"
12.S
2 a.0
_..
._
__.
6.0
01>c
aIa
n20.
20.I
U00
464
464
ac :Q
1.B,
.m28.3
0.9019
025.1
2.7a
ne.WA.A
.i2
6.39
.%»
2026
».1.
60M
74.
14uc
.24.31.091
390
390
=28.0.091»
13>130
EJW.
WA
sub-total
.20.2.90
__
4.411
Ma
10.__
Finished
15.0
b.UM
)la
3.4
2WA
__:,
9
.20.43.P000
l171U.0
3.03.S
1.9
2.4
6997.2
T"l
671.81
500.0
6_7.1
9.6
2.24
.62
30
0.0
I.
56S
0.3
1Available
trad
eflowinformationdoes
not
dist
ingu
ishbetween
unwr
ough
tan
dwro
ught
electro-plating
anodes.
2Whe
rethenickel
chem
ical products
are
not
specified
separately
(indicated
by"ex"infronof
thetariff
number)the
tradeflowthantnose
ofnic
kel.
ProseDéAnn
MDF/W/21Page 79
accounted for a further 2.6 per cent. Imports of other nickel productswere very small.
116. Imports of all nickel products other than wrought products fallingunder CCCN 75.02-75.06, enjoy bound m.f.n. zero duties. In addition, allproducts falling under CCCN 75.02 enjoy duty-free access except gilt orsilvered wire of nickel which is subject to a bound m.f.n. duty of 4.6 percent. Products falling under CCCN 75.03 are duty-free except plates,sheets and strips of nickel foil which are subject to a bound m.f.n. dutyof 4.4 per cent. Products falling under CCCN 75.04 are subject to a boundm.f.n. duty of 2.2 per cent. Products falling under CCCN 75.05 enjoy boundzero m.f.n. duties, while those under CCCN 75.06 arè subject to a boundm.f.n. duty of 3.8 per cent. Out of the total imports of vrought productsand finished manufactures (CCCN 75.02-75.06) amounting to US$1.97 million,about US$1.38 million or 70.0 per cent coming from the EEC, United Statesand Sweden were duty-free on au m.f.n. basis, and a further US$0.56 or28.4 per cent were from duty-free EFTA and EEC sources since Norway is anEFTA member country. All dutiable imports from GSP sources are duty-free.However, no imports from these sources were recorded. Out of the totalnickel imports by Norway in 1982 amounting to about US$167.8 million only0.4 per cent was dutiable, the rest was duty-free on m.f.n. or on apreferential basis.
117. Switzerland is a net importer of nickel products since it has no majorrefining capacity.. As Table 28 shows its imports of nickel products,including chemical products, amounted to, US$40.4 million in 1982. Importsof unwrought products accounted for 43.1 per cent of the total. Imports ofwrought products accounted for a further 30.2 per cent, and finishedmanufactures accounted for the remaining 4.7 per cent. Switzerland is amember of EFTA and all imports of nickel from other member countries aswell as from EEC and Spanish sources are duty-free. Table 28 also showsthat out of the total nickel imports of US$40.4 million including chemicals(falling under the same tariff line) about 82.3 per cent come from theseduty-free preferential sources. A further 1 per cent comes from duty-freeGSP sources while the remaining 16.7 per cent were dutiable and come mainlyfrom the United States, Canada, Japan, Republic of South Africa and variouscentrally-planned economy countries.
118. Imports of nickel ores and concentrates as well as of ash and residueswhich are duty-free are insignificant. Imports of matte, unwrought refinednickel and nickel alloys are subject to bound m.f.n. duty equivalent to 0.1per cent. Most imports however, come duty-free from the EEC and EFTAsources as well as from Cuba and the Philippines. Dutiable imports comefrom Canada, Republic of South Africa and the USSR. Imports offerro-nickel vere subject to bound m.f.n. duties equivalent to 0.3 percent. However, over 86 per cent of imports of ferro-nickel come fromduty-free EFTA and EEC sources, while dutiable imports core from the UnitedStates, USSR and the Republic of South Africa. Most imports of nickelpowders and flakes come from duty-free EEC and EFTA sources with the restcoming front the United States and Canada and are subject to a bound m.f.n.duty equivalent to 0.1 per cent. The simple and weighted average duty onunwrought products is 0.2 per cent.
EFTA has an agreement with Spain by which reciprocal duty-free accessis given to most industrial and some agricultural products in each othersmarket.
COUN
TRY: Swi
tzerla
ndTable
28
Imports
ofNi
ckel
andNickel
Prod
ucts
unde
rDifferent
Tari
ffTr
eatm
ent
According
toSt
agesof
Processing
aa
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MDF/W/21Page 81
119. Imports of wrought nickel products in 1982 amounted to.US$12.4million, and about 81 per cent of this comes duty-free fromthe EEC, EFTAand Spain. The rest come mainly from the United States and Japan. Boundimport duties on wrought products range from 0.4 per cent to 2.7 per cent.The simple average duty is 1.0 per cent and the weighted average is 0.6 percent. Bound duties on finished nickel manufactures range from 0.2 per centto 2.9 per cent. However, most imports are duty-free since they come fromSpain and EEC sources. Dutiable imports come mainly from Japan and theUnited States. There are also small imports from Hong Kong and Singaporewhich are admitted duty-free. The simple average duty on finishedmanufactures is 1.2 per cent and the weighted average is 0.5 per cent.Imports of nickel chemical products are subj ect to bound duties rangingfrom 0.1 to 1.0 per cent. However, about 87 per cent of imports comeduty-free from the EEC and EFTA sources and from Spain, while dutiableimports come mainly from Japan, United States, Canada, Poland and theDemocratic Republic of Germany. Switzerland gives duty-free treatment toall nickel imports coming from countries eligible for the GSP. However,these sources accounted for only 1 per cent of all imports of nickelproducts.
120. Sweden is one of the major importers of nickel products. Totalimports in 1982 amounted to US$120.3 million, 89.5 per cent of which wasaccounted for by unwrought nickel products, 4.4 per cent by wrought nickelproducts, 4.9 per cent by nickel chemicals and 1.2 per cent by finishedmanufactures.
121. Table 29 shows that about 94.3 per cent of total nickel importsenjoyed bound zero m.f.n. duties. Sweden is a member of EFTA and a further3.3 per cent of imports had a duty-free entry on the basis of preferentialtreatment being imports from other EFTA countries, the EEC and Spain. Only2.4 per cent of imports were subject to m.f.n. duties ranging from 1.4 percent to 5.8 per cent. All dutiable imports from GSP sources enjoyduty-free treatment. Imports of unwrought nickel were all duty-free on anm.f.n. basis. Imports of matte come from Australia and the USSR; those offerro-nickel come from New Caledonia, and Dominican Republic and Indonesia,while imports of unwrought refined nickel come mainly from the UnitedStates, EEC and Canada. Imports of wrought nickel are subject to a boundm.f.n. duty of 1.4 per cent. However, about 50 per cent of wrought nickelimports core from duty-free EEC and EFTA sources.
122. Dutiable imports come mainly from the United States, Japan, Canada,Hungary and the USSR. Imports of nickel chemical products are duty-free ona bound m.f.n. basis with the exception of nickel nitrites falling underCCCN 28.39 which are subject to a bound m.f.n. duty of 5.8 per cent andceiling binding. Imports of chemicals come from the United States, EEC,EFTA, USSR and the German Democratic Republic. Imports of finished nickelmanufactures are subject to bound m.f.n. duties of 3.2 per cent. However,almost all imports come from duty-free preferential sources, namely, theEEC, Switzerland and Spain.
123. With only a small domestic mine production of nickel, the UnitedStates imports most of its nickel needs making it the largest singlecountry importer of nickel products. On the other hand the United Stateshas a large nickel refining and fabrication capacity. Imports range fromintermediate products, such as matte and nickel oxides, to finishedproducts. Table 30 shows that in 1983 total imports of nickel products
Impo
rts
ofNi
cket
Table
29
andNickel
Products
under
DifferentTariff
Treatment
Accaoding
to
Stages
ofProcessing
Tota
l.%b
I|
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Ptereiil
tfl.¶l
C
~~~~~~~~~~~~~leçons
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Tabl
e30
Imports
ofNi
ckel
and
Nick
elPr
oduc
tsun
der
Diff
eren
ttariff
Trea
tmen
tAc
cord
ing
toStages
ofProcessing
jfflî16
13s4m
Tota
IIm
port
sDu
tyFre
eQut
iable
(duty
feee)
Other
prefasential
Treatm
ent
Value
OrigiaValue
Origin
Date
Valu
Origia
Rate
Volu
eOrigia
à4.
4i
II
leIl
la13
14.as
14si
1lte
lasi
lala
*4.5~
~01.
34
aheuS
salé
asa
6.1601
.-US,
CANMA.AusCAM
alla
4~~~~~
~01.4V
866,au4
a*IasUS,
CANlAmca
saky
é6*0
.01
41.31î
SI41.31,CAN,
MUR,
AUSs
caaaaîp
410.04.
p191,
11,463
CAN,
EEC,
'ii-etàa
nickel
160
,561
54,4%4
laIs
DOH,
NCLosiers
cal
5and
.62
4.0
4.36
134EV
Urcu
EE51
0.31
611326
451,30
AWV.
Su-tss
b-To
tal1
0o.a
544,411
100.0
613.40
à-6
&uc
Visa
rJi34
.3,1
61
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ia2
LAVs
51.5
53.3ilK,1UCMVa.
3i
513.63
4.06
Visa
613.
136
.3:1k
ruVUFreee
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433
.1I5
14UCCI,1.et.ia
4UA
irr
413.
501i
3-à
61~
161U,5£,BVia
3pc
é,VF
is51
1.06
M6.15
3144*e1
rd
Free
u
312.06
4.*45
.64lasc
aBjeuE
EC,CAN
,CMEII
Vi-t
e34
.11
31.1
à,4
11uc
cSMj
furude
aVisa
20.3
4511
asi
ScC>IJUEEC,
N,AUS
isa
530.33
11,61
.t131
MIUCUVsaEEC
CAN,
JPN
.Ve
5130
.4431
3.11LcsUcu
lis
Free
Vsa
M2.4.
4,16
.0
414£cJtu.i
sEEC,
SWE,
CAN
rude
a530.4
1432
.416
CAMUi
îsEEC,SWR
ubil
4,5
0.0
44
54
54443,11461.1
ias
JI33.
Vsa
I~~
a.Ic
ala41
~~6.30.
.1V
1.4.1V
ucVeus
aEEC,
JPN,SWK
Vîs
4.63s1,0
SA
aîCA
NAUU
m5cm
4.6.14.1o,13
:>KV
,li
CAN,EEC,
JPN
Vs
4.16.5
13:4.3
3.a1
4.i
uc.J
VUCA
Mvisa
siVies
-11.
61,6lo
lisub-Total
.4341,03
1.3-.1:
3,11
1.M1i
Via
Free
Visa
du.04
11,
-.1
11ICCIMVe33
III
Vimude
esea4403.6V
î,eî6a
'4.1
1,13
iCJEC
Visa
16i1VS
Vs
s6SîlVé
134
1.16
J115,Ccm
sinEEC,
JPNCAN
Vs
ss6S6.
111,
113
4~~~~~~~~54
.5-.
641.
Y4IIC*E9
,II
Vis
losSSCflI,4a
Vis*s431.10
3,431
1.5
3,463
LKCJ16,CAI
CAN,JPN
CAUFre
e1Vie
s-~~~~~~~~.1
1t.e
rud
sSeh
lola
lil,431
100.04.
.419.I50.li.
1,343
14.1
rude
1.1Vi.
V6.
loca
635
04,36
6.
..00
5350
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ia.
a..
..u
alassessss
s5r5îc5îîî5aiîs
rade
flow
infArmationdoesnot
btut
oalgdistingwish
betweenash
andresiduceand
unwroughta
5%p
îS.J
..à.s
..s
for
eachan
dresiduce
unwr
ough
tbut
ht,nickelfor
4W
.th.
finanufactures
areno
tse
cifi
edeas
parately
"ex"
front
tariff
numer)
tradeflowfigureman
ufac
ture
sa1i
lCIa
Chot
her
thanth
oseof
nickel.Sin
cethisoccure int
hesajority
.man
ufactu
reswe
ight
edaerage
hasba
bthese
prod
ucts
..p
ia.
z OOn -- c
MDF/W/21Page 84
amounted to US$723.8 million about 89.6 per cent of which was accounted forby unwrought nickel products. Wrought products accounted for a further 6per cent; finished manufactures 1.4 per cent while nickel chemicalsaccounted for the remaining 3 per cent. The Table also shows that about92.2 per cent of total imports enjoyed bound m.f.n. zero duties, 7.3 percent of imports were subject to bound m.f.n. duties ranging from 2.5 to10.0 per cent, and although all dutiable imports enjoy a duty-free GSPtreatment, only 0.5 per cent of imports fall under this category.
124. Imports of all unwrought nickel products are duty-free. On the otherhand, wrought products, chemicals and finished manufactures are subject toduties. Imports of matte accounted for about 11.2 per cent of total UnitedStates nickel imports and come mainly from Botswana, Australia and Canada.Imports of unwrought refined nickel and nickel alloys accounted for58.5 per cent of total nickel imports and come mainly from Canada,Australia, Zimbabwe, USSR, Finland and the EEC. Ferro-nickel importsaccounted for 8.4 per cent of total nickel import and had New Caledonia,Dominican Republic, and Colombia as the main sources of imports. TheUnited States is a major importer of nickel waste and scrap and in 1983they accounted for 2.4 per cent of total nickel imports with Canada, Norwayand the EEC as the main suppliers.
125. About 98 per cent of wrought nickel imports are subject to boundm.f.a. duties varying from 2.5 per cent to 7.4 per cent, the simple averageduty being 5.4 per cent and the weighted average 4.6 per cent. The largestwrought nickel import items were nickel rods and wire, cold worked, subjectto a bound duty of 4.7 per cent. Imports of wrought nickel products comemainly from the EEC, Canada, Japan and Sweden. All dutiable importsenjoyed duty-free GSP treatment with the main supplier being Brazil,Mexico, Republic of Korea, Philippines and Zimbabwe. Roughly 87.4 per centof United States imports of nickel chemicals consisted of nickel oxides andhydrooxides which enjoy bound duty-free access. Imports come mainly fromCanada, Australia and Norway. The other major chemical import items weresulphates and persulphates (ex 28.38) which are subject to a bound m.f.n.duty of 3.2 per cent with the EEC, Finland and Canada as the main sourcesof supply. Imports of chlorides and oxychlorides of nickel (ex 28.30) comefrom the EEC and Japan and are subject to a bound m.f.n. duty of 3.7 percent. The remaining nickel chemical imports were subject to a bound m.f.n.duty of 3.7 per cent and come mainly from Canada, Japan and the EEC.Imports of nickel chemicals enjoy duty-free GSP treatment. About 74.7 percent of United States imports of finished nickel manufactures are subjectte bound m.f.n. duties ranging from 4.7 per cent te 10.0 per cent with asimple average of 6.6 per cent and a weighted average of 6.4 per cent. Theremaining 25.3 per cent of imports of finished nickel manufactures are fromduty-free GSP suppliers. Dutiable imports come mainly from the EEC, Canadaand Japan while GSP supplier are mainly Israel, Hong Kong, Mexico and theRepublic of Korea.
(ii) Developing countries
126. Tables 31 to 41 provide information on imports of nickel and nickelproducts divided according to stages of processing for the followingdeveloping countries: Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, India, the Republic ofKorea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Spain, Thailand, Turkey and Yugoslavia.Trade figures are based on national statistics. Imports under CCCN ex26.03are not included in total nickel trade. Tables indicate the most recentm.f.a. tariff treatment and where available, preferential treatments
MDF/W/21Page 85
granted to other countries or regional groupings. In examining theseTables it can be noted that m.f.a. nominal rates of duty on nickel increasewith a higher degree of processing. la principle, lower m.f.n. rates areapplied to imports of primary nickel while nickel semi-manufactures andmanufactures are subject to higher rates of duty. However, it should beborne in mind that the protective role of developing country tariffs cannotalways be disassociated from their fiscal function.
127. Argentina is a net importer of nickel products. On the basis of 1981trade information, import amounted to roughly US$7.0 million, 47.8 percent of which was in the form of unwrought products, 27.6 per cent in theform of wrought products and 22.5 per cent in the form of nickel chemicals.Imports of nickel manufactures were very small. On the basis of 1984-85tariff treatment the m.f.n. duties on unwrought nickel range between 10 and38 per cent. Imports come from the United States, Canada, Norway and theEEC. Imports of wrought nickel products into Argentina come mostly fromthe EEC, United States, Sweden and Switzerland and are subject to dutiesvarying from 10 to 38 per cent. Small amounts of imports come from Brazilunder preferential tariff rates. Import duties on nickel chemicals vary-between 10 and 35 per cent. Imports came mainly from, the EEC, UnitedStates and Switzerland, while a small amount comes from Chile on apreferential tariff basis. The simple average duty on imported finishedmanufactures of nickel is 38 per cent. M.f.a. imports come mostly from theEEC, United States and Japan, while a small amount of imports underpreferential duties comes from Brazil and Mexico.
128. Brazil is both an importer and exporter of nickel products, Table 32shows that total imports of nickel products amounted to US$6.4 million in1983 of which, 23.0 per cent were in the form of unwrought nickel productsand 43.0 per cent in the form of wrought nickel products. Imports ofnickel chemicals including other products under the same tariff linesaccounted for 32.5 per cent of total nickel imports. Imports of finishednickel manufactures were very small, and amounted to only 1.5 per cent oftotal nickel imports.
129. Imports of ores and concentrates, as well as imports of nickel ash andresidues, have duty-free access into Brazil. The rest of nickel importsare subject to duty varying between 10 and 55 per cent. Duties onunwrought nickel products vary from 10 to 45 per cent and imports comemainly from the United States, EEC, Canada, Norway and Switzerland, whileduties on wrought nickel imports vary from 15 to 45 per cent, with the EEC,United States, Japan and Switzerland as the main sources of imports.Imports of nickel chemicals come mostly from the United States, Canada, EECand Switzerland and are subject to duties of 15 and 30 per cent. Smallamounts of imports come from ALADI sources. The simple average duty onimports of finished nickel is 55 per cent and imports come mainly from theUnited States, EEC, Japan and Canada.
130. Since 1982 Colombia has been exporting a substantial amount offerro-nickel. However, it also imports some nickel products which in 1981amounted to about US$4.8 million made up mostly of unwrought nickelproducts (45.8 per cent), wrought nickel products (22.3 per cent), nickelchemical products (29.2 per cent) and finished nickel products (2.7 percent). All imports of ores and concentrates as weil as of nickel ash andresidues are subject to a 10 per cent duty. Matte and speiss, on the otherhand, are subject to a duty of 5 per cent. Imports of unwrought nickel and
COUNTRY:
Arge
ntin
aTable
31
TEAR:
1981
(tra
de).
1984-85
(tariff
trea
tmen
t)
Import
ofNi
ckel
and
Nick
elPr
oduc
tsun
der
Different
Stages
ofTa
riff
Trea
tmen
tAccording
toStages
ofPr
oces
sing
(ln
US$'00
0)
HFN
Prod
uct
Tari
ffTo
tal
Tari
ffAverage
MFN
Othe
rPr
efer
ence
s1Description
NoIm
port
sSimple
Weig
hted
%Ra
teVa
lue
Orig
inRata
Valu
eOr
gin
Oresand
concentrates
26.01
12%
_Ashan
dresidues
26.0
3302
_16
URT
Sub-Total
1621
122-
30%2
-16
Unwr
ough
tMa
tte
and
speiss
75.0
1.01
.00.
00-
USA
_Al
loye
d75
.01.
03.0
0.00
10%
2,99
3US
A,EE
C,NO
R,CA
N_
Waste
and
scrap
75.01.02.00.00
_Fe
rro-
nick
el73.02.03.09.00
i6Z3
_Po
wder
san
dflakes
75.03.00.00.02
237
EEC,
USA.CAN
_75.03.00.02.994,
38s
loi
USA.EEC
Electro-plating
anodes
75.05
102
13US
A,EE
CSu
b-To
tal
3,344
27.7
11.1
10_z
38z2
3,344
Wrought
10%
699
EEC,
USA,
CHE,
SWE
SRA
142
138
EEC,USA,
CHE,SWE35
)8}
1815
3USA.EEC
CHE
~~31
.1EES,CAN-
75.0
3.00
.01.
99,U
382
218
EECUSA
75.04
,,C
C10x
504
EEC.USA.CHE
_75
.054
E10-5
_USA.EC
Sub-Total
1,927
15.1
13.6
IOZ3
8Z2
1,90
7.
20
wemi
cals
628.28
IOZ
llO
USA.EEC
28.30.00.01.11
25I
24EE
C_
28.30.00.02899
353
H75
EEC
I_CO
LaX28.30
102
-
28.e35.00.9900
,,
252
1,28
1EE
CUSA
POL,
CSR,
AUT
ex28.38
352
-USAEEC
ex28.39
CHE
25S
3EEC
USA
auE
_28
.42.
02.1
3.00
ex28.43
102
34USA
EEC
ex28.48
,E
,CHE
32USAEECCIe
_Su
b-To
tal
1,57
617
.510
Z352
21,559
Il
Fini
shed
manu
fact
urer
s75.06
,U,
W,JP
N38
211
3EECUSAPT
12SRA.HEX
Sub-
Tota
l125
3838
382
113
12
Tota
l6,
988
=10_382
6,92
365
Imorts
trou
isADI
coun
trie
sare
indictoed
Inth
ese
colu
mns,
alth
ough
noinformation
laav
aila
ble
inrelation
Cothenature
ofextent
oran
ypr
efer
ence
sap
plie
d.The
veig
hted
tariff
averages
are
calc
ulat
edex
clud
ing
this
trade.
2Tar
iffra
nge
3Thesbound
rate
onitem
75.0
3.00
.02.
01(Pouders
end
Flakes
ofpure
nickel)
ie40
per
cent.
Tari
ffav
erag
eha
vebe
enca
lcul
ated
usin
gap
plIe
drates.
4Ava
labl
etrade
flou
information
does
not
distringuiah
betw
een
unwrought
and
wrou
ght
elec
tro-
plat
ing
anod
es.
This
item
hasbeen
incl
uded
wIn
the
calculation
etth
esiwple
tariff
average
forbo
thun
vrou
ght
and
brou
ght
nickel
but
only
inunvrought
nickel
for
the
trade
weig
hted
tariff
average.
5The
bound
rate
ontl
u1It
emL1
30per
cent.
Tari
afav
$r00
esha
vebeen
calc
ulat
edusing
applied
rates.
(-)
nil
orle
ssthon
USS5
ûO.
6Whe
reth
enickel
chemical
prod
ucts
are
not
spec
ifie
dse
para
tely
(ind
tcat
cdby
"ex"
infr
ont
ofthe
tari
f(nu
mber
)th
etrade
flo
figu
res
May
incl
ude
Importe
ofchemical
products
othe
rthan
thosse
ownickel.
Since
this
occu
rsin
the
majo
rity
ofth
ech
emic
alproduct
novweighted
tarif(
average
has
been
calc
ulat
edin
resp
ect
ofth
ese
prod
ucts
.(B)
Sound
rate
(Schedule
1XIV
)-
Arge
ntin
a).
Source:
Coue
rclo
Exte
rior
1981
Impo
rtac
lôn
Vol.
III
Iand
2,In
stit
isto
Nacional
deEstadistica
yCe
nsoa
,1981.
inte
rnat
iona
lCuatous
Jour
nal,
Arge
ntin
s1984-85.
Brussei.
1984.
3
eC
COUN
TRY:
Brazil
YEAR:
1983
(trade).
1985
Table
32
(tariff
treatment)
Imports
ofNi
ckel
and
Nickel
Products
under
Diff
eren
tSt
ages
ofTariff
Treatment
According.
toSt
ages
ofProcessing
______________________
____________________
____
____
____
____
____
A(in
US$'000)
HFN
Prod
uct
MFN
Tari
ffTo
tal
Tarif(
Average
HN
Othe
rPreferences
Des%ription
NoImporte
Smple
IlWe
Igh
edZ
Rate
Valu
eOr
igin
Rate
Value
Origin
Orea
and
core
entr
ates
2HE0
1F)_
CII
Ash
and
reai
dues
26.0
3
Sub-
Tota
lFree
_
Unvr
ough
tta
tte
and
apei
se75
.01
151,
Unalloyed
75.,01
,10o
(A51,
039
USANORCAN,EEC,CHE
Allo
yed
75.,
01)
152
USAE
ECWanted
and
*crap
E5C0
1)
-£Er
Ferro-nickel
73.02.07.00
371
7USA,EEC
Pouders
and
flak
es7E
.03.
02.0
1451
-CEC
75.0
320E
.29
)lS
228
USACAN,CEC
Elec
tro-
plat
ing
anode
75F05
)17
4ZAPEEC.CHE
Sub-Total
1.416
11.1
11.6
IOI-
45S
1,47
6
Wrought
75.0
245
2736
CHEEEC.USA,ESPJPH
75.0
320
2g708
EECCHEUSA,JPN
15.0
4301
741
USA,
EEC.
CAN
75.0
4202
.00
37Z
573
EECUSA
75.,
05H
152
-ZA
FEEC
,CE
Sub-Total
2.758
29.2
32.9
15l-4523
2.75
8_
Chem
icai
a4ex
2a.2
8AN,
EEC
)57
3US
A,CM
EEC
ex28
3030
1>26
8EEC.CHE,CHN
5ARC
ex28.35
)Il
EECU
SA28
.38.
16.0
0G,MEX
15S(
B)1,
161
EECCHEUSA
49ARGHU
ex28.38
ex28.39
ICHEUSAEEC
28.42
130
2l
CHEEEC
ex28
.43
IEEC.USA,CHE
ex28
.48
16EECUSA
Sub-Total
2,086
29.6
1S2-302
2,032
54
Finl
uhed
manufactures
75.06
Is2
95USA,EEC,JPN,CAN
Sub-
Tota
l95
55.0
55.0
552
95
Total
6.41
5_
Free
-552
36,
361
54;
Importe
irom
ALADI
cisntries
are
indi
cate
dln
thes
ecoliamna
although
noInformation
teav
aila
ble
Inrelation
any
pref
eren
ces
appl
ied.
The
weighted
tariff
average
are
calc
ulat
edex
clud
ing
this
trade.
tath
ena
ture
orextent
of
2Ava
ilab
letwade
flou
Info
rmat
ion
does
not
diatingulal
between
unwr
ough
tan
dbr
ough
tel
ectr
o-pl
ating
anodes.
This
Item
has
been
Incl
uded
inth
eca
ughl
atio
nof
the
simple
tari
fEaverage
for
both
unwrought
and
wros
igt
nickel
but
only
Inun
wrou
ght
nickel
for
the
tradeweighted
tari
ffav
erag
e.
3Tri
ffrange.
4'Wiere
the
nickel
chemifalmproducts
arei
not
spec
ifie
dseparatelywtn
dica
tcd
by"ex"
in
iron
tof
the
tartff
number)
the
trAde
floau
figures
moy
Incimde
Impo
rta
ofchemical
products
nther
than
those
ofni
ckel
.Since
this
fccurs
in
the
majo
rity
ofth
echemical
product
no
weig
hted
tarif
average
haa
b'en
calculted
inre
spec
tof
theme
prodica.
(B)
Eound
rate
(Schedule
Mt-
Ozaz
il).
(-)
Nll
or
leas
than
US$500.
Snai
rren
MCoe
rcin
Exterlrr
dnBraaul.
lmpnrtacao
1983.
Tiam
nIand
Il.
Hinisterioda
Faze
nda.
Secr
etar
iada
Receita
Federal.
Brasilla
1983
.Ti
i-L[
Tidu
ane1
r:t
doSr
tail
.Rio
deJa
ntil
o1985.
U3 C7 _n __ -_ INJ
YEAR
:1981
(trade).
1982-83
(tariff
treatment)
Impo
rts
ofNi
ckel
andNi
ckel
Prod
ucts
under
Diff
eren
tStages
ofTariff
Treatment
According
toSt
ages
ofProcessing
MFN
product
Tari
ffTo
tal
Tariff
Average
MFN
Othe
rPr
efur
ence
stDe
scri
ptio
nNo
Impo
rte
Simple%
weighted
%Ra
teValue
Origin
Rate
Value
Orion
Ores
and
conc
entr
ates
26.0
1.03
.00
102
_As
hand
resi
dues
ex26
.03
Sub-
Tota
l_
lO10
2_
Unwr
ough
tNa
tte
and
spei
sa75.01.01.00
51
n.a.
Unalloyed
75.01.02.00
Alloyed
75.01.02.00
102
1,84
6CANUSA,EEC
Waste
and
scra
p75
.01.
03.0
052
40n.a.
Ferr
o-ni
ckel
73.02.00.09
10%
_Po
wder
san
dflakes
75.0
3202
.00
151
22Electro-plating
anod
es75
.05
280
na.
Sub-Total
2.18
910
10.6
52-1
513
2.189
Brought
75.02
15Z
546
EEC.USACUI
28RR
A15
.03.
01.0
0152
74n.
s.75.042
302
417
USA.CAN.EEC
75.0
515
2_
Sub-Total
1.06
522
.521
.0152-3023
1.037
28
Chemicals3
ex28
.28
488
EEC,
CANU
SACH
Eex28.30
231
n.a.
ex28
.35
126
n.a.
ex28
.38
202
170
n.a.
ex28
.39
148
U.a.
ex28.42
87n.
a.ex28.43.01.99
84n.
a.ex28.43
252
In.
a.ex28.48
*252
58a.a.
ex28.48.05.99
152
-n.a.
Sub-Total
1.39
320,7
151-Z523
1.393
Finished
manu
fact
ures
75.0
630X
127
n.a.
Sub-Total
127
3030
30X
127
Tota
l4,774
52-302
4.74
62d
'Imp
orts
from
ALAD
Icountries
are
indi
cate
din
thes
eco
lumn
salthough
no
information
any
pref
eren
ces
applied.
The
weig
hted
tariff
averages
are
calc
ulat
edexcluding
this
trede.
isavailable
inre
lati
onto
the
natu
reor
exte
ntof
2Ava
ilab
letrade
flow
Info
rmat
ion
does
not
distinguish
betw
een
unwrought
and
wrought
electro-plating
anod
es.
This
item
has
been
included
Inthe
calc
ulat
ion
ofthe
simp
letariff
average
for
both
unwr
ough
tan
dwr
ough
tnickel
but
only
inunwrought
nickel
for
the
trad
e-we
ight
edtariff
averp3a.
3Tariff
rang
e.
4Whe
rethe
nickel
chemical
producta
are
not
spec
ifie
dse
para
tely
(indicated
by"e
x"in
fron
tof
the
tari
ffnu
mber
)the
trade
flow
figu
res
may
incl
ude
impo
rts
ofch
emic
alpr
oduc
tsother
than
thos
eof
nick
el.
Sinc
eth
isoccurs
inth
ema
jori
tyof
the
chemical
products
noweighted
tariff
average
has
been
calculated
Inre
spec
tof
these
products.
(S)
Bound
rate
(Schedule
LXXV
I-
Colo
mbia
).(-
)Ni
lor
les.
thon
US$500.
n.a.
when
CIF
calu
elesn
than
US$400.000
origin
net
available.
Sour
ces:
-Anuario
deComercio
Exte
rtor
1981
Departamento
Adainistrativo
Nactonal
deEs
tadi
stic
a.-
international
Customs
Jour
nal.
Colo
mbia
1982-83,
Brussels,
1982
.
u3
noC
CDc
00-g
0wri
*"
COUNTRY:
Colombia.
Rep.
ofTabl
e13
22sag S~ ,- ---°s^- .-E<2-2'98 * -é°i!;fidÉ] * 8. : '-~ ~ ~~~~~~°°°-,o -- *______________-« S l> 1
_--
MDF/W/ 21Page 89
nickel alloys are mostly imported from Canada, United States, and EEC, andare subject to a 10 per cent import duty. Wrought nickel imports comemainly from the EEC, United States, Canada and Switzerland and are subjectto duties varying from 15 to 30 per cent. Nickel oxides and peroxides fromCanada, EEC, United States and Switzerland make up a great part of nickelchemical imports most of which are subject to a duty of 20 per cent. Thesimple average duty for this sector is 30.7 per cent while nominal dutiesrange from 15 to 25 per cent. The nominal and simple average duty onimports of finished nickel manufactures is 30 per cent.
131. Bong Kong is a substantial net importer of nickel products. Importsin 1983 as indicated in Table 34 amounted to US$35.1 million, about75.0 per cent of which vas acounted for by unwrought nickel products,12.2 per cent by brought products and a further '2.7 per cent by nickelchemical products. Imports of all nickel products into Hong Kong areduty-free on au m.f.a. basis. Imports of ash and residues come from Japan,Singapore, Philippines and China. The bulk of nickel imports are in theform of unwrought unalloyed nickel from Canada, Norway, EEC, Australia andthe Republic of South Africa. Unwrought alloyed nickel comes from Canada,United States, and Japan, and ferro-nickel imports côme from the EEC,Brazil, Republic of South Africa and Australia. Imports of wrought nickelproducts come mainly from Japan, EEC, United States, Canada, Australia andNorway. The main nickel chemical imports into Hong Kong are nickel oxidesand hydroxides (28.28) and sulphates and persulphates of nickel (28.38)which together accounted for over 67 per cent of nickel chemical imports.Imports of chemicals come mainly from Canada, EEC, China, United States andJapan.
132. India is one of the major importer of nickel products amongdeveloping countries with total import in 1980-81 amounting to US$49.9million. Import range from ores and concentrates to finished manufactures*and are subject to m.f.n. duties ranging from 40 to 100 per cent.Unwrought nickel products accounted for 62.1 per cent of total imports.Wrought nickel products accounted for 20.6 per cent and chemical importsaccounted for a further 16.6 per cent. Imports of finished nickelmanufactures amounted to only 0.2 per cent of total nickel imports.
133. Imports of ores and concentrates come from the EEC and Canada, andimports of ash and residues came from Australia, Canada and Singapore. Thenominal duty on ores and concentrates is 60 per cent and that on ash andresidues is 40 per cent. Imports of unwrought nickel products come fromthe EEC, Canada, United States, Australia, USSR and the Philippines. Theyare subject to a duty of 40 per cent with the exception of nickel powders,flakes and electroplating anodes which are subject to a duty of 60 percent. The simple average duty on unwrought products is 45 per cent and theweighted average is 42 per cent. The simple average duty on wroughtproducts is 68 per cent, while the weighted average duty is 67.6 per centand the nominal rates are 60 per cent and 100 per cent. Imports of nickelchemicals are subject to a nominal and simple average duty of 60 per centand the bulk of imports are in the form of nickel oxides and hydroxideswhich come from the EEC, United States, Australia and Canada. The othermajor chemical imports are nickel chlorides and oxychlorides which comemainly from Japan, EEC, United States, Singapore and the Republic of Chine.Small imports of other nickel chemicals come from Hong Kong, Japan, EEC,United States, Norway, USSR and the Republic of China.
COUNTRY:
Hong
-Kon
g
YEAR:
1983
(tra
de),
1984
Table
34
(tar
iff
trea
tmen
t)
Impo
rts
ofNickel
and
Nick
elProducts
unde
rDifferent
Stages
ofTariff
Treatment
Acco
rdin
gto
Stag
esof
Processing
(InUS
$'00
0)
MFN
Prod
uct
Tarif
fTotal
Tari
ffAverage
HFN
Othe
rPreferences
Description
NoImporte
Simp
leWeighted
Rate
Value
Origin
Rate
Valu
eOrigin
Ores
and
concentrates
26.0
1)
Ash
and
resi
dues
ex26.03
(893
)JPN,CHN.PHL.SGP
Sub-
Tota
l-
Unwr
ough
tMa
tte
and
speise
75.01
Unal
loye
d75
.01
)J
24,641
CAN,NOR.EECAUSZAF
Allo
yed
75.01
)247
CANU
SAJP
NWa
ste
and
scra
p75.01
)Fr
eePTW
Ferr
o-ni
ckel
ex73.02
)1.159
EEC,ZAF,SRAPTW,AUS
Powd
ers
and
flak
es75.03
)Electro-plating
anodes
75.05
)25
3NORJPN.USA,CAN
Sub-Total
26,301
26,3
01
Brought
75.02
11,66
5JF
N.EE
CUSA
.AUS
75.0
3)Free
2.61
0NO
R,CA
N,JP
N,EE
C,CH
E75.041
)Fre
e7
EECJPNAUS
75.0
5)
NOR,
JPNUSA,CAN
Sub-Total
4,282
4.28
2
chemicals2
28.28
)1,158
CAN,CIWI,EEC
28.30
)I
463
EEC,
JPN,
CHNU
SAex28.3
0)
I37
JPNUSA,ISR.CHNEEC
ex28.35
)118
CHN,
KOR,
EEC.
JPN
28.3
8)
Free
1,403
EEC,PTW,FIN,CHN,JPN
ex2a
.39
)243
CHN.EEC,USA
ex28
.42
)670
CIIN,EECJPNSUN
ex28.43
)34
2EE
CJPN
,USA
ESP,
CHN
*x28
.48
)31
EECJ
PNUS
A
Sub-
Tota
l4,465
4,465
Fini
shed
manufactures
75.0
6Free
41EEC,JPN
Sub-
Tota
I41
41
Total
35,0
89Fr
ee35,089
Avai
labl
etrade
flow
vinformation
does
not
dist
ingu
ish
between
unwrou
ghtandwr
ough
tel
ectr
o-pl
atin
ganodes.
This
item
has
been
included
lnth
eca
lcul
atio
nof
the
simp
leta
riff
aver
age
forboth
unwr
ough
tan
dwr
ough
tni
ckel
but
only
inun
wrou
ght
nickel
for
the
trade-weighted
tariff
average.
2Whe
rethe
nick
elchemical
products
are
not
spec
ifie
dseparately
(ind
icat
edby
"ex"
infr
ont
ofth
etariff
number)
Ray
incl
ude
impo
rted
of
chemical
products
other
than
thos
eof
nickel.
Sinc
ethis
occurs
Inth
ema
jori
tyof
the
chem
ical
average
has
been
calc
ulat
edin
resp
ect
ofthese
products.
(8)
Bound
rates
(Sch
edul
eXI
X-Ho
ngKong).
(-)
Nil
or
less
than
US$500.
Sources:
-Ho
nggo
ngTrade
Statistics,
Impo
rts,
Cens
usan
dSt
atis
tics
Department.
Hong
Kong
1983.
-Zo
Il-u
nd-H
ande
lsInformation,
Hong
-Kon
g,1984
Exch
ange
Rate
1983:
7.27
3Ho
ngKo
ngdollare
per
US$,
Hong
Kong
Mont
hly
Dige
stof
Statistics.
March
1984
.
the
trad
efl
owfi
gure
spr
oduc
ts.
no
weighted
tari
ff
lu3
-0h
%0_K
Oru
YEAR:
1980-81
(trade),
1983
-84
(tariff
treatment)
Import
ofNickel
and
Nick
elProducts
unde
rDi
ffer
ent
Stages
ofTariff
Treatuent
Acco
rdin
gto
Stages
ofProcessing
(inUS$'000)
H~~~~~
FUPr
oduc
tf
Tari(f
veragal
Tari
ffAlvvMre
HFN
Othe
rPr
efer
ance
sDe
scri
ptio
nN
smHo
%We
ight
ed%
SiplepiX
Rete
rigin
Velu
Ovgl
tRatue
igin-vtv
alue
Ortign
Ores
andconcentrate
26.01
6021
190
EEC.CAN
Ash
and
residues
ex26
.03
402
(2,7
48)
AUS,KEN,CANR50P
Sub-Total
190
5041.3
401-
601
190
Unwrought
Hatte
and
*pease
75.0
1)
E1,
113
REC
Unelloyed
15.0
1)
E,
NR,
149
ZECB
SUUC
ANNO
RUSA
Allo
yed
75.01
)40
1E
2.H55
CARC
EC.U
SAPH
L,IX
CMA
ute
and
acrap
75.01
)W
2,98
7EEC.USASVEAUS
Ferr
o-ni
ckel
73.02
)E
B3,
117
REC,
SCPI
RA
Powd
era
and
flak
ea75
032
)60
2,164
AUSC
ANUS
AEEC
Clig
Electro-plating
anodes
75.0
53EEC,CAN
909
RCCAN
Sub-Tot4l
31.044
45.7
4240
Z-60
231
,044
Wrou
ght
75.02
60X
3,8P
0WE
EEC.
NOR.
PHL.
JFNS
gg75.02
1002
2,14
0EREC,USACAN,JPN,SVI
75.0
3)
N,3
,N81
EECCAMHUNiJPHUSA
75.04 2
602
W82H
ERCJPN.USASUECUE
7505
2)-
NEEC,CAI
Sub-
Tota
l10
,305
6868.3
601-1002î
10,305
Chemical3
ex28
.28
)H5,839
EECUSA.CIE.AUS,CAN
ex28.30
)1,37H
JPNEECUSA,SGPC1N
ex28
.35
)56
EEC,USA,JPN
ex28.38
)P
,HH05
RJ1N,EECJIKGCINNOq
ex28
.39
)602
GN
1N9
NEEC,HKO,CAISUW,JPl
ex28.42
)10
9EEC,USASUN
ex28.43
)156
REC,
JPN,
CHN,
USA
*x2B
.48
)13
7JPN,EEC
Sub-
Tota
l8,298
6060
28.
298
Flinlshed
manu
fact
ures
75.06
115
EEC
lIS
ZeC,
USAS
WE.J
PN
Sub-Total
115
6060
602
115
Tota
l49,952
402-1002
49,952
Tariff
range.
2wva
lîAb
metr
ade
floa
Infor.ationsdoes
not
dist
ingu
iAh
betw
een
unwr
ough
tan
dwr
ough
tel
ectr
o-sl
atin
gasodee.
Thit
itemih
aube
anincluded
lnth
ecalculation
ofth
esi
mple
tariff
average
forwoou
unwrought
and
vrnigit
niwk
elbu
tanly
tnunvrought
niwkel
for
the
trade-'eighted
tariff
aver
age.
3Whe
rethe
nick
elch
emic
alpr
oduc
tsare
not
spec
ifie
dse
para
"ely
(ind
icat
edby
'ex"
lnfr
ont
ofth
etariff
nowber)
the
trad
eflo
figu
re.
may
include
imported
ofch
emic
aepr
oduc
tsother
thon
itho
seof
nickel.iSlnce
mais
occurs
lnth
e*e
nori
tyof
the
chem
ical
product
nowe
ight
edta
riff
average
ham
been
calc
ulat
edin
respect
ofthese
products.
(8)
Soin
drate
(con
cess
ions
aaed
bein
gre
nego
tiot
ad)
Sources:
-Honthly
Stat
isti
ceof
the
ForeignTrad11
fIndia.sVolume
[I-
Importa.
Directorate
Central
ofCoercial
Inte
llig
ence
and
Statlntics,
Calc
uttn
,19
81.
-InternationaI
Cist
ras
Jour
nal.
asel
sa19
81-8
4,br
usti
el1183.
.xch
ange
Rate
1980
:7$863
Fupeces
per
UaS,
IMf
Internationul
Fina
ncia
lSt
atia
tics
,1984.
CMIN
TRYs
Ind
ieTable
35
MDF/W/21Page 92
134. The Republic of Korea is a net importer of nickel products. Importsin 1983 amounted to US$24.8 million and were subject to duties varying fromzero to 30 per cent. Unwrought nickel products accounted for about56.2 per cent of total nickel imports, wrought products 19.3 per cent,nickel chemicals 19.4 per cent, while finished manufactures accounted for2.6 per cent. The structure of duties indicates a tendency for rates torise with degree of processing. Import of ores and concentrates areduty-free, but no imports were recorded in 1983. Import of matte andspeiss, as well as of ferro-nickel, are subject to a duty of 5 per cent butimports are insignificant and came from Japan. Imports of unwroughtrefined nickel and nickel alloys are subject to m.f.n. duties varying from5 to 20 per cent some of which are unbound. Wrought product are subjectto a duty of 20 per cent except anodes which are subject to a temporaryduty of 15 per cent. The simple average tariff on unwrought and broughtproducts are 13.9 per cent and 18.6 per cent respectively. Imports ofunwrought products come mainly from Canada, United States, Australia,Japan, EEC, Finland and Singapore, while wrought imports come from Japan,United States, EEC, Austria, Sweden, Canada and Norway. Imports of nickelchemical products are subject to duties varying from 20 to 30 per cent,the simple average duty being 26 per cent. Import come mainly fromCanada, Japan, EEC and the United States. Imports of finished nickelmanufactures are subject to a nominal and a simple average duty of 30 percent and imports come mainly from Japan, United States, EEC and Singapore.
135. Malaysia has no domestic mine production of nickel and import all itsnickel needs. Imports of nickel products by Malaysia amounted to US$12.9million in 1982, US$7.9 million out of the total was, however, accountedfor by chemicals which included products other than nickel chemicals.Unwrought alloyed nickel and ferro-nickel make up the bulk of-imports ofunwrought products. Import are generally subject to two main duties, zeroand 10 per cent. Import of unwrought nickel products are duty-free withthe exception of nickel powders and flakes (45.03) which are subject to aduty of 10 per cent. The main sources of imports of unwrought nickel areCanada, Japan, United States, EEC, Norway and Finland. Imports of wroughtproducts are subject to a duty of 10 per cent with the exception ofelectroplating anodes which are duty-free and the main sources of importsare Japan, Singapore, United States, EEC and Australia. Import ofchemical products are duty-free and come mainly from Japan, EEC, UnitedStates, Singapore and the Republic of China. Finished manufactures ofnickel are subject to a duty of 10 per cent with imports coming mainly fromJapan, United States, EEC, Hong Kong and Switzerland. The simple averagetariffs are zero for ores and concentrates, 1.4 per cent for unwroughtnickel products,. 7.5 per cent for wrought products and 10 per cent forfinished manufactures of nickel.
136. Spain is a net importer of nickel products, with import amounting toUS$55.4 million in 1982 and subject to m.f.n. duties ranging from zero to24.4 per cent. About 83 per cent of total import consists of unwroughtnickel products, mostly refined nickel, ferro-nickel, matte and speiss. Afurther 8.3 pet cent consists.of wrought nickel products, while nickelchemicals and finished nickel manufactures accounted for 5.7 per cent and1.9 per cent respectively. Import of ores and concentrates and ash andresidues are very small. Spain has preferential trade agreements with theEEC and EFTA and as can be seen in Table 38, about 37 per cent of import
COUNTRY:
Korea,
Rap.
of
YEAR
:19
83(t
rade
).1982-83
Tabl
e36
(tariff
trea
tmen
t)
lmpo
rtsof
nick
elan
dni
ckel
Products
under
Diff
eren
tSt
ages
orTa
riff
Treatment
Acco
rdin
gto
Stag
esof
Processing
(InUS
$'00
0)MFU
Product
Tariff
Total
Tariff
Average
MFN_
Othe
rfr
efer
ence
sDescription
NoImporta
Simp
le%Weig
hted
%Rate
Value
Orig
inRa
taVe
lue
Origin
1..
Ores
and
concentrates
26.01
Free
-
Ash
and
resi
dute
26.03
202
611
JPN
Sub-Total
611
1020
Free
-201
611
Unwr
ough
tMa
tte
and
spsise
75.01
522
JPN
Unal
loye
d75.01
20I(
B)10,029
CAN.USA.AUSJPHEEC
Alloyed
15.01
Wast
eand
scra
p7S.01.0200
202(5>002)
812
CAUF
INEE
CSC.
?Ferro-nickel
73.0
2.04
0052
165
JPN
Powd
ers
and
flakes
15.0
3.0300
202(
<)492
AUS.JPEN.USA.EEC
Elec
tro-
plat
ing
anod
esîS
.02
201(15Z*)
2,435
CANJ
PN,US
AEEC
Sub-
Tota
l13
,935
13.9
18.4
5Z-20%
13,9
3S
Brought
75.0
220.
2,30
6JPN
USA,EEC,AUT
15.0
32,193
JPN,USA,EEC,SEE
15.0
3.02
.00
2%&
754.
202(1>
29S
USAEECJPN
75.0
5.2
0<(1
52*)
-CANJPN,NO
R,SEI
Sub-
Tota
l4.
794
18.6
20152-20SI
4,194
Chemicals
28.2
8.03
0020
2212
CANJ
PN28
.30.
0106
)21
2JP
N,EE
CUSA
ex28.30
)25
2416
JPNE
ECUS
Aea28.35
)10
2JPN,
EEC,
SWE,USA
28.38
.020
6)
821
EEC.
JPM,
CHN
USAex
28.3
8)
302
169
JFN.
USA.
EEC
ex28.42
)91
5EC
.JPN
USAB
KGex28.43
)25
21,499
JPNEEC
ex20.48
)411
JPNE
ECCI
Dl.U
SA
Sub-Total
4,811
2620X-1021
4.817
Fini
shed
manufactures
75.0
6302
641
JPN,
USAE
EC.S
CP
Sub-
Tota
l641
3030
302
641
Total
24,8
04Free-301
24.8
04
Tariff
range.
2Ava
llab
letr
ade
flow
information
does
net
diet
ingu
ish
between
unwrought
and
wrou
ght
elec
tro-
plat
ing
anod
es.
This
item
has
been
incl
uded
lnth
ecalculation
ofthe
simp
letariff
aver
age
for
bath
unwrought
and
wrou
ght
nickel
but
only
Inun
wrou
ght
nick
elfo
rth
etr
ade
weighted
tariff
average.
3Where
the
nick
elch
emic
alproduct
are
not
specified
sepa
rate
lyindicatedd
by"ex"
infront
ofth
eta
riff
number)
may
incl
ude
impo
rts
ofch
emic
alpr
oduc
tsother
than
thos
eof
nickel.
Since
this
occu
rsin
the
majo
rity
ofthe
chemical
aver
age
has
been
calc
ulat
edin
resp
ect
ofthese
prod
uct.
(>)
Roun
dra
ts(Schedule
LX-Korea.Rep.
of).
éTemporary
duty.
This
rate
has
been
used
inthe
calculation
ofth
eta
riff
average.
Sour
ces:
Statiatical
Year
book
ofForeign
Trad
e19
83,
Office
ofCustoms
Admi
nist
rati
on,
Dece
mber
1983.
Inte
rnat
iona
lCu
stom
sJournal,.
Korea
1982-83,
Brus
aeia
1982.
the
trad
ef low
figures
prod
ucts
nowe
ight
edtariff
COUNTRY:
Nalays
iaYe
ar:
1982
Table37
Table
37
Ivorta
et
Nickel
and
Nickel
Fgodocts
gnseofDifferent
Stanes
aTariff
Treatment
Accordint
ta
States
Pracessina
(inUS
$'OO
0)
Prod
uctA
vera
geTa
Miff
Total
Tari
ffer
aze
HFN
Other
Pref
eren
ces
Desc
r%pW
ion
NoiI
mpor
teSi
mple
XVe
ight
edRa
tgVa
lue
Orîgin
Rate
Value
Oril
in
Ore
and
concentrates
26.0
F1r1
0Viet
43EE
C,US
Aah
and
resi
duea
(ex2
6.03
.900
)10
t(2
.302
)SG
PJPO
USAE
EC,1
1D
Sub-
Tota
l43
59.8
Free
-lOI
'43
Unwr
ough
ttte
and
opet
as75.01.
100
lEE
C,AU
Sna
loye
d75.01.310
212
CAN.
USAN
OR,F
INME
Clloyed
75.01.320
Free
1,369
JPN,
USA,
EEC,
SG?,
K0R
sate
andcrap
75.01.200
2US
AFerro-nickel
ex73.02.900
977
AUSU
SAEE
CJPN
Paid
ers
and
flakes
75032
I0S
-SGF.JPN.HIKC,EC
Elac
tro-
plat
ing
anod
es75Vos3cFree
P408
EEC,NOR,JPNSG!
Sub-
Tot4
l2,979
1.4
0.0
Fres-lOI
2,979
brou
ght
75.0
2EE
CSGP
253
IND.
IÙCU
SA,A
US,-
7503
1O01,
598
SGP.
JPN,
HIGE
EC75
0416
JPHS
SPUS
AAUS
7So52
Fret
-EE
C,14
0ROJ
PN.E
CP
Sub-Total
1.867
7.5
10Fr
ee-1
01,867
hemicals4
ex28.28
784
JPN.
NCR,
UEC,
SCPU
SAex
28.3
0.90
0G
HN2,630
JPN,SCP,EEC,USA,Chi
es28
.35.
900
HN96
EEC,
JPNC
II,U
SA,A
USex28.38
.290
PTW
772
JPH,
EECU
SASU
H,FT
Uex28e39
EP
HFr
et52
5US
A.SE
CJFN
CIN,
CHL
ex28.42.
200
WOER
2,321
JPN,EEC,CHN,PTV,DD
ex28.43
GPP
WE716
SWF,
EECU
SA,J
tNS1
Sex
28.4
8.90
0GP
77EEC,JPN,SO?,USA,AUS
Sub-Total
7,921
0.0
Free
7.921
Vlniehed
manufactures
75.06
1011
9JI
N,US
A,EE
C,HK
G,oe
B
Sub-Total
119
1010
1011
9
Total
12.9
29Fr
ee-1
0212,929
Tariff
range.
2Powders
fndmflakesthave
notbeen
iden
tifi
edseparately
trou
the
olher
items
under
head
ing
75.0
3.Tr
ade
floae
unde
rthis
tariff
head
ing
(and
therefore
the
calculaced
weighted
tariff
aver
age)
have
been
included
unde
rwr
ough
tnickel,
but
the
simp
letariff
average
calculations
forunviought
and
wrought
nick
elbath
include
the
tariff
rate
appl
ied
tota
riff
heed
ing
75.03.
3Avastthe
trad
efl
orgi
nfor
mawi
ondies
not
dlst
ingu
iah
betweeT
unwrnghthand
brou
ght
elec
tro-
piat
ing
anodes.
Ihis
item
basbe
enin
clud
edln
the
calculation
ofth
ewsi
mple
tariff
average
forbo
thunwrotght
andvr
ough
tni
cwel
but
only
inunwrought
nick
elfor
the
trad
e-ve
ight
edta
riff
average.
4Iiere
the
nickel
chemical
product
are
not
apecifind
separately
(ind
icat
edby
"ex"
Infront
ofthe
tariff
numb
er)
the
trade
flow
figu
res
may
Incl
ude
imported
ofchemicaisproductsather
than
those
ofnickem.
Since
thia
occu
wein
the
majo
rity
ofth
ech
auic
alproducts
novsighted
tari
ffav
erag
ehan
been
calc
ulat
ed.
(B)
îoun
drets
(Schedule
LXXIX-Malaysta).
(-)
Nil
orla
soth
anUS
$500
.
Sotsces:
Exte
rnal
Trad
e198s,
ImporunlaVal.11
1and
2.Departmont
ofStatiaties,
K.ia
lLu
mpur
.tiiBrussels,ual
Çustoma
Jour
nal
Hala
ytaa
1981-82,
liroaannl
1981
srch
ange
Rate
l982:
2.33
54Rl
nggi
tper
US5,
I1F
International
Financial
Stat
tati
ce1984.
l3
a)0
O-n
4stu
O--%
COUNTRY:
Spain
YEAR:
1982
(tra
de),
1983
-84
tari
fftrentm
ent)
Product
Toriff
Description
No
Tota
lImports
Imported
ofNi
ckte
land
Nickel
Prod
ucts
under
Diff
eren
tSt
ages
ofTa
riff
Treatment
Acco
rdin
gto
Stag
esof
Processing
Simp
leXWeighted
2Rate
MFN
Value
Origin
Rate
In
Us$'000)
Othter
Pref
eren
ces1
Value-
Origin
Ores
and
conc
entr
ates
26.0
1)
Free
61SU
EAsh
and
residues
26.0
3)
65USA
450
EEC,
AUT
Sub-Total
576
Free
655II
Unwrou
ghtMatte
and
spec
ies
75.01
8,961
CUBAUS.CAHNUSA.ZWE
1907
EECF
IN.N
ORUnalloyed
75.0
120,85
4USACAN
ZAFZW
EAUS
5,529
EEC,OR
FINC
HEAI
loye
d75
.01
Free
(C)
430
CAN,
ZAFU
SA410
EEC,
Clk
Waste
and
scra
p75.01
2USA
58EEC
Ferro-nickel
73.02.51
Free
31,4
84DOM
,NCL,
USA
3.36
1EE
C.AI
JTPowders
and
flak
es75.03.20
)15
USAC
ANAUS.ZAF
840
EEC.
Si4E
Oie
Elec
tro-
plat
ing
anodes
15.05.10
4.5S
.31
EEC
Sub-Total
45.9
480.
60.0
Free-4.512
33.8
0612
.142
wrought
75.0
2.10
.13.52
-4
EEC
15.0
2.10
.28.5X
-9
CEC
75.0
2.10
.355
13US
A289
EECA
UT15.02.55.
7.Z}i
1)139
USAJPN
662
EECiEAiUTSWE
75.0
2.55
.292$N)
33USA
1,284
EEC.SUE.AUTCIIE
75.01.11
3..ZS
66EE
CAUT
75.03.15.1
S.13
2US
A74
3EEC,SWE.CHE
75.0
1.15
.21.
51114»
1~~~~~135
ISSA
.JPM
352
EECC
HE75.04
5.52
83USA
33EE
C,AU
T75
.04
9h(11
)43
USA
506
EEC
15.04
10.8 a
n14
EEC,CHE
75.04
Il.8Xoz
,-
USA
60EE
C15
.04.
20A
4Z1H
4USA
22EEC,AUT
75.0
5.80
4.5_
Sub-
Tota
lI4.
626
8.1
7.7
I.5-
I.îi
.Bî2
582
4,04
4Chemicals
28.2
8.40
10.5X
101
CAN
l3EE
C28.30.55
10.5X
60SI
IN.I
ISA
220
EEC
28.3
0.90
.9I2
.5X
26C(
:N.U
SA24
1I;
EC28
.30.
95?1ù)
15IIlR
ISR,
JPN,
USA
78EI
EC28
30.98.9
24.4b
USA
31EEC
ex28
.35
1Ii24
4EECAUT
2818
655h
SUR
486
ECC,FIN,
CHE28.38.(î5
10<1>
5Ol
86ir
.rncnlg
28.38
.89.
9i,1
2_
EEC
28.3
8.90
20.?12
(Il)
7ISSA
696
EEC
ex28
.39.
5U19X
8CIl
lN.USA
51FE
C28
.42.
8920.
0111()
IJPN
31EE
l:Nn
Rex
28.4
215
_ex28.43
21.4
11)-
USA
46EF
.CCI
iE28.43.91
21).
(8)
80SU
N,CH
N310
EEC
28.48.99
152
25USA
256
EECA
UTSub-Total
3.191
18.8
10.5
x-24
:1,2
240
12.190
Finished
manu
fact
ures
75.0
613
.2z(
n)97
JPN.
USAC
SK961
EECAUT
Sub-
Tota
l1,058
13.2
13.2
13.2X
9796
1To
tal.
55,399
Free-24.4I
14,9
5120
_148
_
Unde
rArticle
XXIV
a25
per
cent
reduction
ofth
eactual
m.t.n.
duy
rate
lngrated
toIm
port
soriglnating
litFE
Cand
FFTA
coun
trie
sexcept
fort
-ni
ckel
ores
andco
ncen
trat
esto
which
60pear
cent
rehd
ucti
onapp
liesia
tnappl
e.sa
itemsh
ading
CCCN
einli
75.g
1ast
eiuain
ascrap
,whic
hare
granted
a60
percent r
educ
tion
whenor
igin
atin
gin
anEECco
untr
y.in
atii
ngln
EEC
coun
try.
2Tariff
range.
31Ulere
tcts
nick
enot
specifiedseparately(
Indicatedby
"ex"
infront
ofta
riffnumber)thetradeflowfigures
mayt
eber
)tIle
trade
fito
fre.
ay
products
othe
rthanth
oseof
nick
el.Sincethis
occurs
inanu
mber
of
theCh
emic
alpr
oduc
ts,nowe
ight
edta
riffave
ragea
iiidî,
Ir
<.1
0tIrlIt-cnltlucta.
tusi
eilgliitei
Unr
iIflU
aver
age
laeu
hecn
,calculated
for
nick
elch
etic
alpruduhc
(>)
ousind
rate
(Scl
edul
eXhV
-Sl
ain)
.(-
)tl11
or
lena
tisn
itIISS.
Adur
cent
secc
ion
deEa
tadi
stic
s,Madrid.lor
ti*Ep
anit
n.lilrerulst
general
AaIn
n:as
.Sarclait
dleEt
atdi
tica
s.liiid.
1984
.se
Haie
6iaeii
I88
îen-îa
9lUS
ett
ite
nr.
itOai
icilil
iten.
1914
.
TaI l
al
-
_3w
ctl
CD-.
VISi
(}
6|-
-e
MDF/W/231Page 96
of nickel products come from sources enjoying preferential duties and therest from m.f.n. duty sources.
137. About 84 per cent of total nickel imports in 1982 were duty-free.They comprise ores and concentrates, ash and residues, and all unwroughtnickel products except electroplating anodes which are subject to an m.f.n.duty of 4.5 per cent. Imports of these products come from various sources;matte and speiss come from Cuba, Australia, Canada, United States,Zimbabwe, EEC, Finland and Norway; unwrought refined nickel and nickelalloys come from the United States, EEC, Canada, Zimbabwe, Australia,Republic of South Africa, Norway, Finland and Switzerland; while importsof ferro-nickel come mainly from the Dominican Republic, New Caledonia,United States, EEC and Austria. The rest of nickel imports are subject tobound and unbound duties varying from 2.5 to 24.4 per cent. Wrought nickelproducts are subject to bound and unbound m.f.n. duties ranging from 3.5per cent to 13.8 per cent. The simple and weighted average duties being8.1 per cent and 7.7 per cent respectively. Imports come mainly from theUnited States, EEC, Japan and EFTA. Imports of nickel chemical productsare subject to bound and unbound duties varying between 10.4 and 24.4 percent with a simple average of 18.8 per cent. Imports of chemical productscome from Canada, United States, EEC, EFTA, Japan, USSR, Republic of China,and Israel. Imports of finished nickel manufactures are subject to a boundm.f.n. duty of 13.2 per cent, the simple and weighted average duties alsobeing 13.2 per cent. Imports come from Japan, United States, EEC, Austriaand Czechoslovakia.
138. Singapore is a net importer of nickel products. Including chemicalproducts, total imports amounted to about US$38..7 million in 1983 andcovered products ranging from ores and concentrates to finishedmanufactures. Imports of nickel chemical products and other chemicalsfalling under the same tariff llnes amounted to US$18.7 million in 1983.Table 39 shows that a"l imports of nickel products into Singapore areduty-free on an m.f.n. basis according to 1984-85 tariff treatment.Imports of ore and concentrates come from the Philippines while those ofash and residues come from Japan, Malaysia, Australia and the EEC. Importsof unwrought refined nickel come mainly from New Caledonia, Canada, EEC andJapan while ferro-nickel imports come from Australia, EEC, Japan,Philippines and Mozambique. Imports of wrought nickel products come fromthe United States, EEC, Japan, Sweden, Australia, Canada and Norway and thesources for the imports of nickel chemicals are mainly Norway, EEC, UnitedStates, Japan, Republic of China, Israel, German Democratic Republic andHong Kong. Imports of finished nickel manufactures come mainly from theEEC, Hong Kong, India, United States and Japan.
139. Thailand imported in 1982 a total of US$8.4 million worth of nickelproducts, including nickel chemicals. Imports of nickel chemicals togetherwith other chemicals falling under the same tariff heading amounted toUS$4.4 million. Import duties on nickel products range from 1 to 50 percent. Imports of ores and concentrates, ash and residues are very small
1Under thé terms of the preferential trade agreements between Spainand the EEC and between Spain and EFTA and in accordance with Article XXIVof the GATT a 25 per cent reduction of the actual m.f.n. duty rate isgranted te imports originating in the EEC and EFTA countries.
Year:
1983
(trade).
1984
-85
(tar
iff
treatment)
lmports
ofNi
ckel
and
Nick
elProducts
unde
rDifferent
Stages
ofTa
riff
Trea
tmen
tAc
cord
ing
toSt
ages
ofPr
oces
sing
(in
US$'000)
Product
Teri
ffTotal
Tari
ffAverage
HFN
Othe
rPreferencet
Description
NoImports
Simple
XWeighted
%Rate
Valu
eOrigin
Rate
Value
Origin
Ores
and
concentrates
26.0
1.24
0)1,401
PHL
Ash
and
residues
ex26.03.900
Free
(2.0
37)
JPN,MYS,AUS,EEC
Sub-
Tota
l1,401
1,401
Unwrought
Matte
and
spei
ss7S.01.900
)5
a.&.
Unal
loye
d75.
01.200
13,921
NCLC
ANEE
WJP?
Alloyed
)1.2
ILCuE.P
Waste
and
scrap
75.01.l00
)Freo
229
HNTS
HLFerro-Nickel
)x7
102
900
)I,558
AUSI
OZeE
C.JP
NPHL
Powd
are
end
flakes
e5 032
)_USA2.901
-AUS
Electro-plating
anodes
75.0
5147
EECCANJPNUSA
Sub-
Tota
l16,460
16,4
60
Wrought
75.02
3317
USA,
EEC,
SWEJ
FN15
.03
)446
USA.JPN,EECAUS
74.04$
Frea
62EEC
,JPN
Sub-
Tota
l845
845
Chemicals3
ex28.28
62,030
JNRI
C.US
A.ip
CJC
ex28.30
)4,462
JPNISRUSAECCG
ex28.35
121
CHN,
EEC
ex28.38.900
1.830
FV,E
ECJp
uCIN
,IS
ex28
39Fr
ee1.
292
EECISRNORCHL,
ex28.42.900
7,458
KENEECUSA,DDR,JP
ex28.43
I,215
EEC.
JPN;
USAH
KGex
28.4
830
9EEC,USAJeNHKG
Sub-Total
18,717
18.1
7
Fini
shed
manu
fact
ures
75.06
1,290
EECH
XG,I
ND,U
SA,J
u
Sub-
Tota
l1,290
1.29
0
Tota
l38
,713
Frea
38,1
13~~~~
¹Pow
ders
and
Flakes
have
not
been
Identifled
separately
from
the
other
items
unde
rheading
therefore
the
calc
ulat
edav
erag
e)ha
vebeen
Incl
uded
under
wrought
nick
elbu
tthe
simple
tari
ffni
ckel
both
Incl
ude
the
tariff
rate
applied
tota
riff
heading
15.03.
75.0
3.Trade
flows
unde
rthis
tariff
heading
(and
average
calculations
fur
unwrought
and
wrou
ght
a s
Avai
labl
etrade
flow
information
daes
not
distinguish
between
unwrought
and
brought
elec
tro-
plat
ing
anod
es.
This
item
has
been
incl
uded
inth
eca
lcul
atio
nof
the
simple
tariff
aver
age
for
both
unwr
ough
tan
dwrought
nickel
but
unly
lnunwrought
nickel
for
the
trad
e-we
ight
edtariff
aver
age.
³Whe
reth
enickel
chemical
prod
ucts
are
not
spec
ifie
dse
para
tely
(ind
icat
edby
"ex"
lnfront
ofth
etariff
numb
er)
the
trad
efl
owfi
gure
sma
yin
clud
eimports
ofchemical
prod
ucts
other
than
those
ofni
cekl
.Since
this
occurs
inth
ema
jori
tyof
the
chemical
products
nowe
ight
edta
riff
aver
age
hasbeen
calc
ulat
edIn
resp
ect
ofthese
prod
ucts
.(B)
foun
drate
(Schedule
LXIII
-Slngapore).
(-)
Nil
orless
than
US$5
00.
Sour
ces:
Sing
apor
eTrade
Statistics.
Import
and
Exports,
Vol.
IVNo
12Department
ofStatistice.
Sing
apor
e.19
83.
Inte
rnat
iona
lCustoms
Jour
nal.
Singapore
1984-85,
Brus
sels
1984.
Exchange
Rate
1983:
2.1131
Singupore
Dollars
par
US$,
IMF
Inte
rnat
inal
Fina
ncia
lSt
atis
tics
,19
84.
Table
39CO
UNTR
Y:Singapore
COUNTRY:
Thal
land
YEAR
:19
82(trade),
1984
Table
40
(tar
iff
trea
tmen
t)
Impo
rtof
Nickel
end
Nickel
Producte
unde
rDifferent
Stages
ofTariff
Treatuent
Accordtng
toSt
ages
ofProcessing
(lnUS$'000)
Prod
uct
Tari
ffTotal
Tariff
Ave
MFN
Othe
rPreferences¹
Descript
ion
NoIm
port
sSi
mple
%We
ight
ed%
Rate
Value
Orig
inRate
Value
Orig
in
Ores
and
concentrates
ex26
.01.
39((158
>CH
N,AU
S,JP
N,EE
CAs
hand
resi
dues
ex26
.03
Sub-Total
_3
32-
Unwrought
Matte
and
spei
ss75
.01.
0115
AUS
Unalloyed
75.0
1.03
2,66
1CAH.NOREECJPNFIN
Allo
yed
15.01.04
80SUN
0.9
-
Waste
and
scrap
15.0
1_
Ferro-nickel
73.02.02
529
NOR
Powders
and
flakes
75.03.
122
20Z
36EEC,SIJE
Elec
tro-
plat
ing
anod
es15
.05.
00302
IPT
VUSA
Sub-Total
2.80
28.4
l.3
12-3
022.802
Wrou
ght
15.02
152
605
JPNEEC,CHEAUTUSA
15.03.11
202
-EEC
15.0
3.21
15258
5JP
NEEC
SGP
75.04
012
25EE
C.US
A75.05
30S
PT_,USA
Sub-Total
1.21
517.6
ISISZ-3023
1.215
Chem
ical
s4ex
28.2
8.09
901
NORJ
PN.E
CAUS
ACAN
ex28
.30.
2968
1EE
C,JP
N,C1
IN,P
IWDD
Rex
28.3
5.09
65EEC,PWUSAKOR
ex28.38.29
102
1,225
JPNE
ECUS
ACII
NPW
ex28.39
241
REC,CRN,ISRJPN,CHE
exl8
.42.
09804
KEN,
HKC,
EECC
IIN,
RO0*
exZd
.43.
0934
56EC,JPN,CHN
exZ.
48.8
00110
EECJ
PN.C
IN
Sub-
Tota
l4,
374
10102
4,374
Fini
shed
manufactures
75.06.01
502
-USA
75.0
6.09
30Z*
17J'NUSA,EEC
Sub-
Tota
l17
4030
30I-
50%3
17
Total
8,406
IS-5
sh3
8,40
6
¹Preferential
treatment
granted
toASEAN
coun
trie
s.
²Avail
able
trade
flow
information
daes
not
distinguish
betw
een
unwrought
and
wrought
etectro-plating
anodes.
This
item
has
been
lncl
uded
in
tie
calculation
ofthe
simp
leta
riff
average
for
bath
unwr
ough
tan
dwrought
nick
elbut
only
Inun
wrou
ght
nick
elfor
the
trad
e-we
ight
edta
riff
average.
3Tar
iff
range.
4Whe
rethe
nick
elch
emic
alpr
oduc
tsare
not
spef
icie
dseparately
(ind
icat
edby
"ex"
infront
ofthe
tariff
number)
may
unclude
imports
ofch
emic
alproducts
other
than
those
ofni
ckel
.Si
nce
this
occurs
lnthe
majo
rity
ofth
ech
emic
alta
riff
average
has
been
calculated
tnrespect
ofth
ese
products.
(B)
Bound
rate
(Schcdtule
VI-
Thai
land
).(-)
Nil
or
less
than
US$500.
Sources:
-Fo
reig
nTrade
Statistics
ofThailand,
December
1982/B.E.2525.
Department
ofCu
stom
s,Ba
ngko
k.-
zrttund-Iandie1
sInform.atIon,
1984
.-GA
fl:l
,/47
32.
Exchange
Rate
1982
:23
.08alht
per
US$,IMF
international
Financial
Statistics,
1984.
the
trad
efl
owfi
gure
sproduct
nowe
ight
ed
' ~ %J
MDF/W/21Page 99
and are subject to an m.f.n. duty of 3 per cent. Table 40 shows that.unwrought refined nickel products constitute the most important nickelimport product. The rate of duty is 1 per cent and imports come mainlyfrom Canada, Norway, EEC, Japan and Finland. The rates on the otherunwrought products varied from 5 per cent on ferro-nickel, 20 per cent onnickel powders and flakes to 30 per cent on electroplating anodes. Thesimple average tariff on unwrought products is 8.4 per cent and theweighted average is 1.3 per cent. On wrought nickel products import dutiesrange from 15 to 30 per cent, the simple average duty is 17.6 per cent andthe weighted average 15 per cent. Imports come mainly from Japan, EEC,United States, Singapore, Austria and Switzerland. Thailand imposes a dutyof 10 per cent on all imports of nickel chemical products and imports comefrom varied sources, the main ones being Japan, EEC, United States, Canada,Republic of China and Hong Kong. Imports of finished nickel manufacturesare subject to duties of 30 to 50 per cent. Imports are very small andcome from Japan, United States and the EEC. The simple ar.d weightedaverage tariffs on finished manufactures are 40 per cent and 30 per centrespectively.
140. Yugoslavia is a net importer of nickel products although it has somedomestic mine production. Including nickel chemicals, imports in 1980/81amounted to US$57.8 million, 38.4 per cent of which was made up of importsof unwrought products mainly matte, alloyed nickel and ferro-nickel,10.6 per cent wrought products, and 3.8 per cent finished nickelmanufactures. Imports of chemical products amounted to, US$27.2 million or47.1 per cent of total imports. Import duties on nickel products variedfrom 3 to 15 per cent on the basis of 1980-81 Yugoslavian tariff treatment.
141. As Table 41 shows, crude primary products, mainly ores andconcentrates as well as ash and residues are subject to a 5 per cent m.f.n.duty rate. There were no imports of ores and concentrates. The importduties on unwrought products varied from 3 to 15 per cent and apart fromsmall amounts of matte and of nickel powders and flakes, the main importeditems are alloyed nickel products (3 per cent duty), ferro-nickel (15 percent duty) and electroplating anodes (5 per cent duty). Imports of alloyednickel come mainly from the USSR, Australia, EEC and the United States.Those of ferro-nickel come from Norway, EEC, Sweden, Brazil andSwitzerland and electroplating anodes come from the EEC, Japan and theUnited States.
142. The nominal m.f.n. duty rate on imports of wrought nickel products, aswell as the simple and weighted average rate is 5 per cent and the mainsources of imports are the EEC, Japan, Sweden, United States, Hungary andPoland. The import duties on imports of nickel chemicals varies from 5 to10 per cent and imports come mainly from the EEC, Japan, USSR, GermanDemocratic Republic, Republic of China, Romania, Norway, Poland,Czechoslovakia, United States, Sweden and Switzerland. On the other hand,import duties on finished nickel manufactures are 10 to 12 per cent givingsimple and weighted average duties of 11.7 and 10.6 per cent respectively.Imports of finished manufactures come mainly from the EEC, Japan, UnitedStates, Spain and Switzerland.
143. Table 42 summarizes the tariff treatment of nickel and nickel productsin eight countries which have not been considered separately, namely,Chile, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Poland, Romania, Venezuela.As in the previous Tables, it analyses the tariff rates according todifferent stages of processing.
YEAR
:1980
(trade),
1980
-81
(tariff
trea
tmen
t)
Impo
rtof
Nick
elan
dNickel
Prod
ucts
under
Diff
eren
tSt
ages
ofTariff
Treatment
Accordtng
toSt
ages
ofPr
oces
sing
(in
US$,000)
Prod
uct
Tariff
Tota
lTariff
Average
HFN
Othe
rPr
efer
ence
sDescription
NOIm
port
eSi
mple
XWeighted
1Rate
Value
origin
Rate
Valu
eOrigin
Ores
and
concentrate
26.0
152
-
Ashan
dresidues
ex26.03
51(Q
)(150)
AUT,
CHE,
EEC
Sub-Tota
l5
55
-
Unwrought
lattes
and
speiss
75.0
15X
518
EEC
Unalloyed
75.0
1)
-AI
loye
d75.0
1)
3<')
>13
.684
SUNAUSEECUSA
Waste
and
scrap
15.0
l52
3AUT
Ferr
o-ni
ckel
ex73.02
152(
Q)5S
,989
EECN
ORSI
WECH
EBR
Powd
ers
and
flak
es75
03)
371
.EECJPN,POL,USA
lectro-platting
anod
es75
.05
)1,675
EEC,
JPN,
USA
2Su
b-To
tal
22,2
405.
96.
532
-152
22,2
40
rought
15.0
2)
3.582
EECSWEHUN
75.03
)5
2,122
EECIIUNSWEUSA
75.041
)456
EECSWEPOL
75.0
5)
-EE
CJPN
,USA
Sub-
Tota
l6,160
55
526,160
heuicals3
ex2a
.28
723,509
EEC.
JPN.
SUNC
IINN
ORexZ8.30
5X3,
448
EECD
DRSU
NI,C
HNES
Pex28.30
855
2SUNEEC
ex28.30
)21
1EEC,JPN,CHE,SUN
ex28
.35
)2,
446
EECSUNDDRROH
ex28.38
*1
8,406
EEC,
SUN.
DDRP
OLCI
INex
28.39
)1I0
1,546
EECPOLDDRCSKISR
ex2.42
)5.
286
EECS
UNDD
R,CS
K.CI
IEex2H.43
1)
1,012
EEC,
SUN,
C1IH
SWE
ex28
.48
)801
EECU
SA,J
Pl
Sub-Total
27,226
9.4
5_I0
o22
Z7,226
inlahed
manu
fact
ures
15.06
101,598
EEC
75.06
Il.609
EEC.EL
SPCIIE
JPU.US
ASu
b-To
tal
2,20t
l.7
10.6
102-12S2
2,20
7
Total
57,833
31-1522
57.833
Avai
labl
etr
ade
flow
info
rmat
ion
does
not
distinguish
between
unwrought
and
wrou
ght
electro-plating
anodes.
This
item
has
been
incl
uded
inthe
calculation
ofth
esi
mple
tariff
aver
age
for
bath
unwr
ough
tan
dwr
ough
tni
ckel
but
only
inun
wrou
ght
nickel
for
the
trade-veighted
tariff
aver
age.
Tariff
rang
e.
Where
the
nick
elch
emic
alpr
oduc
tsar
eno
tspecified
separately
(ind
icat
edby
"ex"
infr
ont
ofth
eta
riff
number)
the
trade
flow
figu
res
may
incl
ude
imports
ofchemicals
products
othe
rthan
thos
eof
nickel.
Since
this
occu
rsIn
the
majority
ofthe
chem
ical
prod
ucts
,no
weighted
tari
ffaveragee
has
been
calc
ulat
edIn
respect
ofthese
products.
(8)
Boun
drate
(Schedule
LVII
-Yigoslavia).
(Q)
Cust
oms
quotas
may
besp
ecif
ied
pursuant
tostipulations
ofarticle
49of
the
Cust
oms
Act.
(-)
Nil
orle
sstitan
US$500.
Sour
ces:
Statistics
ofFo
reig
nTradeof
the
SFR
Yagu
sala
via
for
1980,
Fede
ral
Inst
itut
efo
rSt
atistIcs,
Beograd
1981.
InternationalCustoms
Jourinal,
Yugo
slav
ia19
80-8
1Br
unrs
els,
1980
.Exchange
Rate
6/19
80:
27.3
dîne
rspe
rUS
$,according
toDecision
ofthe
Federal
Executive
Council
ondi
nar
party.
3.
'.
0
COUN
TRY:
Yugoslavia
Tabl
e41
Tabl
e42
Nickel
and
Nick
elProducta
Tariff
Rate
sAc
cord
ing
toDi
ffer
ent
Stag
esof
Proc
essi
ng(indicates
coun
trie
sfo
rwh
ich
trade
stat
isti
cson
tariff
line
bast
ear
eno
tavailable)
Product
Desc
ript
ion
Tari
ff1982-83
1982
-83
1981-82
1979
1984
1981
-62
1976-77
1982
No.
Chile*
Czechoslovakia
Egypt
Iran
Nigeria
Pola
ndRo
mani
aVe
nezu
ela
Ores
and
concentrate
26.0
1)
))
2I)
Free
5%Free
10I
Ash
and
residues
ex26.03
)10
)Fr
ee(B
))
)33
.32
Free
5S)
Unwrought
Matte
and
spei
ss15
.01
))
))
))
Unal
loye
d75
.01
))
))
))
)Al
lowe
d75
.01
)Frec(B>
)2S(B)
)5I
)66.6S
)Fr
ec)
Free(B)
)Wa
ste
and
scra
p75.01
)OI
))
))
))
ISFerro-nickel
ex73
.02
))
)5
)S
Powd
ers
and
flakes
75.03
6.52
(5)
15I
152
102
))
Free
>Electro-plating
anodes
75.05
4.252(5)
5I10I
20Z
1I010
2
Wrought
75.02
)1.
5(B)
_)1
5S.10,S33.3S.66.62
))
10S
75.03
)10
1.75
S(B)
,4.5
S(B)
)15
)102,33.31.66.6%
)5S
)Fr
ee251
75.0
41
3S(B)
)20
ZI
toI75.05
)4.25(A)
5210
202
10))
Chem
ical
sex
28.2
852
))
)10
I)
25S
ex28
.30
52(B),7.25S
)52(B)
))
5I.8
S.10
2S22
,5S
ex28.35
4.15I(B)
))
)5S
:oz
)5S.252
ex28.38
102
9.75
I(B)
.52(
B)2I,5S(B)
)15Z
)82
)10
5Sex28.39
4.152(B).5S(B)
1)
12I,
15S1)
5S.15I
)~~~)
)ex
28.4
2)
S)z
5)
)5
ex28
.43
)52
())
)0I
f02
)5)
ex28
.48
>)
))
.i2I
)52
.352
Flnished
manu
fact
urer
s75.06
10S
2I(B).2.52(B).
50,1
752,
IOOI
,250
Z252,1002
66.6S
102
Frea
202
2175t(
i2
Tariff
range
102
Frec
-9.7
5222
-250
252-1002
Free-66.6I
Free-lO
Free
-lOI
12-3
52
*All
tari
ffssho
wnin
the
tabl
ear
ebo
und
at35
per
cent
(Schedule
VII
-Chile).
(B)
Boun
drate
(Schedules:
X-Czechosiovakia;
LXII
-Eg
ypt;
X.II
I-Ni
geri
a;LX
V-
Pola
nd;
LXIX
-Romania
Sour
ces:
-Zo
ll-u
nd-H
ande
lsInformation:
Iran
,Ni
geri
a,Venezuela.
-International
Customs
Jour
nal:
Chile,
Czec
hoas
lova
kia,
Egypt,
Pola
nd,
Rowania/Brussaels.
MDF/W/
2Pa
ge10
a-n
cOnt
,v_.% Il
MDF/W/21Page 102
144. ln Chile the tariff situation as of 1982-83 shows that there was auniform duty of 10 per cent on all nickel products ranging from crude rawmaterials to finished nickel manufactures. In Czechoslovakia the tariffsituation as of 1982-83 shows a range of bound duties varying from zero to9.75 per cent. The duty on crude raw materials, such as ores andconcentrates, ash and residues was zero. The zero duty also coveredintermediate products such as matte and speiss, as well as ferro-nickel andunwrought refined nickel and alloyed nickel. On the other 'and, wroughtproducts were subject to rates of duties varying from 1.5 to 6.5 per cent.On chemical products the tariff rates ranged from 5 to 9.75 pr cent whileduties on finished nickel manufactures varied from 2 to 2.75 per cent.
145. In Egypt the tariff structure which existed in 1981-82 shows a rangeof duties varying from 2 to 2.50 per cent. There vas a duty of 2 per centon crude nickel raw materials such as ores and concentrates as well as onintermediate products, unwrought refined nickel and ferro-nickel. Onnickel chemicals there were two rates of bound duties, 2 per cent and 5 percent, and on wrought nickel products they were 5 per cent and 15 per cent.Finished nickel manufactures were, on the other hand, subject to dutiesranging from 50 to 250 per cent. The rates of duties on nickel and nickelproducts in Iran, as shown in the 1979 tariff systems, indicates a rangevarying from 5 to 100 per cent. Crude raw materials of nickel such as oresand concentrates, ash and residues, intermediate nickel products such asmatte and speiss, unwrought refined nickel, ferro-nickel and alloyed nickelwere subject to a duty of 5 per cent. Chemical nickel products weresubject to a uniform duty of 15 per cent while the duties on wroughtproducts varied from 10 to 15 per cent. Finished nickel manufactures were,on the other hand, subject to duties of 25 per cent and 100 per cent.
146. The 1984 tariff system in Nigeria shows that nickel and nickelproducts are subject to tariffs ranging from zero to 66.6 per cent. Oreand concentrates enjoy a duty-free entry. On the other hand, nickel ashand residues are subject to a duty of 33.3 per cent. Intermediate productsas well as unwrought refined nickel and alloyed nickel are subject toduties of 66.6 per cent, while ferro-nickel has a duty of 5 per cent.Nickel chemicals are subject to two main rates, 5 and 10 per cent. On theother hand, the duties on wrought nickel products range from 5 to 66.6 percent, while finished nickel manufactures are subject to a uniform duty of66.6 per cent.
147. Import duties on nickel products in Poland as of 1931-82 range fromzero to 15 per cent. Crude raw materials such as ores and concentratesattract a duty of 5 per cent, while nickel ash and residues enjoy aduty-free access. Unwrought intermediate products and refined nickel andalloyed nickel also enjoy a duty-free entry, while ferro-nickel imports aresubject to a 5 per cent duty. Nickel chemicals were subject te dutiesranging from 5 to 15 per cent and brought nickel products attracted dutiesof 5 per cent and 10 per cent. Finished nickel manufactures attracted aduty of 10 per cent. The available tariff information on Romania asreflected in the tariff system of 1976-77 shows that all nickel productsimported into Romania were duty-free with the exception of nickel ash andresidues which were subject to a duty of 5 per cent, as well as nickelchemicals which attracted a duty of 10 per cent. The tariff system ofVenezuela in 1982 shows that crude nickel raw materials such as ores andconcentrates, ash and residues attract a duty of 10 per cent; intermediateproducts as well as unwrought nickel and alloyed nickel, ferro-nickel and
MDF/W/21Page 103
nickel powders and flakes, on the other hand, attract a duty of only 1 percent. Electroplating anodes attract a duty of 10 per cent, while wroughtnickel products are subject to duty rates of 10 and 25 per cent. Nickelchemical imports attract duties varying from 2 to 35 per cent, and importsof finished nickel manufactures into Venezuela are subject to a uniformduty of 20 per cent.
19. Tariff escalation and effective tariff protection
148. As pointed out previously in document TAR/W/29, COM.TD/W/369 of 8 June1982, a number of serious difficulties arise in any attempt to measurerates of effective tariff protection with a high degree of precision.These include lack of accurate information on input/output values inspecific industries, as well as other factors such as the estimation of therelative importance of trade flows under m.f.n. and GSP rates, thecalculation of ad valorem tariff equivalents of non-tariff measures, theestablishment of appropriate weighting patterns, and accounting fortechnological change in industries. Nevertheless, as noted in TAR/W/18, of5 March 1981, the effective rate of protection can be assessed withreasonable precision in the early stages of processing. Beyond theunwrought stage, precise measurement of effective rates of protectionbecomes increasingly difficult. As indicated in TAR/W/29 of 8 June 1982,where tariffs show escalation by successive processing stages, effectiverates of protection are higher, often considerably so, than nominal tariffrates themselves.
149. Due to the methodological problems described above, the present studydoes not attempt to analyze effective tariff protection in the nickel ,industry. However, the study shows nominal tariff protection granted tonickel and nickel products. It may be seen from this information thatthere is a fairly widespread tendency in a number of countries for nominaltariffs to increase with the stage of processing. Although many of thecountries examined import nickel ores and concentrates and unwrought nickelduty-free, they apply positive m.f.n. rates of duty on wrought nickelproducts and nickel manufactures. Moreover, with respect to the latter twogroups of products, it is often the case that duties are significantlyhigher on nickel manufactures than on wrought nickel products.
20. Non-tariff measures
150. Table 43 shows non-tariff measures applicable to imports of nickel andnickel products, as notified to the secretariat in the context of theperiodic exercise of updating the Inventories of Non-Tariff Measures. Thelist covers four main measures: import prohibition; licensing; quotasand liberal licensing. The latter is often only an administrative measureand does not have a restrictive effect. In addition to the measures listedin this Table, there exist other measures such as certain forms ofsubsidies which apply to a wide range of products including nickel. Thesemeasures may take the form of govern ental and intergovernmental grants andloans, fiscal measures (e.g. tax incentives for processing industries),research assistance, etc., which are not being dealt with in this study.
151. Purchases of metallic ores and non-ferrous metals and articlesthereof, when made by entities listed in Annex I to the-GATT Agreement on
Table 43
Non-Tariff Measures Affecting Trade in Nickel and Products Thereof
Nan-tariff measures Product Countries maintainingthe measure
On imports
(a) Prohibitions orembargo
(b) License suspended
(c) DiscretionaryLicensing
ex75.04
75.06 Other articles ofnickel
75.04.0300
75.04.0400
75.06 Other articles ofnickel
26.01.300 Nickel ores andconcentrates
28.30.01 Chlorides andoxychlorides of nickel
28.39.01 Nitrites andnitrates of nickel
28.39 Nitrites andnitrates of nickel
28.48.010 Salts andperoxysalts ofinorganic acids
ex75. Nickel and articlesthereof except matte,waste, scrap (ex75.01)
75.01 Nickel matte, speissand other intermediateproduct of nickelmetallurgy; unwroughtnickel; nickel waste and
scrap
Senegal
Tuinsia
Brazil
Colombia
Israel
Colombia
Ghana
Colombia
MDF/W/21Page 104
MDF/W/21Page 105
Table 43 (cont'd)
Non-tariff measures Product Countries maintainingthe measure
(d) Quotas
Liberal licensing
75.02 Wrought bars, rods,angles, shapes andsections of nickel;nickel wire
ex75.02 Wrought plates,sheets, strips of nickel,nickel foil, nickelpowders and flakes
75.06 Other articles ofnickel
75.04 Tubes and pipes andblanks thereof of nickel;hollow bars and tubesand pipe fittings, etc.,of nickel
75.05 Electroplatinganodes of nickel, wroughtor unwrought
75.06 Other articles ofnickel
26.01.700 Nickel oresand concentrates
28.39 Nitrites andnitrates of nickel
73.02.38 Ferro-nickel
ex75 Nickel and articlesthereof
26.01.700 Nickel oresand concentrates
28.30 Chlorides andoxychlorides of nickel
28.35 Sulphides, includingpolysulphides of nickel
Colombia
Nigeria
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Yugoslavia
Sri Lanka
Yugoslavia
Senegal
Korea
South Africa
MDF/W/21Page 106
Table 43 (cont'd)
Non-tariff measure Product Countries maintainingthe measure
ex73.02 Ferro-nickel South Africa
75.01 Nickel matte,speissand other intermediateproducts of nickel,unwrought nickel wasteand scrap
75.02 Wrought bars, rods,angles, shapes andsections of nickel;nickel wire
75.03 Wrought plates sheets,strips of nickel, nickelfoil, nickel powdersand flakes
75.04 Tubes, pipes andblanks thereof of nickel;hollow bars and tubesand pipe fittings etc.,of nickel
75.05 Electroplatinganodes of nickel wroughtor unwrought
MDE/W/21Page 107
Government Procurement, are covered by this Agreement.¹ Statisticalinformation on purchases of such products of government entities in 1981and 1982 have been exchanged amongst the Parties to the Agreement. Itmight be noted that Article VIII of the Agreement contains generalexceptions relating to procurement indispensable for national security ornational defence purposes. In addition, it might be noted that defenceagencies in countries Parties to the Agreement are not covered by theAgreement in respect of purchases of certain specific products.
SECTION V: Activities in Other International Organizations
21. The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
152. As a major industrial metal, nickel has been the subject of studies invarious international institutions such as the World Bank, the UnitedNations and UNCTAD. Two major international activities in recent yearswhich are relevant to nickel have been the Third United Nations Conferenceon the Law of the Sea and the attempts by major producers and consumers ofnickel to create an international forum for studies and discussions ofnickel.
153. The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) vasconvened in 1973 and ended, after nine years of negotiations, in theadoption in April 1982 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea which has since been awaiting its entry into force. One of the majorsubjects covered by the Convention is the possible exploitation of themineral resources of the seabed outside national jurisdiction which, asdeep sea exploration has revealed, is covered in numerous areas withnodules rich in manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt and other minerals.
154. Apart from the tremendous technological, environmental and financial²problems involved in deep seabed mining, some of the major long-termproblems are the likely effects on land-based mining of the mineralsinvolved and vice-versa and the need to reconcile conflicting national andcorporate interests. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seaprovides, inter alia, for the creation of an International Seabed Authorityto participate in and regulate rational exploitation of deep seabedminerals. This provision has so far not received the general acceptance ofall the countries involved.
¹Members to this Agreement are: Austria, Canada, EEC (Greeceexcepted), Finland, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United States,Israel, Hong Kong and Singapore.
²The original optimism regarding seabed mining has been severelytempered by a growing recognition of the serious technological problemsinvolved and by the price prospects of the minerals to be exploited whichcast serious doubt on their economic viability. The current thinking isthat seabed nodule mining might not be seriously undertaken for a long timeto come.
MDF/W/21Page 108
22. International cooperation on nickel
155. In spite of the position of nickel as one of the most importantminerals in world trade, international cooperation on nickel unlike thecase with many other minerals, has been practically non-existant. However,moves have been initiated in recent years to remedy this situation. Astudy by Canada and Australia in 1980 on information gaps in nickel whichidentified shortcomings in available nickel statistics, suggested whatwould be required in a nickel data system, and described various forms ofintergovernmental cooperation involving other metals. After a few moreyears of further exploratory studies and discussions in which six of themajor producing and consuming countries of nickel participated, a consensuswas reached at a meeting in March 1984 that intergovernmental consultationsamong themselves had evolved to such a point where there was a need tobroaden the discussions to include the active participation by allgovernments with an interest in the production or consumption of nickel.
156. In response to an invitation by the Governments of Canada andAustralia, an intergovernmental meeting on nickel was held in Geneva from22-24 October 1984. The purpose of this meeting was to explore thepossibility of establishing an intergovernmental nickel discussion group toimprove the statistics and other information on world nickel production,consumption and trade with a view to achieving greater transparency in theinternational nickel economy, and to provide a forum for consultation. Itwas attended by thirty-one countries representing over 95 per cent of worldnickel production and over 90 per cent of world nickel consumption.
157. In welcoming the Australian/Canadian initiative, all delegationsacknowledged both the desirability of developing intergovernmentalcooperation on nickel and the constructive role that could be played by aforum designed to give effect to that development. It was felt that such aforum should provide for the participation of industry representatives asmembers of government delegations.
158. Broad recognition was expressed at the meeting, of the seriousinformation gaps with respect to the world nickel economy, in terms ofquality, timeliness and international comparability of availablestatistics. Most delegations indicated willingness and ability to improvethe quality of nickel data they could provide. Given the very favourableattitudes evident at the meeting cowards developing cooperation, it wasconcluded that serious consideration should now be given in capitals to theearly convening of a subsequent meeting.
159. In this connection, a consensus among the delegations was that theUNCTAD should be requested to convene such a meeting.
160. Under the auspices of UNCTAD a Preparatory Meeting on Nickel was heldfrom 10 to 18 April 1985. The meeting vas attended by thirty-fivecountries including all the main producers and consumers of nickel. Duringthe meeting there was a consensus that there existed substantial scope forimproving intergovernmental cooperation on issues concerning nickel, inparticular, by improving the information available on the internationalnickel economy and by providing a forum for international discussions onnickel. There was a consensus that the Trade and Development Board shouldrequest the Secretary-General of UNCTAD on behalf of the Secretary-Generalof the United Nations, to convene a negotiating conference on. theestablishment of an autonomous International Nickel Study Group, later inthe year. The draft terms of reference of the International Study Groupenvisage the following fuctions:
MDF/W/21Page 109
1. To establish the capacity for and undertake the continuedmonitoring of the world nickel market and its trends particularlyby establishing, maintaining and continuously updating a-statistical system on the vorld production, stocks, trade andconsumption of all forms of nickel.
2. To conduct between members consultations and exchanges ofinformation on developments related to the production, stocks,trade and consumption of all forms of nickel.
3. To undertake studies as appropriate on a broad range of importantissues concerning nickel.
4. To consider appropriate possible solutions to any specialproblems or difficulties which exist or may be expected to arisein nickel and are unlikely to be resolved in the ordinarydevelopment of world trade.
23. Customs Cooperation Council (Brussels)
161. Attached to this study as Annex II is the section on nickel and nickelproducts of the recently developed "Harmanized System" of commoditydescription and classification. The Harmonized Commodity Description andCoding System (H.S.), developed by the Customs Cooperation Council isenvisaged by the CCC timetable to be applied, for those countries whichdecide to adopt it, as the basis for customs tariffs and internationaltrade statistics nomenclatures with effect from 1 January 1987. Theadoption of the Harmonized System is expected to ensure greater uniformityamong countries in customs classification.
24. Summary and observations
162. Nickel is a major metal in industrial usage due to its intrinsicproperties such as a high melting point, strength, durability, magnetismand resistance to corrosion and oxidization. Its main utilization is inthe production of stainless steel and alloys. Consequently, the volume andrate of its consumption depends directly on the level and rate ofindustrial development. Over 90 per cent of the worlds nickel consumptionis accounted for in the developed market economies and thecentrally-planned economies. However, in recent years the highest growthrate in consumption of nickel has been in the more advanced developingcountries. Since 1950 there has been a rapid growth in the globalconsumption of nickel which reached its highest point in 1979. Thereafterthere was a sharp decline in consumption due mainly to a slowdown inindustrial growth in the developed countries. After reaching a low pointin 1982 the global level of consumption picked up in 1983. In thecentrally-planned economies the level of consumption.in recent yearsappears to have been maintained on a slightly increasing trend, while inthe developing countries the momentum in consumption growth appears to havebeen regained in 1983 after a fall in 1982. A small part of the fall inthe volume of nickel consumption might be attributed to the growingcompetition from other substitutable metals, alloys and non-metallicproducts like plastics. This is the result of recent technologicaladvancements which have enabled them to be employed, in usages hithertoattributed to nickel, at competitive costs.
MDF/W/21Page 110
163. In tune with the growth in consumption, nickel mine productioncapacity has seen a very rapid development in volume and structure duringthe past three decades especially in the 1950s and 1960s. While in theearly 1950s over 80 per cent of mine production came mainly from sulphideores in Canada, technological developments, which have enabled the use offerro-nickel in stainless steel production, have led to a rapid developmentof laterite ores which are mostly located in tropical countries. Thus in1983, developing countries accounted for 33.1 per cent of total mineproduction as against 36.5 per cent for developed countries and 30.4 percent for centrally-planned economy countries. With developing countriesnow accounting for over 50 per cent of know nickel reserves, it is likelythat their share in total mine production will continue to grow. Thedevelopment of production capacity inthe 1960s and early 1970s hasbeen such that with the decline in consumption over capacity has become amajor feature in the nickel industry.
164. The corporate structure of nickel production has also undergoneconsiderable changes in recent decades. In the 1950s and 1960s productionwas dominated by only three major mining companies to such an extent thatthey could set and control price. While the corporate structure is stillrelatively concentrated, about 44 companies now participate in mineproduction and prices are nov largely determined by LME operations.
165. The bulk of international trade in nickel products is in the form ofunwrought refined nickel, alloyed nickel and ferro-nickel. Trade in nickelore has tended to decline and only one major consuming country stillimports ores. increasinglyy, developing countries prefer to export moreprocessed products such as ferro-nickel, nickel oxide sinter, and unwroughtrefined nickel. However, they account for the bulk of the exports ofnickel ores and of intermediate products such as nickel matter. In 1983developing countries accounted for about 27.4 per cent of world exports ofunwrought refined nickel products. Import trade in nickel and nickelproducts is dominated by developed countries. Imports of developingcountries are mostly in the form of unwrought refined products.
166. Until the second half of the 1960s price stability was a major featureof the world's nickel economy with prices being set by the concerted actionof the three major producers. With the fall in the market share of themajor producers, the decline in world consumption and market over supply inthe second half of the 1970s, producer prices gradually lost theirinfluence on the market. With the introduction of LME trading in nickel in1979, its price quotations determined mostly by market forces haveeventually become the basis for pricing in nickel trade.
167. Most developed countries have bound m.f.n. duties on nickel and nickelproducts. A few countries have some m.f.n. duties bound at the ceilinglevel while applied m.f.n. rates are lover. Most of the positive m.f.n.duties are ad valorem. The majority of the positive m.f.n. rates on nickeland nickel products were reduced in the Tokyo Round. In one developedcountry a uniform fiscal duty has been consolidated into a customs tariffwhere imports were previously duty-free.
168. ln almost all developed countries imports of nickel ores andconcentrates are duty-free. In some cases the duty-free treatment extendsto chemicals and unwrought refined nickel products and ferro-nickel.Thereafter tariffs in most countries appear to rise with the degree ofprocessing with the highest duties falling on finished nickel manufactures.
MDF/W/21Page 111
These duties appear to be protective in character rather than fiscal sincemany developed countries have nickel refining and manufacturing facilities.In this context the escalation of tariffs with the degree of processingcould reveal a high degree of effective tariff protection. On the otherhand the high nominal tariffs observed in many, although not all,developing countries appear to be fiscal rather than protective since manyof these countries have no nickel refining or manufacturing industries. Ina number of developing countries, however, with growing nickel industries,the high tariffs reflect, to an extent, a fairly high degree of protection.
169. Imports of nickel and nickel products into most developed countriesfrom developing countries which are legible for GSP concessions are mostlyduty-free or enjoy reduced preferential rates. Many developed countriesand groups of countries also grant duty-free or preferential rates underother regional arrangements.
170. There are some non-tariff measures on nickel and nickel products, suchas import prohibitions, quotas and licensing in certain countries. Thereare also other measures of a general practice in the form of governmentprocurement or subsidies of various kinds in certain countries. However,no widespread non-tariff measures on nickel products are to be found inmajor importing markets.
MDF/W/21Page 112 .
AnnexI
Summary of dot PutcT&M Round TariffmaNiAMdrc andArticlesThereoff~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Sulphides andpolysulpides ofelSpd. a ?polyPutMc i" d.L
Carbon and lbac ofof nickel
cttu and cm a of nsa= d u«Wa c1 ac t aciW
Nicke almp. nyuklt mmd Moaachd
iccamiaca products of nickel
(excluding electro-placing
Wrought beo, rods, angles,shapessandsections of nickel; nickelwirm
liha ex);ni
jm~ fni.L-1Ilde Md of M
of nickel; hollow bau and cubeand
.Joe uec adt fL"m.), of ~
Electro-plating modes of nickel,
P se ro, S1ai~ is
produced by electrolysis
Otherarticlesof nickel
rxwr
Exm 2GSP:Free
From FmGSP: Free
25%(PUUaiY æoe,>LJ (by law) M. hm
GSP: Free
Free
GSP: Free
FreeGSP:Free
Free ~~~~P:m
Free
GSP:Free
Free (partially bourd)
4Z 2:A43r IreC m<ilein P~Fa >b lu)
Free (by law)R-. Fan
Free 2Freea
2ZGSP: Free
20%(Cube and pipefirrings)2%(other)
Up: Fan
30%or AM.ooe/1
GSP: From
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)Free(B)
Free(B)Free(B)
GSP 5.42v.1 edu of a
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
GSP:3.5dd.doe of Lm
0.d-S 252/1=4 (0.6» S L76.4/lt0o (0.42)
GSP: 0.3Z (M: 0.M2
I0(3) 62(s)M. 4.32 M 3
SUS)
M: 3.iS
L52
GSP. 6.32
&%(a)
6cE)
GSP: 3Z
M: 6S
*As ofJanuary1985(B) - Boundrace
(C) - Ceiling binding
_
2
ex6.0l
ex.03
exm.3O
exm.30
o28.35
28.39
73.01
73.02
75.03
7S.04
73.05
73.06
Free(bylaw)GSP: Free
ffl em-eurf
i11
111
11i1i
1
1
1
1
1.i
11
111
1
Smmary of Pre-Tokyoand Post-TokyoRound Tariff SituationAffecting Nickel and Articles Thereof
Product I-
afS - -td
Niclkeloxides and hydroxides
Chlorides and1U of nickel
Sulphides and polymuiphides of nickel
Sulphates andpersuophates
Nitrites and nitrates of nickel
Carbonats and percarbonate of nickel
Cyads andcomplexcyi of nickel
Slats and peroxysalts of inorganicacids
Fereo-nickel
Nickel mattes, nickel specissand otherintermediate products of nickel metallurgy;unwrought nickel (excluding electro-plating
annodes); nickel wasteandscrap
Wroughtbars, rods, angles, shapesandacctions of nickel; nickel wire
Wrought plates, sheets and strip of nickelnickel foil; nickel powders andflakes
Tubas and pipes and blanks therefor, of nickel;hollow bars and tube and pipsfittings (forexample joints, elbows, sockets and flanges),of nickel
Uoe-pl"atirg ofa nickel, vrutht aerzwztqmt lrnc3dIlz~dus. pirabai by
Oum.r utidla of nickel
«329001
lMM0-1 (oulte rir, rUa ul ua)
33506-1
d2B35-1
oS2839-1
1,g
es92848-Z(w62848-2 (amanm nickel sulphate)«37506-1
(i) matte355Z I
(ii) unalloyved(lamps, ingots, blocks).C35101-1
(iî) &Lmed (Irtm, bIdcks. sht, ,bi. pip,blooks,slabs)
a3550-1M3550-1
Temporarily Free (till 30/6/1985)*(iv) %qute adW
ac35109-1TMorily Frea (tili 30/611985)*
er35500-1355051
3535-1TemporarilyFree (til 30/6/1985)*
ec35610-1 (classor kindmadein Canada)a i356101 (class orkind not madeinCanada)
71100-5o40121-1)
)c4122-1l) 6,f.)
«z35605-1«35700-1
35515-1 xwer)
35510-1
35700-l
ex35605-1ar358W-1
ac35700-1ex7110O-1
*Custsoms Tariffeffective January 1, 1985, Departmental Consolidation Revenue Canada, CustomsandExcise.
keen o nFU
Free Free(B)
Frai) Fra()
1.52 12.52<1>
152(C) 12.52(1)ZP: FGi SP: Fra
15Z(C (E)152(C) 9E.22(1
UP: Fra CSP: Fra
152(C 12.5 2()C: Pm CSP: FrC:
152(C 12.p(B)W: Fr. GSP: Fm
152(C 92t(s)Fra
152(C) Fu(B)GS: Frai
S2(B) 42Z(B)SP: Fr c: Fri
15e(B) pFra(B)
52(B) 42(B)GSP: Fre GSP: Frai
Frai Free(B)17.5S(C) lO.22(C)
17.5(8) 10.lQ(C)
Frai 4.3t(B)Fr«i 4.22(C)
19B2: Fra17.5S(C) 100.(C)
102 6.82tB)GSP: 52 GQP: 4.5217.52(C) )
) 4.22(C)Fr ) 1982: Froe
17.5S(B) 5.52(B)GSP: 8.5: GSP: 3.5212.5S(B) 4.52t()CSP: 62 CP: 32lS:tB) 10.2StB)
;P: 8.52 GSP: 6.5Z17.52(B) I0. 22(B)
GSP: 9.52 GSP: 6.52
(see above under75.02)17.52(B) 10.2%(B)
GSP: Free CSP: FreeFree(B) Free(B)
Free(E) Free()GSO àba under 75.03)
(see above under75.02)
IFri(B) Fra(B)
(see above under 75.03)
17. 9.5(B) :.r(B)GSP: 9.5S GSP: 6.5S
MDF/W/21Page 113
26601
26.03
«2&28
exM30
ex8M35
v.39
eaL42
iz2.43
w2.48
aex.02
75.01
I75.02
75.03
75.04
75.05
75.06
MOF/W/21Page 114'
Summary of Pre-Tokyo and post-Tokyo Round TariffSituationAffecting Nickel and Articles Thereof
Nickel oew and
mli"a -- Md hydmmà
Chloridesanda1da mi ag7ch1al ci idcui
=283S IM l hId ci w 1
am.u8 ald ;VU
3M39 l dnt cf1
«xM42 Czgbeum M pmb* of mi
a28.43 CyUaa c a1 Midm of idoel
SaltsZ.468 Sai. Md pacquilsce ioerc ad.
IM3.02Ferro-nickeli.cim
75.01 m actbu , qida, s3aL, end o ur
M cfWUW U i '4&
rt4"1~~%MMMd 22
7-%a2 u * boxe ms*, -Ces duue
7se.m serpt"41 n4ke %75.03 Wrought places, = and strip
:al foLai; :dA1 u
75.04 '`''' p4 ad blk 1 zf,
of nickel; hollows barsandcubeand
a coLsc aud oLdwroughtorunwrought, includingthoseby tlàl
75.06 Other articles ofnickel
Free(B)
10.4Zo)z(s
GSP:Free
1 . Dogscz-jpcloe ac _ _ .
~~~~~~~~~~~~M - 1. _?Mt Fc 1ff
(chlorides)-I 91)
5.6 2c1) (m n)
Gf. ftm
?MO)
?MO)
10.42(3>
5.5(3)sPF
6.92()C: Fm
52M)6=0M. ftm
SUS) )(C *)
&JS2)oeæ*: Fm
8.8SZ() (cmboe11.23) ~GSP: Free
8.SZ(3) ( tM*152cR) (complexcyanides)
11.52(3)
GSP:Free
Free (B)
on)mu
82()6.6ZO).GSP: Free
1=) 5*a)
62Z(W: ?rm
6.6Fr
FM<B)FrM<B)
6Sz() 4.42)M?: Fm G: ?Fra
7M) 4.92(B)0.5S2o (padu ma flkm) 0.52(3)GU. Pa a:. Frm
8U3) 5.32(3)5Z(B) (tub M pe K ) 3.82Mcap: Fra GSP: Fr.
42(3)52(E): ?r.
(w- 3.8S2()(W: Frai
4.5S(3) (sm , =a, c±vs a 'eshmof a sha cbu. or l
I dg me emu 6e5(S3) (orcr1 -miai 3.E
diffaoe dimal>6.52(s) (odur) 4.6
1 Gsp ?r i h P-
3.5:(3)
3)8X
Free (B)
Free(B)
Free(B)e)
Free(B))
Free(B)o)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
2=(B)=?: Free
Free (B (powdersand5=() (other)
52(5)
Ge: Free
Free(B)
7.32(B)
¢P: Free
uS)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
y%(C)*
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
1.8:(B)(M: Fm
flk)) fru(B)
1.8(3B)
5P:
Frs«()
5.1z(B)
: Frai
*Sm L/5004
Summary of Pre-TokyoRound Tariff SituationAffectingNickel and Articles Thereof
'APAUCCCNDescriptionP Powct _m:vL
.2..0l Nickel crossand
Ash and iàm =nwr qa1y n±dckJ.
nickL oes Md hys
.2830 Chlorides andaych1s2 ci wtwL-t
«235 Sulphides andiddu ci IWAo1
.2&.8 Sulphides and l$utm
Nitiritesand u of ~U1CM
Catoeuc id p _ fci .lu
Cynciau and complexld ci nickl
Salts and ummaic i inorganicacids
Ferre-nickel
75.01 Nickel t, .dCai id Ocbe*b ltm pro*= ce (
(a-t.hd3 - );o±cq L w us a
75.02 Wnqc bas. raed, mm,sacrm of :- nickel wire
75.03 plia. 'es sfP off1 'WA f1feu; t1àaL
73.04 Tubesandpipes rafnor,ci mickel llm bm ndo8 Md
pi" f±O (for aopla jours.
eJhU. _maa md lm ), dUd."
75.05 larf q =du ci nL.W=qbXcor uwesc. '="WH dam
produced by electrolysis
75.06 Otherarticles of
52
Free102: 5S=2 (chlorides)
CP. SS102 (=la
GSP: SS52s
GSP: 5
5S2GSP: Free
222 (cy )
25: S2
25
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)
ùow)
3.SZC)GSP:Free
6.22(8)
8.92(3)GSP. 526.22(8)GSP: 2%
9.8Z(8)
8.92(8)
GSP: sz
3.8Z(B)GSP: Free
9.Z= )
Ftu0)
Free)
2(3)GSP: Free
7.52(3)GSP:Free
52(8)G: Fru
=OCs)7.52(3)G?: FP
7.52(8)(W: tu
7.52SS)GSP: Free
. 7.J2()
Free(E)
Free()
4.92()I P Free
3.7t')GSP: Free
(Sulphite) S.SZC)(p;eu ) 4.92(3)
GSP: Free
4.9Z(3)GSF: Free
4.92(8)GSP: Free
4.9Z()
i0 (oa S élslight ) 5.82(3)
7.52() (odlr) 4.92(3)GSP: Free GSP: Free
I(Z) 6.2(s)GSP: Free GSZ : Free
ft«O) 0 mm, sne:is. tmiaoe =Crs
FPrIm)
r !a of rPPo)GSP: Free GSP:Free
GSP: M53.44f or GSP: WaO.S or
6.32 whichever islessder is.l(3.82) CZ.92)
2.52(3) (alloys containing less thanFree (B)5= nica Mdc 1leuthan 10% cobalt)
22.5(z) (ottea 92(3)GSP:Free
W= Ume Md
ZL5ZC3)r: FrmZ.52(3)
152(B)I 52s()GSP: Free
GSP: Free
6.8(ZC).: .0ra
Tra(B)
(unLoa) 7.2=CB1aflye) 5.82(B)
S. !Sm
Ula s, sh ts Md iL5z(B) (Luflcgaf) 7.2=(3)12.S5(3) (&Lloya) 5.82Cs)aP:r S?: Tm
(ii) foil, powdersand flakes
¥ioorî (6.= m) r=lod %'5% (m CS)22.52(3) (aticyn) 62(3)GSP: ?u ¢;S?: Ftrm
flO00/1% (5.=)(B) (unalloyes:for Free(B)
ict= fo vuaa13Jj
Free (B)
Free(B)
Free(B) Free(B)
152B) (uala"a) 7.=(B)(allaf) 6.52()
GSP:Free GSP: Free
'flSO/K (6.3S (3)Os?: ?r GSP:
252(B) (placed with praciousmetals)!Ct=(B)1OS(B) (ocer) 5.d2(B)
GSP: Free GSP: Free
.2603
g2&28
MDF/W/21Page 115
.2830
a2843
ur2.48
I73.02
(unalloyed)
(alloyed)
MDF/W/21Page 116
CCCNProductDescription__________
Nickel oxides and hydroxides
-« iCUÜOC d aq aid ci id"
Carbonates and parcarbonatesofnickelCy1phc u andcomplex cy of nickel
Mcdoim ma.=Ummw of
Ferro-nickeli ~lmd
-~',
r4k:-d:oeL iscsmiu
Wrought boxs,rods, angles,shapes and
sectionsof nickel;nickelwire
o£m 1@p«adbmotao.U~
ptfor bslus i oe.fr~M4Lk- io1bDo bms Mdci mi
pipe fittings (for example joints,elbous,socketsand flanges)ofnickel
aa=Ldf modu etrdckecew huà by iloesslysid
ou= rd aie ea3.
?m
?tu)
Free
Free(partiallybound)
Free (B)
Free(B)
Free(B)Free(partially bound)
Free(B)
Free(partiallybound)
1.023)
SMâ)
5c)
52
GSP: Free
GSP: Free
(6= and =os)(or e)
Md fIakus)
S=O)M.: fP
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)ua)
kM(3)
51
Foe)
sz
stB)
?-(r3)
5S)
SIP:
G;P: r
GS: Pr«
5zs)CM: r
EM(B)
vErms)
Fr«(S)
rmas)FM(B)
?(B)
.6zC3) (su.CM: --m
Free(B
6SP: Free(PJaus. *M a
cmee(B)us
G: Fru
FrP(B)
5Z(E)GSp: FrZo
Fu(B)
Fus(E)
Fts(E)
?M(B)
.Ma)
s.U voeod 4.6 E)
Osp: rus
.S-2:"(ee)rsono nita. !oW4.4Z(B)
GOP: Fra
Z"(E3)G.S T's
TrP:E)
ZE)GS:
_______I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.i26.01
L26.03
«2&28
cr2&39
«M.48
c7.02
75.01.
75.02
75.04
5.05
75.06iSO
SZMU-Y ci Z-. Acoed TatLef SivmtcîmAura==R= wd AVECIM mmoet
Supplof 7rSY. u- Pse-tow i r SLAffecting NickelandArticleThereofI ' Sv=IO 5
Pws Dcrt CW=
D~~~~~~~M ffq% preIND j ez R
euZS.02.iaZOS
M.301.Jmu123.38
Nickel orme and concentrates
AM and residues containingmainly nickel
Nickel oxides and hydrosides
Chloridesand oxychlorides of nickel
Sulphides and polysulphides of nickel
o8.38 Sulphatesand pernulplates
«u.Ii
àZ:
Nitrites and nitratesof nickel
Carbonates and percarbonates of nickel
es23.13 Cy1deam andcomplex cyanides of nickel
0928.48 Salts and peroxysaltsof inorganicale toi"
ex3.02 Ferro-nickel
75.01 Nickle stre., nickel speit and otherintermediate products ofnickeleatallurM unwrought nickel(excludingelectro-plating anodes);nickelwaste and scrap
75.02 Wrought bars, rods, angles, shapesandsections of nickel;nickel wire
75.03 Wrought plates, shoetsandstrip of
nickel; nickel foil; nickel powdersandflakes
J
73.06 Tubes andpipes and blants therefor,of nickel; hollow bars and tubeandpipe fittings (for exemple joints,elbows, snakcs andflanges) of nickel
73.05 Electro-plating modes of nickel.W mo or mnust, includingthoseproducedby electrolysis
7.0 Otherarticles of nickel
Free(B)
Free(B)
<is)
Free(B)
Free(B)
Free(B)(tait
Free(B)
L.5YJ)
07TrB)
L..S'(E>
F7"(T)GSP:Free
z)E
TresCE)
r)rrwsoLtue) s.2<a)sau>) Trea<B>
4.3%0I2.581: TFi
LUISe<E)
L.Uffl>CS: Tria
flakes) FTr(E)
L.(41)W's Fr«
3.:%c)WX Fro
préviE)
W? TrieSffl- fiV4 O0.1)(I)
MSt fr
C: tri
Sun.s/l a(o.3%) (3
037: Tre
3uft.SWEsC0.2t} (3>CSP: Tri
Sel.2flb0Sg(0.7%)<E) (mlple.e) Sa .2lOOKga<0%)(t)St2.3ogsC(0.6%)(E> (npritrates) Sw.fO .7
Mt Trie Mi TrisvT3Jll100gC1)tS)(E tcuirlce) Svf2.jfi00p<^)(b)Suf.31ID0EgO.~%<) (uinramces) Svf2.6J1.00a(0.6%) (3
037: Trie CsP Te
S2.flJ0oeg.(O.Lb)<i) (cahaCea) 5vU2. /UOJ(0.4X)(3)Sv1 <0.2 )((ECperatoesce) SvQ4/W 04O)(>
Wl Tri CMP: *re
SvIO.75/IOO (0.L.)(I)
cm7 Tri
c. Fre
sunFnogoe(0.3n)(<E
GSP:Free
Svf.s/10gp0J>cE)
SvU0.25l1.00g(0.1) (E>
037: Trie
SvT0.7S110Kga(0.1%)(3)
Cspt rroe
GSP: Free
GSP: Freenickel wire
cros-sectionaldimensionuv30/2 gs(0.5S)(E (Cver 0.Sm tce 6m) S ,(O.5%(
3vVS31100Ks(0.^)(E) (0.C or ties) SvTl/2.O C)(E)GSP: Free SPs Tre
(i)not surface-treatedSeF27fLOOEgsO.7% (rOkeetaglar, over SvT25/0Oa(0.,')(3>
0.SM thick)SullKgs(0.7S))(Otrecanmlar,0.3su S2/ s(0.6%)(S)
or less thick)Sv96SflD~gs<0.6S>CE)(oet th= rueta- ST4/0(.6)(0)to(0.6>(>
sSir shape)Sufl.OOlWOEga(1S>(I (drtlld, puoched. SvF00/l00gs(l%) (E)
het)CSP1rs CPrro
(al.) lSt ortlveridSurL2OtlD clf.>)S(3)OO/10(2.s)
03i trie CQ: Tri(fi om re ,aa-ec
SueVl0I00g(3.Z2)<E) SwflOOlIOOKga.7'i>3)037: Tri 0s: Trio
(iv) pouders and nakesS W:O. f/1a014X.L%)(E SvT0./IL007ps (0.N>(E)
057: Tri 07 TrieI 4
svnsnvo0Ks.6>(&> Su2n7/loOKg(O.GSi: Trou CSP: Tru
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MDF/W/21Page 118.
Ash and resickness minly nickel
Nickel oxides and hydroxides
Chlorides and oxychloridesofnickel
Sulphates and polysulphidesofnickel
Carbonates and pbm oif~.
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Salts andperroxysalts of inorganicacids
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unwrought nickel (excludingelectro-plating an); nickel wasteandscrap
Wrought bars, rods, angles,shapes and
nickel foil; nickel andscrip ofnickel;nickel foil; nickelpowders and flakes
Tubesand pipes and blanks, thereof,ofnickel; hollow bars andtubefittings(for example joints, albows,socketsand
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MDF/W/21Page 119
ANNEX Il: The Harmonized System of CommodityDescription and Classification
Nickel and articles thereof (Chapter 75)
"In this Chapter the following expressions have the meanings herebyassigned to then:
"(a) Bars and rods
Rolled, extruded, drawn or forged products, not in coils, whichhave a uniform solid cross-section along their whole length inthe shape of circles, ovals, rectangles (including squares),equilateral triangles or regular convex polygons (including"flattened circles" and "modified rectangles", of which twoopposite sides are convex arcs, the other two sides beingstraight, of equal length and parallel). Products with arectangular (including square), triangular or polygonalcross-section may have corners rounded along their whole length.The thickness of such products which have a rectangular(including "modified rectangular") cross-section exceedsone-tenth of the width. The expression also covers cast orsintered products, of the same forms and dimensions, which havebeen subsequently worked after production otherwisee than bysimple triming or de-scaling), provided that they have notthereby assumed the character of articles or products of otherheadings.
"(b) Profiles
Rolled, extruded, drawn, forged or formed products, coiled ornot, of a uniform cross-section along their whole length, whichdo not conform to any of the definitions of bars, rods, wire,plates, sheets, strip, foil, tubes or pipes. The expression alsocovers cast or sintered products, of the same forms, which havebeen subsequently worked after production otherwisee than bysimple triming or de-scaling), provided that they have notthereby assumed the character of articles or products of otherheadings.
"(c) Wire
Rolled, extruded or drawn products, un coils, which have auniform solid.cross-section along their whole length in the shapeof circles, ovals, rectangles (including squares), equilateraltriangles or regular convex polygons (including "flattenedcircles" and "modified rectangles", of which two opposite sidesare convex arcs, the other two sides being straight, of equallength and parallel). Products with a rectangular (includingsquare), triangular or polygonal cross-section may have cornersrounded along their whole length. The thickness of such productswhich have a rectangular (including "modified rectangular")cross-section exceeds one-tenth of the width.
MDF/W/21Page 120
"(d) Plates, sheets, strip and foil
Flat-surfaced products (other than the unwrought products ofheading No. 75.02), coiled or not, of solid rectangular (otherthan square) cross-section with or without rounded corners(including "modified rectangles" of which two opposite sides areconvex arcs, the other two sides being straight, of equal lengthand parallel) of a uniform thickness, which are:
- of rectangular (including square) shape with a thickness notexceeding one-tenth of the width,
- of a shape other than rectangular or square, of any sizeprovided that they do not assume the character of articles ofproducts of other headings.
Reading No. 75.06 applies, inter alia, to plates, sheets, stripand foil with patterns (for example, grooves, ribs, chequers,tears, buttons, lozenges) and to such products which have beenperforated, corrugated, polished or coated, provided that they donot thereby assume the character of articles or products of otherheadings.
"(e) Tubes and pipes
Hollow products, coiled or not, which have a uniformcross-section with only one enclosed void along their wholelength in the shape of circles, ovals, rectangles (includingsquares), equilateral triangles or regular convex polygons, andwhich have a uniform wall thickness. Products with a rectangular(including square), equilateral triangular, or regular convexpolygonal cross-section, which may have corners rounded alongtheir whole length, are also to be considered as tubes and pipesprovided the inner and outer cross-sections are concentric andhave the same form and orientation. Tubes and pipes of theforegoing cross-sections may be polished, coated, bent, threaded,drilled, waisted, expanded, cone-shaped or fitted with flanges,collars or rings.
Subheading note
"In this Chapter the following expressions have the meanings herebyassigned to them:
"(a) Nickel, not alloyed
Metal containing by weight at least 99 per cent of nickel pluscobalt, provided that:
- the cobalt content by weight does not exceed 1.5 per cent,and
- the content by weight of any other element does not exceedthe limit specified in the following table:
MDF/W/21Page 121
Elements Limiting content % by weight
Fe Iron 0.50 Oxygen 0.4Other elements, each 0.3
"(b) Nickel alloys
Metallic substances in which nickel predominates by weight overeach of the other elements provided that:
- the content by weight of cobalt exceeds 1.5 per cent,
- the content by eight of at least one of the other elementsshall be greater than the limit specified in the foregoing table,or
- the total content by weight of elements other than nickelplus cobalt exceeds 1 per cent."
Reading H.S.No. _.;Code
75.01 Nickel mattes, nickel oxide sinters and otherintermediate products of nickel metallurgy
7501.10 - Nickel mattes7501.20 - Nickel oxide winters and other
intermediate products of nickel metallurgy
75.02 Unwrought nickel7502.10 - Nickel, not alloyed7502.20 - Nickel alloys
75.03 7503.00 Nickel waste and scrap
75.04 7504.00 Nickel powders and flakes
75.05 Nickel bars, rods, profiles and wire- Bars, rods and profiles:
7505.11 Of nickel, not alloyed
7505.12 - Of nickel alloys_ Wire
7505.21 Of nickel, not alloyed
7505.22 - Of nickel alloys
75.06 Nickel plates, sheets, strip and foil7506.10 Of nickel, not alloyed
7506.20 - Of nickel alloys
75.07 Nickel tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings(for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves)- Tubes and pipes
7507.11 -- Of nickel, not alloyed7507.12 - Of nickel alloys7507.20 - Tube or pipe fittings
7508.00 Other articles of nickel15.08