african herbal remedies with antioxidant activity: a...
TRANSCRIPT
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Review ArticleAfrican Herbal Remedies with Antioxidant Activity: A PotentialResource Base for Wound Treatment
Mary Gulumian ,1,2 Ewura Seidu Yahaya ,3,4 and Vanessa Steenkamp 3
1National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa2Haematology and MolecularMedicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa3Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa4Department of Pharmacology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Mary Gulumian; [email protected]
Received 3 May 2018; Revised 23 October 2018; Accepted 7 November 2018; Published 22 November 2018
Academic Editor: Olumayokun A. Olajide
Copyright © 2018 MaryGulumian et al.This is an open access article distributed under theCreative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The use of traditional herbal remedies as alternativemedicine plays an important role in Africa since it forms part of primary healthcare for treatment of various medical conditions, including wounds. Although physiological levels of free radicals are essential tothe healing process, they are known to partly contribute towound chronicitywhen in excess. Consequently, antioxidant therapy hasbeen shown to facilitate healing of suchwounds. Also, a growing body of evidence suggests that, at least, part of the therapeutic valueof herbals may be explained by their antioxidant activity.This paper reviews African herbal remedies with antioxidant activity withthe aimof indicating potential resources for wound treatment. Firstly, herbalswith identified antioxidant compounds and, secondly,herbals with proven antioxidant activity, but where the compound(s) responsible for the activity has not yet been identified, arelisted. In the latter case it has been attempted to ascribe the activity to a compound known to be present in the plant family and/orspecies, where related activity has previously been documented for another genus of the species. Also, the tests employed to assessantioxidant activity and the potential caveats thereof during assessment are briefly commented on.
1. Introduction
Human cells are continuously exposed to exogenous oxi-dants as well as to those produced endogenously duringnormal physiological processes. Antioxidants form part ofprotective mechanisms that exist in human cells to scavengeand neutralize these oxidants. Oxidants such as the reactiveoxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS)are involved in several diseases [1, 2]. Antioxidant defensesare defective in these diseases and therefore it is possible tolimit oxidative damage and ameliorate disease progressionwith antioxidant supplementation [3].
With reference to wounds, antioxidants play pivotal rolesthat consequently restore normalcy to injured skin. Basallevels of ROS and other free radicals are essential in almostall phases of the wound healing process (Figure 1) [4].During haemostasis, ROS regulates the constriction of bloodvessels to limit loss of blood. Furthermore, ROS facilitates themigration of neutrophils and monocytes from surrounding
blood vessels towards the injury site. The presence of ROSand other free radicals in the wound vicinity during theinflammatory phase of the healing process is also required forinfection control and general maintenance of sterility. Finally,ROS promotes the proliferation of keratinocytes, endothelialcells, and fibroblasts, thereby enhancing angiogenesis andcollagen deposition. However, uncontrolled release of ROScould cause oxidative stress, resulting in cellular and tissuedamage, thereby causing delayed healing [1].
To keep ROS within physiological levels, antioxidantsserve as electron donors, thereby preventing them from cap-turing electrons from other molecules which ultimately leadsto their destruction [4]. Both nonenzymatic antioxidantssuch as glutathione, ascorbic acid, and 𝛼-tocopherol, as wellas enzymatic antioxidants like catalase and peroxiredoxin,have shown potential to normalize high ROS levels and thusstimulate healing [4]. By normalizing ROS, antioxidants canenhance their physiological roles and thereby accelerate thewound healing process. Naturally occurring antioxidants are
HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2018, Article ID 4089541, 58 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1284-6831http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5003-9662http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3575-0410https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541
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2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Inflammatory phaseNeutrophil influx
ROS
Normal level Oxidative stress
HaemostasisROS mediated
vasoconstrictionLymphocyterecruitment
Pathogendefence
Tissue repairROS mediated cell
divisionCell death Necrosis
Woundhealing
Delayedhealing
Figure 1: Role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the wound healing process.
generally favoured over their synthetic counterparts, as thelatter are suspected to cause or promote negative healtheffects [5]. This has resulted in the restricted use of syntheticantioxidants in several countries [6].
This review provides a comprehensive list of Africanmedicinal plants and isolated compounds with antioxidantactivities, with the aim of highlighting the continent’s richherbal resource base for possible management of wounds andallied conditions. Previous reviews have listed a number ofthese African medicinal plants with antioxidant properties[7–9].The present work has therefore aimed to expand the listto includemedicinal plant specieswith antioxidant propertiesthat are used in different African countries including thosefrom Madagascar and Mauritius. For the sake of inclusivity,plants that have been shown to contain compounds that holdthe potential of being novel antioxidants are also consid-ered. In addition, those with anti-inflammatory propertieswere also included due to an earlier observation that theanti-inflammatory activities of the same extracts could beexplained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [10].Additional efforts were also made to include information,where available, on their vernacular names, their regionaldistribution, and medicinal use and plant parts used forthese preparations or for the isolation of the antioxidantingredient(s). Table 1 lists medicinal plants that have beeninvestigated and have confirmed antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory activity and that contain compounds which areknown to have such activities. Table 2 on the other handlistsmedicinal plants that have confirmed antioxidant activitybut the compounds responsible for their antioxidant propertyhave not yet been identified.
Many edible and culinary herbs and condiments werealso included in these two tables as they were used incertain instances as medicinal herbs to treat diseases. Theseincluded fruits and seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, leaves ofBoscia senegalensis, leaves of Entada africana and seeds ofParkia biglobosa, from Niger [11], also leaves, seeds, andstem-bark of Mangifera indica from Benin and BurkinaFaso [12, 13], leaves of Cynara scolymus from Ethiopia [14,
15], leaves of Aspalathus linearis from South Africa [16–21],leaves of Cinnamomum zeylanicum from Madagascar andEthiopia [22–24], essential oils from the bark and leavesof Ravensara aromatica from Madagascar [23, 25], budsof Syzygium aromaticum from Madagascar [23], seeds ofTrigonella foenumgraecum from Ethiopia and Morocco [26–28], and oils in seeds of Nigella sativa from African countriesof the Mediterranean region [29–31].
2. Tests Used to Assess Antioxidant Activitiesof African Medicinal Plant Extracts
A variety of test systems were employed to assess theantioxidant properties of the medicinal plant extracts andcompounds listed in Tables 1 and 2. A comprehensive listof the methods used in antioxidant activity determination,as well as their merits and demerits, has already beenpublished [343–346].Themethods used in the determinationof antioxidant activity of natural products and isolatedcompounds result in varied outcomeswhen the same samplesare tested in different laboratories and by other researchers[347]. Furthermore, results of different methods cannot becorrelated, as contradictory results are usually obtained.Hence, although several assays are available, none of themis capable of accurately and completely determining theantioxidant activity of a test substance because of the complexnature of the redox-antioxidant system in vivo (Figure 2).Based on this complexity, antioxidants are broadly classifiedas (i) inhibitors of free radical formation, (ii) free radicalscavengers, (iii) cellular and tissue damage repairers, and (iv)signalling messengers [347].
The inhibition of free radical formation could protectagainst oxidative damage by suppressing the formation ofactive ROS/RNS. This typically involves reduction or inhibi-tion of substrates required for free radical formation such asmetal ions like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). The sequestrationof these metal ions by antioxidant compounds like ellagicacid and glutathione is known to suppress formation of
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Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
Table1:Medicinalplantswith
confi
rmed
antio
xidant
activ
ity,sho
wnto
containcompo
unds
thatarek
nownto
have
such
activ
ity.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Aloaceae
Aloe
barbadensis
Mill.
Burn
plant,
siber,
sbar/essou
ktou
ri/m
ar,sbar
Leafexud
ate
Algeria,
Morocco,
Tunisia
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Usedas
laxativ
e,pu
rgative,diuretic,
asthma,baldness,cuts,bo
unds,skinrash.
Flavon
oids,two
dihydrocou
marin
deriv
atives
and
twoflavone
glycosides
[32–34]
Aloe
claviflora
Burch.
Kraalaloe
Leafexud
ate
SouthAfrica
Radicalscaveng
ingactiv
ityandmod
erate
activ
ityin
thelipid
peroxidatio
nassay
Chromon
eglycosid
e[35,36]
A.sapona
ria(A
it.)H
aw.
Mpelu
Mnemvu
Soap
aloe,
African
aloe
Leafexud
ate
SouthAfrica
Radicalscaveng
ingactiv
ityandmod
erate
activ
ityin
thelipid
peroxidatio
nassay
Chromon
eglycosid
e[35,37]
A.thraskiiBa
ker
Dun
ealoe,
ikhala,umhlaba
Leafexud
ate
SouthAfrica
Radicalscaveng
ingactiv
ityandmod
erate
activ
ityin
thelipid
peroxidatio
nassay
Chromon
eglycosid
e[35,36]
Amaran
thaceae
Amaranthus
caud
atus
L.Tasselflo
wer
Seed;
Youn
gshoo
tsEthiop
iaAntioxidant
prop
ertie
sTo
coph
erols,ph
enolicacids
[38–40
]
Ana
cardiaceae
Anacardium
occid
entale
L.Not
signalized
Stem
-bark
Nigeria
Anti-infl
ammatoryp
roperties.
Agathisfl
avon
e,qu
ercetin
3-O-rutinoside,
quercetin
3-O-rhamno
side
[41,42]
Lann
eaedulisEn
gl.
Wild
Grape
Root-bark
Zimbabw
e
Semipolar
extractshigh
activ
itybo
thas
radicalscavengersa
ndlip
oxygenase
inhibitors.Lipop
hilic
extractsinhibitoro
f15-lipo
xygenase.
Usedforp
ainful
menstr
uatio
n,urogenita
linfection,
sexu
allytransm
itted
diseases.
Twoalkylpheno
ls(cardo
nol7
andcordon
ol13)
andthreed
ihydroalkylhexenon
es[43–45]
Lann
eavelutin
aA.R
ich
Bemmbeyi
Raisinier
velu,
Lann
éavelouté
Leaves,bark,
root
Mali
Antioxidant
prop
ertie
sProantho
cyanidins
[46,47]
Man
giferaindica
L.Mango
Mangoro
Leaves,seeds,
stem-bark
Benin
BurkinaF
aso
Anti-infl
ammatory,analgesic
,and
hypo
glycem
iceffects.
Usedto
treaturogenita
linfectio
n,tonic,
diarrhoea,toothache,gingivitis,liver
disease,diabetes.
Polyph
enolics,flavono
ids
[12,13,46,47]
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4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Apiaceae
Centellaasiatica(L.)
Urb.
Gotukola
Leaves
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
andanti-inflammatory
activ
ities.
Usedforw
ound
healing.Protectio
nagainstradiatio
n-indu
cedinjury.
Cardioprotectiv
eeffect.
Oraltreatmentincreased
antio
xidant
enzymes.
Quercetin
andtetrandrine
[48–
55]
Apo
cyna
ceae
Alsto
niabooneiDeW
ild.
Awun
,Eg
buStem
-bark
Root-bark
Nigeria
Ghana
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedforitsanalgesic
and
anti-inflammatoryp
roperties.
Rutin
,Quercetin
robino
bioside,
Kaem
pferol-3-O
-rutinoside,
Kaem
pferol-3-O
-rob
inob
iosid
e[56–
59]
Catharanthus
roseus
(L.)G.D
on
Madagascar
periw
inkle
kaka
poul,
karaktèd
ezosm
blan,zèb
sosyé
Who
leplant
Madagascar
Antioxidant
activ
ityandability
toincrease
antio
xidant
enzymes.
Usedforc
onjunctiv
itis.
Phenols
[60]
Arecaceae
ElaeisguineensisJacq.
Ori
Nuts
Ghana
Nigeria
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedto
treatrheumatoidarthritis.
3,4hydroxybenzaldehyde,p-hydroxybenzoicacid,
vanillica
cid,syrin
gica
cid,ferulic
acid,
caroteno
ids,𝛼-to
coph
erol
[12,61]
Asclepiad
aceae
Secamonea
fzeliiR
hoem
.Ahaban
Kroratim
aStem
CentralAfrica
Antioxidant
andanti-inflammatory
prop
ertie
s.Usedforw
ound
healing.
Flavon
oids,caffeica
cidderiv
atives
and
𝛼-to
coph
erol.
[62–64
]
Aspho
delaceae
Bulbinec
apita
taPo
elln.
Scentedgrass
bulbine
Roots
Aeria
lparts
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndwe
akantio
xidant
andfre
eradicalscavenging
andlip
idperoxidatio
ninhibitio
nactiv
ities.
Knipho
lone
asas
electiv
einh
ibito
rof
leuk
otrie
nemetabolism
.Usedas
amild
purgativea
ndto
cure
gono
rrho
ealinfectio
ns.
Anthraquino
neKn
ipho
lone
[65–73]
BulbinefrutescensW
illd.
Snakefl
ower,
cat’stail,
burn
jelly
plant
Leafjuice
Roots
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndwe
akantio
xidant
andfre
eradicalscavenging
andlip
idperoxidatio
ninhibitio
nactiv
ities.
Knipho
lone
isas
electiv
einh
ibito
rof
leuk
otrie
nemetabolism
.Usedto
treatbu
rns,rashes,blisters,insect
bites,crackedlip
s,acne,coldsores,
mou
thulcersandareaso
fcracked
skin.
Phenylanthraqu
inon
es,
Isofuranon
aphtho
quinon
es,
Gaboroq
uino
nesA
andBand
4-O
-dem
ethylkniph
olon
e-4-O
-beta-D-
glucop
yranoside,andKn
ipho
lone
(anthroq
uino
ne)
[65,67,70,74,
75]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Kniphofia
foliosa
Hochst.Re
d-no
t-peker
Kenya
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndwe
akantio
xidant
andfre
eradicalscavenging
andlip
idperoxidatio
ninhibitio
nactiv
ities.
Knipho
lone
asas
electiv
einh
ibito
rof
leuk
otrie
nemetabolism
.Usedfora
bdom
inalcram
ps,w
ound
healing
Anthraquino
ne:K
niph
olon
e[65,76–78]
Asteraceae
Artemisiaabyssin
icaSch.Bip.
Chikug
n(A
mharic
)Ar
rtta
bera
(Or)
Who
leplant
Ethiop
ia
Radicalscaveng
ingandantio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedforstomachpain
andwo
und
healing.
Essentialoils
andflavono
ids
[79–82]
A.afra
Jacq.
exWilld.
African
worm
wood
Wild
worm
wood
Roots,ste
ms
andleaves
Ethiop
iaSouthAfrica
Radicalscaveng
ingandantio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedforstomachpain,cou
ghs,colds,
fever,lossof
appetite,colic,headache,
earache,intestinalw
ormstomalaria.
Essentialoils
andflavono
ids
[79,82–8
4]
A.arvensisL.
Mug
wort
Wormwo
odWho
leplant
Algeria
Radicalscaveng
ingandantio
xidant
activ
ities.
Phenoliccompo
unds
andflavono
ids.
[85]
A.campestrisL.
Fieldsagewo
rtField
worm
wood
Who
leplant
Algeria
Radicalscaveng
ingandantio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedto
treatinsomnia
Phenoliccompo
unds
andflavono
ids.
[85–87]
Bidens
pilosa
L.Blackjack
Leaves
Roots
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
andanti-inflammatory,
antib
acteria
l,antih
ypertensivea
ctivities.
Usedto
treatdiabetes
andbackache.
Phenoliccompo
unds:quercetin
3-O-rabinob
iosid
e,qu
ercetin
3-O-rutinoside.
Twono
velm
etho
xylatedflavone
glycosides:
quercetin
3,3-dim
ethylether
7-O-c¢-L-rham
nopyrano
syl-(1∼
6)-fl-D
-glucopyrano
sidea
ndthek
nownqu
ercetin
3,3-dim
ethylether
7-O-fl-D
-glucop
yranoside
[19,88–
91]
-
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa
ble1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Cyna
rascolym
usL.
Globe
artic
hoke
Leaves
Ethiop
ia
Antioxidativ
eand
lipid-lo
werin
gprop
ertie
sand
eNOSup
-regulating
ability.
Usedto
treatchronicliver
andgall
bladderd
iseases,jaund
ice,hepatitisand
atherosclerosis.
Polyph
enolicflavono
idcompo
unds
[14,15,92,93]
Helichrysum
dasyanthum
Sweet
Afrikaans
common
name
ofko
oigoed
(bedding
material)
Leaves
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant,radicalscavenging
and
anti-inflammatorya
ctivities.
Usedto
treatwo
unds,infectio
ns,
respira
tory
cond
ition
s.
Essentialoils
[94–
96]
H.petiolareHilliard
&B.L.Bu
rtt.
Everlasting
,Im
phepho
Leaves
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant,radicalscavenging
and
anti-inflammatorya
ctivities.
Usedto
treatwo
unds,infectio
ns,
respira
tory
cond
ition
s,asthma,chest
prob
lemsa
ndhigh
bloo
dpressure
Essentialoils
[94–
96]
Tagetesm
inutaL.
Khakibu
shstink
ingroger
musterJoh
nHenry,w
ildmarigold
Leaves
Madagascar
Antim
icrobialandantio
xidant
activ
ity.
Usedas
anthelmintic
,antisp
asmod
ic,
purgativea
ndforthe
treatmento
fgastr
itis,indigestion
andinternalwo
rms.
Essentialoils.
[23,97]
Balano
phoraceae
Thonningia
sanguinea
Vahl.
Nkomango
Roots
Ghana
Antioxidativ
eand
radicalscaveng
ing
activ
ities
andlip
idperoxidatio
ninhibitory
activ
ity.
Usedforb
ronchialasthma,rheumatoid
arthritis,
atherosclerosis
anddiabetes.
Ellagitann
ins:Th
onning
ianinAandB
[98–
103]
Balanitaceae
Balanitesa
egyptia
ca(L.)
Delile
Hausa:adu
wa
Desertd
ate
Bark
and
roots
EastAfrica
Antioxidant
prop
ertie
sinvitro
confi
rmed.
Theb
arkandrootsa
reused
aslaxativ
es,
andforc
olic.Th
ebarkisused
forsore
throats,andas
arem
edyforsterility,
mentaldise
ases,epilepsy,yello
wfever,
syph
ilis,andtoothaches.
Cou
marins,flavono
ids,sapo
nins
(Balanin
1(3𝛽,12𝛽,14𝛽,16𝛽)c
holest-
5-ene-3,16-diylbis(𝛽-d
-glucopyrano
side)-12-sulphate,a
newste
rol
sulfo
natedandBa
lanin2(3𝛽,20S,22R
,25R
)-26-
hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-
5-en-3-
yl-rhamno
pyrano
syl-(1→2)-glucopyrano
side,a
novelfurostano
lsapon
in)
[11,104–
106]
Bign
oniaceae
Jacarand
amim
osaefolia
D.Don
.Sh
arpleaf
Jacarand
aLeaves
Stem
-bark
Nigeria
Show
nto
have
antim
icrobialactiv
ityand
used
totre
atinfections
Phenylethano
idglucoside,jacarano
ne[107–109]
Spathodeacampanu
lata
P.Beauv.
African
tulip
Stem
-bark
Nigeria,G
hana,
Cam
eroo
n(Yaoun
deregion
)
Anti-infl
ammatory,antio
xidant,
hypo
glycem
ic,anticom
plem
entand
anti-HIV
activ
ities.
Usedto
treatitching
,arthritis,and
diabetes.
Flavon
oids
andcaffeicacid
deriv
atives
[63,110
]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Tecomasta
ns(L.)
H.B.&
K.Yello
wtrum
petb
ush
Leaves
Stem
-bark
Nigeria
Anti-d
iabetic
activ
ityisshow
n.4-O-E-caffeoyl-alpha-L-rhamno
pyrano
syl-(1→
3)-alpha/beta-D-glucopyrano
se,E/Z-acetosid
e,iso
acetoside
[107,111]
Cappa
raceae
Cleomea
rabica
L.Cleomee
feina
Leaves
Egypt
Antioxidant
activ
ity,inh
ibited
lipoxygenasea
ctivity
andcalcium
iono
phore-stimulated
LTB4
synthesis
inhu
man
neutroph
ils.
Usedto
treatwo
unds
andprevent
inflammation
Rutin
andqu
ercetin
.[112,113]
Clusiaceae
Garcin
iakolaHeckel
Bitte
rcola/aku
ilu,agbuilu
.Nigeria
Hausa:
Góó
ròpl.
gwârrááo
rgòòràrràkáı́
Seeds
Nigeria
Inhibitlipid
peroxidatio
nandprotectiv
eagainstH2O2-in
ducedDNAstr
and
breaks
andoxidized
bases.
Usedforlaryngitis,cou
ghs,liver
disease,
bron
chitisa
ndthroatinfections.Inh
ibits
AflatoxinB1
indu
cedgeno
toxicity.
Biflavono
id:kolaviro
n[114–120]
Harun
gana
madagascarie
nsisPo
ir.Otori
Stem
-bark
Easte
rnNigeria
Sign
ificant
antio
xidant
activ
ity.
Usedto
treatskin
diseases.
Prenylated
Anthron
oids:harun
madagascarin
A[8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3-dim
ethylallyl)-6-
methyl-2
,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone],
harung
anolB
[121–123]
Hypericu
mcarin
atum
Gris
eb.
Not
signalized
Leaves
Egypt
Antioxidant
andradicalscaveng
ing
activ
ities.
Benzop
heno
nes:carip
heno
neA(6-benzoyl-5,7-
dihydroxy-2,2,8-trim
ethyl-2
H-chrom
ene)and
carip
heno
neB(8-benzoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2,6-
trim
ethyl-2
H-chrom
ene).
[124,125]
H.perforatum
L.Com
mon
St.-Joh
ns’w
ort
Who
leplant
Egypt
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndanti-oxidant
activ
ities.Freer
adicalscavenging
,metal-chelatio
n,andreactiv
eoxygen
quenchingactiv
ities.Protectivea
gainst
scop
olam
ine-indu
cedalteredbrain
oxidatives
tresssta
tusa
ndam
nesia
inrats.
Abilityto
supp
ressthea
ctivities
of5-lip
oxygenase(5-LO
)and
cycloo
xygenase-2
(COX-
2),key
enzymes
intheformationof
proinfl
ammatory
eicosano
idsfrom
arachido
nica
cid(A
A).
Analgesic,antise
ptic,antisp
asmod
ic,
digestive,diuretic
andsedativ
e.
Flavon
oids:R
utin,hyperoside,iso
quercitrin,
avicularin,quercitrin,and
quercetin
.[124,126–131]
-
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Cochlospe
rmaceae
Cochlospermum
tinctorium
A.Rich.
N’tirib
ara
Roots
Sudan,
Ugand
aWestA
frica
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Usedform
alaria,jaund
ice.
Polyph
enols:gallo
tann
insa
ndferulic
acids
[35]
Com
bretaceae
Combretum
woodii
Drum.
Large-leaved
forest
bushwillow
Leaf
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
andantib
acteria
lactivities.
Also
tann
inssho
wedinhibitory
effecto
nFe2+-in
ducedlip
idperoxidatio
nand
radicalscavenger
activ
ity.
Usedforp
neum
onia,syphilis,abd
ominal
pain
andconjun
ctivitis.
Polyph
enols:Com
bretastatin
B5(2,34-trihydroxyl,3,5,4-tr
imetho
xybibenzyl).
Tann
ins.
[132–137]
Combretum
imberbe
Not
signified
SouthAfrica
Com
bretum
speciesa
rewidely
used
for
treatingabdo
minaldisorders(e.g
.abdo
minalpains,diarrhea)b
ackache,
bilharziasis,
chestcou
ghs,colds,
conjun
ctivitis,dysm
enorrhoea,earache,
fatte
ning
babies,fever,headache
1𝛼,3𝛽-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic,
1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oicacid,
3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one,and
1,3,24-trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oicacid,a
new
pentacyclic
triterpenoid
(1𝛼,23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic
acid-3𝛽-O
-2,4-di-a
cetyl-l-rhamno
pyrano
side)
[138]
Guier
asenegalen
sisJ.F.Gmel.
N’kun
djè
Leaf
Western
Africa
Antioxidant
andradicalscaveng
ing
activ
ities.
Usedto
treatdysentery,diarrhoea,
gastr
o-intestinalpains
anddisorders,
rheumatism
,diabetesa
ndfever.
Flavon
olaglycones,flavono
lglycosid
esand
flavono
ids(catechin,m
yricitrin,rutin
and
quercetin
)asw
ellastannins
(galloylqu
inicacids
(hydrolysabletann
ins).
[139–143]
Term
inaliaseric
eaBu
rch.ex
DC.
Silver
cluste
r-leaf
Bark
SouthAfrica
Radicalscaveng
ingandantio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedto
treatdiabetes
andpn
eumon
iaandto
relieve
colic
Pentacyclic
triterpenoids
Ano
lignanB
[21,136,144]
Com
melinaceae
Commelina
diffu
saBu
rm.f.
Wanderin
gJew
Clim
bing
day
flowe
rLeaves
Ghann
aAnti-infl
ammatorya
ndantio
xidant
prop
ertie
s.Usedto
treatfevera
ndisdiuretic
Flavon
oids
[63,145]
Palisotahirsuta
K.Schu
m.,
Not
signified
Aqueou
sleaf
extracts
Nigeria
Anti-infl
ammatorye
ffectsa
gainst
carrageenanindu
cedhind
pawoedema
Not
identifi
ed[14
6,147]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Crassulaceae
Bryophyllum
pinn
atum
(Lam
.)Oken
Syno
nym:K
alan
choe
pinn
ata(Lam
.)Pers.
Ufu
ivo
Leaves
Nigeria,Sou
thAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatoryp
roperties.
Usedfore
arache.
Flavon
oids,polypheno
ls,triterpenoids
[12,148,149]
Cupressaceae
Juniperusp
rocera
Hochstex.En
dl.
African
Juniper
Youn
gtwigs
andbu
dsEthiop
iaAntioxidant
andfre
eradicalscavenging
activ
ities.
Usedto
relieve
stomachpain.
Essentaloils
[79,150,151]
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
dumetorum
(Kun
th)p
axYam
Tubers
Nigeria
Antioxidant
activ
ityto
mod
ifyserum
lipid
andanti-inflammatorya
ctivity.
Usedto
treatdiabetes.
Dioscorea
andDioscoretine
[152–154]
Drosera
madagascarie
nsis
(DC.)
D.ram
entaceaBu
rchell
Sund
ewRo
otsa
ndflo
wers
Madagascar
Anti-infl
ammatorye
ffects.
Usedto
treatcoug
hsandasthma
Flavon
oids:hyperoside,qu
ercetin
and
isoqu
ercitrin
[155,156]
Drosera
rotund
ifolia
L.Ro
und-leaf
Sund
ewRo
otsa
ndflo
wers
Madagascar
Anti-infl
ammatorye
ffects.
Usedto
treatcoug
hsandasthma
Flavon
oids:hyperoside,qu
ercetin
and
isoqu
ercitrin
[155,157]
Euph
orbiaceae
Alchornealaxiflora
(Benth)P
ax&K.
Hoff
m.
Wild
banana
Leafandroot
Nigeria
Antioxidant
andanti-microbialactiv
ity.
Usedto
treatjaun
dice
andliver
disorders.
Also
used
infood
preservatio
n.
Quercetin-7,4-disu
lphate,quercetin,
quercetin
-3,4-disu
lphate,
quercetin
-3,4-diacetate,rutin
andqu
ercetrin
[158–161]
Brideliafer
rugin
eaBe
nth.
Ora
Leaves,stem
andbark
WestA
frica
Dem
ocratic
repu
blicof
Con
go,N
igeria
Anti-infl
ammatory.
Usedto
treatdiarrhea,dysentery,
gastr
o-intestinaldiso
rders,gynecological
disorders(inclu
ding
sterility
),and
rheumaticpains.
Abiofl
avon
oid:Gallocatechin-(4→
O→
7)-Epigallo
catechin.
[12,57,162–166]
Mallotuso
ppositifoliu
s(G
eiseler)Muell.Arg.
Jororo
Káfàrm
útúw
ààSenampend
iMvu
ndza
jembe
Leaves,roo
tsWestA
frica
Nigeria
Antioxidant,anti-infl
ammatorya
ndantim
icrobialactiv
ities.
Usedfora
bortion.
Flavon
oids:quercetin
andqu
ercitrin.
[167–172]
-
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Faba
ceae
Aspalathus
linearis
(Brum.F.)R.
Dahlgr.
Rooibo
sLeaves
SouthAfrica
RadicalScaveng
ingCapacity
Usedto
treatsto
machcram
ps,insom
nia,
andto
redu
cestr
ess.
PhenolicFractio
ns,Tannins
andmon
omeric
flavono
idsa
spalathin,no
thofagin,quercetin,
rutin
,isoqu
ercitrin,orie
ntin,isoorientin,luteolin
,vitexin,
isovitexin,andchrysoeriol.
[16–
21,173,174]
Burkea
afric
anaHoo
kWild
Syrin
gaBa
rkMaliand
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Antioxidant
andradicalscaveng
ing
activ
ity.
Usedto
treatcoug
hs,colds,stomach
obstr
uctio
n,infusio
nsagainst
gono
rrho
eaandsyph
ilis.
Proantho
cyanidins;fisetinidol-(4alpha-
>8)-catechin3-gallateandbis-fisetinidol-(4alpha-
>6,4alpha->
8)-catechin3-gallate,w
ithsm
aller
amou
ntso
fflavan-3-ols(catechin,epicatechinand
fisetinidol)
[175,176]
Crotalariapodocarpa
DC.
Crotalaria
Roots
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedforthe
treatmento
fsore-eyes
and
boils.
Expectorant.
Flavon
oids
[67,177]
Cyclo
piainterm
edia
E.Mey.and
C.subternata
Vog.
Hon
eybu
shLeaves
and
stem
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Usedas
tonicfor
colds,catarrhand
tuberculosis.
Pinitol,shikim
icacid,p-cou
maricacid,
4-glucosyltyrosol,epigallocatechin
gallate,the
isoflavone
orob
ol,the
flavano
nesh
esperedin,
narir
utin
anderiocitrin,a
glycosylated
flavan,the
flavonesluteolin
,5-deoxyluteolin
and
scolym
oside,thex
anthon
emangiferin
andthe
flavono
lC-6-glucosylkaempferol.
Phenoliccontent:tyrosoland
ametho
xyanalogue,2-[4-[O
-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1
→6)-beta-d-glucopyrano
syloxy]
phenyl]ethanol,4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1
→2)-beta-d-glucopyrano
syloxy]benzaldehyde,
fiveg
lycosylatedflavono
ls,twoiso
flavones,four
flavano
nes,twoiso
flavones,andtwoflavones
[19,21,178–181]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Eriosemarobu
stum
Twigs
Burund
i,Ethiop
ia,K
enya,
Rwanda,
Tanzania,
Ugand
a,Dem
ocratic
Repu
blicof
Con
goand
Cam
eroo
n
Usedtradition
allyforthe
treatmento
fcoug
hsin
EastAfricaa
ndskin
diseases
inCentralAfrica
2,3,5,5,7-pentahydroxy-3,40-dimetho
xyflavone,
2,3,5,5,7-pentahydroxy-4-m
etho
xyflavone
[182,183]
Erythrinalatissim
aE.
Mey.
Broad-leaved
coraltree
Stem
Woo
dRo
otwo
odSeeds
SouthAfrica
Botsw
ana
Antim
icrobialactiv
ityandwe
akradical
scavenging
prop
ertie
s.Pu
rgative.
Flavon
oids
andiso
flavono
ids.
Isofl
avon
es:erylatissin
AandB.
Flavanon
e:erylatissin
Candflavono
idsa
ndIsofl
avon
eglycosid
es:4-hydroxyiso
flavone-7-O
-beta-D
-glucopyrano
side(compo
und1);
4-hydroxyiso
flavone-7-O
-alpha-L-rhamno
syl
(1→
6)-beta-D-glucopyrano
side(compo
und2);
andan
ewcompo
und4,8-dim
etho
xyiso
flavone-7-O
-alpha-L-rhamno
syl(1→6)
glucop
yranoside
(8-O
-methylre
tusin
-7-O
-alpha-L-rhamno
syl
(1-6)-beta-D-glucopyrano
side)(com
poun
d3)
Isofl
avon
oids:
5,7-dihydroxy-2,4,5-tr
imetho
xyiso
flavano
ne.
[67,184–
186]
E.lysistemon
Hutch.
Com
mon
coral
tree;luckyb
ean
tree
Bark
SouthAfrica
Mild
antio
xidant
activ
ity.
Usedto
treatsores,wo
unds,abscesses
andarthritis.
Threep
renylatedflavono
idderiv
atives;
5,7,4-tr
ihydroxy-8-(3-m
ethylbut-2-enyl)-6-
(2-hydroxy-3-m
ethylbut-3enyl)isoflavone
(isoerysenegalenseinE),5,7,2-tr
ihydroxy-4-
metho
xy-5-(3-m
ethylbut-2-enyl)iso
flavano
ne(ly
sisteiso
flavano
ne),5,4-dihydroxy-6-(3-
methylbut-2-enyl)-2-hydroxyiso
prop
yldihydrofurano[4,5:8,7]isoflavone
(isosenegalensin
),together
with
thefou
rkno
wn
flavono
idsa
byssinon
eV-4-m
ethylether,
alpinu
miso
flavone,w
ighteone
andbu
rttin
one
[187–190]
-
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa
ble1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Melilotuseleg
ans
Salzm
.exSer.
(syn
.M.
abyssin
icaBa
ker)
Egug
,Gug
i,Yemen
berri
Elegantswe
etclover
Leaves
Ethiop
ia
Anti-infl
ammatoryp
roperties.
Usedfora
sthma,haem
orrhoid,wo
unds,
excavatedsore,piles,ulcersmou
thinfection,
laceratedwo
unds,
haem
orrhoids,bronchialasthma
(personal
commun
ication)
Flavon
oids:kaempferol
[191–194]
Millettia
griffoniana
Baill.
Not
signalized
Root-bark
and
seeds
Cam
eroo
nAnti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedas
anantim
alarial.
Cou
marin:
4-hydroxy-3-(3,4-m
ethylenedioxyphenyl)-5,6,7-
trim
etho
xycoum
arin,durmillon
e,od
orantin
,7-metho
xyebenosin,calop
ogon
ium
isoflavone
Band7,2-dim
etho
xy-4,5-m
ethylenedioxy
isoflavone
maxim
aisoflavone
G(5)a
nd7-hydroxy-6-metho
xy-3,4-
methylenedioxyisoflavone
andnewprenylated
isoflavono
idsg
riffon
iano
nesA
,B,C
,Dand
E.Griff
oniano
neD((7E
)-(6,7-dihydroxy-3,7-
dimethyloct-2-enyl)o
xy-4-m
etho
xyiso
flavone),
aniso
flavone.
[195–202]
Parkiabiglo
bosa
(Jacq.)Be
nth
African
Locust
Bean
Nèrè
Ojin
yi
Bark
Seeds
Mali
Sudan
IvoryCoast
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedas
antiseptic
andto
treatcoug
hs,
chestp
ain,
andwo
undhealing
Tocoph
erol,ascorbica
cid(Seeds)
[12,33,34,36–
39,43–
53,55,64
,66–
72,118,119,121,
138,159,182,195,
203–235]
Peltophorum
afric
anum
Sond
.Weeping
wttle
Root
and
bark
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
andantib
acteria
lactivities
Usedto
treatdiarrhoea,dysentery,sore
throat,w
ound
s,back
andjointp
ains,
HIV-A
IDS,venerealdiseases
and
infertility.
Flavon
olglycosides
andflavono
lglucosid
egallates
[236–2
38]
Piliostigm
athonningii
(Schum
.)Miln
e-Re
dh
Cam
el’sfoo
ttre
e,Mon
key
Bread
Niama(
Mali).
Abefe
Kalgo
Okp
oatu
Omepa
Root,bark,
pods,leaves
Nigeria,
Ethiop
iaBo
tswana,
Kenya,Nam
ibia,
Senegal,South
Africa,Sudan,
Tanzania,
Ugand
a,Za
mbia
Anti-o
xidant
andanti-inflammatory
prop
ertie
s.Usedto
treatwo
unds,chron
iculcers,
coug
h,respira
tory
disordersa
ndtoothache,gu
minflammation,
arthritis,
headache,backache,and
antio
xidant
supp
lement.
Proantho
cyanidinse
picatechin,catechintrim
ers
andoligom
ers,flavono
ids,po
lyph
enolics,
C-methylflavon
ols(in
theleafextract)
[12,58,239–245]
Sutherland
iafru
tescens
R.Br.
Cancerbush
Phetola
Leaves
SouthAfrica
Superoxide
andhydrogen
peroxide
scavenging
activ
ities.
Usedas
tonictobo
ostthe
immun
esyste
m.
Canavanine,pinitol
[246–248]
Trigo
nella
foenum
graecumL.
Fenu
greek
Seeds
Ethiop
ia,
Morocco
Protectiv
eeffectagainstO
xidativ
estre
ssdu
ringisc
hemia-reperfusio
n.Itishypo
lipidem
ic,and
isalso
used
totre
atbo
ilsandto
improvea
ppetite.
Free
phenolicsa
ndVitC
.[26–
28,249,250]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Hum
iriaceae
Sacoglo
ttisgabonensis
Urb.
Cherry
tree,
ozou
gaStem
-bark
WestA
frica
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Bergenin
[251–2
54]
Hyp
oxidaceae
Hypoxishemerocallid
eaFisch.&C.A.M
ey.
African
potato
Corms
SouthAfrica
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Usedto
treattuberculosis,
cancer,bladd
erdisorders,benign
prostatic
hyperplasia
.Ro
operol
[188,255–2
57]
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umbasilicu
mL.
Mük
andu
Basil
Leaves
BurkinaF
aso
Ethiop
ia
Interm
ediateantio
xidant
activ
ityand
high
antib
acteria
lactivity.
Usedin
Ethiop
iato
treatCon
junctiv
itis
andin
Kenyatotre
atcoldsa
ndsto
macheache.
Linaloolbasil
oil
Methylchavicol,eugeno
l,(E)-methylcinnamate,
thym
ol,linaloo
l[23,258]
Ocim
umgratissim
umL.
Teab
ush,Scent
leaf/N
chuanw
u.Ujuju
okpevu
Basil
Leaves
Popu
larrepub
licof
Con
go(ex
Brazaville
Con
go)
Easte
rnNigeria
Antioxidant
activ
ityPo
pularrepub
licof
Con
goitisused
asa
laxativ
e,pu
rgative,andto
treatsnakebite,
diabetes,too
thache,gingivitis.
Xantho
microl,cirsim
aritin,rutin
,kaempferol
3-O-rutinosidea
ndvicenin-2w
ereidentified
asthem
ajor
flavono
ids,whereas
luteolin
5-O-glucosid
e,luteolin
7-O-glucosid
e,apigenin
7-O-glucosid
e,vitexin,iso
vitexin,qu
ercetin
3-O-glucosid
eand
isothym
usin
were
detected
asminor
constituents.
[12,58,258–262]
Lauraceae
Cinn
amom
umzeylan
icumBreyne
Cinn
amon
leaf
Leaves
Madagascar
Ethiop
ia
Very
high
antio
xidant
andhigh
antim
icrobialactiv
ities.
Usedto
treatdiarrhoea,rheumatism
,coldsa
ndhypertensio
n
Cinn
amaldehyde,eugenolandeugenylacetateto
bethem
ainconstituentso
fcinnamon
oil.
[22–24,263]
Ocoteabu
llata(Burch.)
Baill.
Blackstink
wood
Unu
kane
(Zulu)
Bark
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatory,cycloo
xygenase
inhibitory
activ
ity.
Urin
arydisorders,headaches.
Mon
oterpeno
ids
[188,264
]
Ravensaraarom
atica
Sonn
.Nutmeg
havozo
Bark
Leaf
Madagascar
Lowantio
xidant
andantim
icrobial
activ
ity.
Usefulfor
chronicr
espiratory
cond
ition
s,andsometim
eshelpfulincaseso
fasth
ma.
Essentialoils,prin
cipally
compo
sedof
the
mon
oterpene
hydrocarbo
nsa-pinene,sabinene,
myrcene,lim
onene,&thea
zulene:iso-le
dene.In
barks,estragole(methylchavicol)bu
tleaves
containb-myrcene,1,8-cineole,linaloo
l,and
carotol.
[23,25,265]
-
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa
ble1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Malvaceae
Hibiscus
sabdariffaL.
Redtea,
sorelle
Rosella
Flow
ers
Nigeria
SouthAfrica
Antim
utagenicactiv
ityandfre
eradical
scavenging
effectson
activ
eoxygen
species
Usedagainstinsom
nia,colic.
Flavon
olglucosideh
ibisc
itrin
Antho
cyanins.Such
ascyanidin
3-O-𝛽-D
-glucopyrano
side,cyanidin
3-O-(2-O-𝛽-
D-xylop
yranosyl)-𝛽-D
-glucopyrano
side,
delphinidin3-O-𝛽-D
-glucopyrano
sidea
nddelphinidin3-O-(2-O-𝛽-D
-xylop
yranosyl)-𝛽-D
-glucop
yranoside.
[19,21,266–
269]
Meliaceae
Trich
iliaroka
Chiov.
Soulafinzan
Root
Trop
icalAfrica
Mali
Sign
ificantlyprotectiv
eagainst
CCl4-in
ducedliver
damagea
ndpreventedperis
inusoidalfi
brosis.
Usedto
treatmalaria,abd
ominalpain
andderm
atitis.
Polyph
enols
[270,271]
Men
ispe
rmaceae
Sphenocentrum
jollyan
umPierre
Akerejupo
najo
Fruit
Root
WestA
frica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedto
treatinflammatory-based
diseases
Furano
diterpenes:colum
bin,
isocolumbin.
Flavon
oids-richfractio
n.[272–274]
Tinosporabakis
Who
leplant
Sudan
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.Totre
atheadache
andrheumatism
Aditerpenoidfurano
lacton
e,columbin
[275]
Moraceae
Dorste
niabarte
rivar.subtria
ngularis
(Eng
ler)
M.E.E.Hijm
an&
C.C.Be
rg
Con
trayerva
Twigs/leaves
Cam
eroo
n
Antioxidant
prop
ertie
saccou
ntforthe
anti-inflammatorya
ctionof
thesee
xtracts
Usedto
treatarthritis,
rheumatism
,gou
t,headache
andotherformso
fbod
ypains.
Prenylated
flavono
ids:Th
reed
iprenylated
chalcones:bartericinsA
(-)-3-(3,3-dim
ethylallyl)-5-(2-hydroxy-3-
methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2,4-tr
ihydroxychalcone,
bartericinsB
(+)-3-(3,3-dim
ethylallyl)-4,5-[2-
(1-hydroxy-1-m
ethylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-4,2-
dihydroxychalcon
eand
bartericinsC
3,4-(6,6-dim
ethyldihydropyrano
)-4,5-[2,-
(1-hydroxy-1-m
ethylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-2-
hydroxychalcon
eand
also
twono
veldiprenylated
chalcones:3,5-di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-
enyl)-4,2,4-tr
ihydroxychalcone,3,
4-(2,2-dim
ethylpyrano)-3-(2-hydroxy-3-
methylbut-3-enyl)-2,4-dihydroxychalcone,4,2,
4-tr
ihydoxy-3-prenylchalcon
eand
4,2,4-tr
ihydoxy-3,3-diprenylchalcon
e;and
5,7,4-tr
ihydoxy-8-prenylflavone.
Other
know
ncompo
unds
such
asstipu
lin,
4-hydroxylon
chocarpin,kanzon
olB,
3-(2-Hydroxy-3-m
ethylbut-3-enyl)-5-(3,3-
dimethylallyl)-4,2,4-tr
ihydroxychalcone,and
dorsteno
ne.
[67,276–
281]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
D.ciliataEn
gl.
Con
trayerva
Aeria
lparts
Cam
eroo
nCentralAfrica
Antira
dicaland
antio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedas
food
additiv
e.
phenoliccompo
und(6-prenylapigenin)
Flavon
es:(ciliatin
A)5
,4-D
ihydroxy-5-
isoprop
enyldihydrfurano
l[2,3:7,6]flavone
(ciliatin
B)7,4-D
ihydroxy-3-m
etho
xy-6,6-
dimethyldihydropyrano
l[2,3:5,6].
[282–284]
D.convexa
DeW
ild.
Con
trayerva
Twigsa
ndleaves
Dem
ocratic
Repu
blicof
the
Con
go
Antioxidant
prop
ertie
saccou
ntforthe
anti-inflammatorya
ctionof
these
extracts.
Usedto
treatarthritis,
rheumatism
,gou
t,headache
andotherformso
fbod
ypains.
Prenylated
flavono
ids
[67,276,280]
D.m
anniiH
ook.f.
Con
trayerva
Twigs/leaves
Aeria
lparts
CentralAfrica
Antioxidant
actio
nagainst
copp
er-in
ducedLD
Loxidation,
this
activ
ityislik
ethe
non-prenylated
flavono
idqu
ercetin
.Also
,inh
ibition
ofplateletaggregationandinflu
ence
ofcycloo
xygenase
andlip
oxygenasea
ctivity.
Usedto
treatrheumatism
,stomach
disorders.
Anti-tric
homon
alactiv
ity.
Grenylatedandprenylated
flavono
idsa
ndflavono
nes:
Flavon
ones:
6,8-diprenyl-5,7,34-te
trahydroxyflavano
ne,
4-hydroxylon
chocarpin,4-metho
xyloncho
carpin,
6-prenylchrysoeriol,6,8-diprenyleriodictyol,
gancaoninPandPrenylated
flavono
ids:
6,8-diprenyleriodictyol,do
rsmanin
C7,8
-(2,2-Dim
ethylchrom
eno)-6-geranyl-3,5,3,4-
tetrahydroxyflavone
anddo
rsmanin
D6,8-Diprenyl-3
,5,7,4-te
trahydroxy-3-
metho
xyflavone,
dorsmanins1,J
and2-epimerso
fdorsm
aninsF
(6,7-(2,2-dim
ethylpyrano)-8-prenyl-5
,3,4-
trihydroxyflavano
ne,G
(6,7-(2,2-dim
ethyldihydro-pyrano)-8-prenyl-
5,3,4-tr
ihydroxfl
avanon
e).A
lso,dorsm
aninsF
andG.
Four
newprenylated
flavano
nes,named
dorsam
ineF
(7,8-[2-(1-h
ydroxy-1-
methylethyl)-
dihydrofurano]-6-prenyl-5
,3,4-
trihydroxyflavano
ne),do
rsmaine
G(6,7-[2-(1-h
ydroxy-1-
methylethyl)dihydrofurano
]-8-prenyl-5,3,4-
trihydroxyflavano
ne)a
nddo
rsam
ineH
(6-prenyl-8
-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-
5,7,3,4-te
trahydroxyflavano
ne).
[67,187,207,
285–287]
-
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
D.poinsettifolia
var.
angusta
Engl.
Dingeteng
aWho
leplant
Cam
eroo
nAntira
dicaland
antio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedto
treatinfected
woun
ds.
Grenylatedandprenylated
flavono
ids.Th
eun
usual4-phenyl-sub
stituteddihydrocou
marin
andther
areg
eranyl-and
prenyl-sub
stituted
Chalcone.
[207,288,289]
D.psilurus
Welw
.Dingeteng
aRo
ots
Cam
eroo
nCentralAfrica
Antira
dicaland
antio
xidant
activ
ities.
Usedagainstsnakebiteandto
treat
rheumatism
,headachea
ndsto
mach
disorders.
Grenylatedandprenylated
flavono
ids.
Threep
heno
liccompo
unds:6,8-diprenyl-3
[O],4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3,5,7-
trihydroxyflavone,
3,6-diprenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-
5,7,2,4-te
trahydroxyflavone
andan
unusualB/C
ringmod
ified
flavono
idderiv
ativefor
which
the
names
dorsilu
rinsC
,DandE,
respectiv
ely,are
prop
osed.
Twonewflavones,do
rsilu
rinsA
andB,
andan
ewbenzofuran
deriv
ativeh
aveb
eeniso
latedfro
mDorste
niap
silurus,togetherw
iththreek
nown
phenylprop
anoidderiv
atives,stearyl-p-cou
marate
[octadecanyl3-(4-hydroxyph
enyl)prop-2-enoate],
stearylferulate[octadecanyl
3-(4-hydroxy-3-m
etho
xyph
enyl)prop-2-enoate]
andpsoralen.
[206
,282,290–
292]
Myrtaceae
EugeniaellipticaSm
.Syzygiu
msm
ithii(Poir.)
Nied.
Lilly
Pilly
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catech
[293,294]
E.fascicu
lataWall.
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catech.
procyanidinB2
dimer
and(-)-epicatechin
[293]
E.orbiculata
Lam.
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catech.
quercetin
-3-O
-rutinoside(rutin
),
[293,295]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
E.pollicin
aJ.G
ueho
&A.J.Scott
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catech.
(-)-epicatechingallate
[293,296]
Monim
iastrum
acutise
palum
J.Gueho
&A.J.Scott.
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin).
(+)-catechin
[293–295]
M.globosum
J.Gueho
&A.J.Scott
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Mod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
the
antio
xidant
enzymeg
enes.
Quercetin-3-O
-galactosid
e(hyperosid
e),
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin),and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin).
(-)-epicatechingallate
[293]
Syzygiu
marom
aticu
m(L.)
Merr.&L.M.Perry
Cloveb
udDrie
dflo
wers
Buds
Madagascar
Sudan
Antioxidant
andantim
icrobialactiv
ities.
Usedto
treattoothache
andthroat
inflammation.
Eugeno
lMethyleugenol
[23,297,298]
S.coria
ceum
J.Bosser&
J.Guého
Boisde
pomme
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:
Quercetin-3-O
-rutinoside,
kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catechin,procyanidin
B1dimer,
(-)-epicatechingallate
[293]
S.glo
meratum
DC.
Boisde
pomme
Leaves
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Usedto
treatbo
ils,abscesses,fever
and
woun
dsandas
expectorant.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astr
agalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(isoq
uercitrin),procyanidinB1
dimer,
(-)-epicatechingallate,chlorogenicacid,
(-)-epicatechin
[293]
S.guehoii
Not
signalized
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:qu
ercetin
-3-O
-rutinoside
(rutin),kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catechin,chlorogenicacid,procyanidin
B2dimer
[293]
S.mau
ritianu
mJ.G
ueho
&A.J.Scott
Not
signalized
Leaves
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:qu
ercetin
-3-O
-rutinoside
(rutin),kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catechin,chlorogenicacid
[293]
S.petrinense
J.Bosser&
J.Guého
Not
signalized
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:qu
ercetin
-3-O
-rutinoside
(rutin),kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
procyanidinB1
dimer,chlorogenicacid
[293]
-
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
S.venosum
(Lam
.)J.G
ueho
&A.J.Scott
Not
signalized
Mauritius
Abilitie
stomod
ulatethe
expressio
nof
thea
ntioxidant
enzymeg
enes.
Phenolsa
ndflavono
ids:qu
ercetin
-3-O
-rutinoside
(rutin),kaem
pferol-3-glucosid
e(astragalin)and
quercetin
-3-O
-glucosid
e(iso
quercitrin),
(+)-catechin,procyanidin
B2dimer
[293,295,299]
Oleaceae
Olea
europaea
subspafric
ana(M
ill.)P
.S.
Green
African
wild
olive
Leaves
SouthAfrica
Potent
antio
xidant
activ
ity.
Usedas
eyelotions
andtonics,low
erbloo
dpressure,improvek
idneyfunctio
nanddealwith
sore
throats.Th
eearlyCape
settlersu
sedthefruits
totre
atdiarrhoea
Oleuafricein(m
ixture
ofoleano
licacid
and
ursolic
acids),Triterpeno
idsa
ndoleoropein.
[84,300,301]
Peda
liaceae
Harpagophytum
procum
bens
DC.
exMeissner
Devil’s
claw
Root
SouthAfrica
Nativetothe
KalahariDesert
ofsouthern
Africa,Nam
ibia
and
Botsw
ana.
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndability
toinhibit
thee
xpressionof
cycloo
xygenase-2
and
indu
ciblen
itricoxideb
ysupp
ressionof
NF-kapp
aBactiv
ation.
Usedforp
ain,
musculartensio
n,osteoarthritis,degenerativ
erheum
atism
orpainfularthrosisandtend
onitisa
swell
astonicfor
lossof
appetitea
nddyspeptic
complaints.
Rootsc
ontain
irido
idglycosides
mainly
harpagoside.
Other
constituentsa
reflavonesa
ndflavono
lskaem
pferol,and
luteolin.
[302–312]
Pipe
raceae
Piperg
uineense
Schu
m.&
Thon
n.
WestA
frican
blackpepp
erBu
shpepp
erIkom
,Amana
kakw
aleiyeyeh
asho
esie
taqu
aleM
esho
ro
Fruit,seed
andleaf
Ghana,W
est
Africa
Nigeria
Cam
eroo
n
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Volatileo
ilcompo
nents-mon
oterpenes,
sesquiterpenes,terpeno
ids,lignans
andste
rols.
[313–316]
Podo
carpaceae
Podo
carpus
species
Podocarpus
elongates
Podocarpus
falca
tus,
Podocarpus
henkelii
andPodocarpus
latifolius
Leaves
and
youn
gste
ms
Easte
rnand
Southern
Africa
Theses
pecies
areu
sedto
treatfevers,
asthma,coug
hs,cho
lera,chest
complaints,arthritis,
rheumatism
,painful
jointsandvenerealdiseases
Diterpenoids,bioflavono
idsa
ndTo
tarol
[317]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Ranu
nculaceae
Nigella
sativaL.
Blackcumin
Seed
African
coun
triesinthe
Mediterranean
region
Antioxidant
potentialsthroug
hscavenging
ability
ofdifferent
free
radicalsinclu
ding
thes
uperoxidea
nion
radical,inhibitio
nof
lipid
peroxidatio
n,andprotectio
nof
liver
againstcarbo
ntetrachloride(CCl4)-in
ducedliver
fibrosis
inrabb
itsUsedto
treatdiarrhoea,asthma,andas
gastr
oprotectivea
gent.
Oil:Th
ymoq
uino
ne[29–
31,318,319]
Rosaceae
Crataegusm
onogyna
Jacq.
Haw
thorn,
May
Blossom,M
ayDay
Flow
er,
WhiteTh
orn.
Fresh
vegetativ
eand
reprod
uctiv
eorgans
Mauritius,
NorthernAfrica
Antioxidant
activ
ities.
Usedforitsneuro-
andcardiosedativ
eactio
ns.
Polyph
enols:(proanthocyanidin,
flavono
id,
anthocyanin,
(-)-epicatechin,procyanidinB2
,chlorogenica
cid).
Flavon
oids:quercetin
andqu
ercetrin,glycosid
es,
proantho
cyanidins,anthocyn
aidins,sapon
ins,
tann
ins,andcratetegin
Also
,Vitamin
C.
[320–323]
Leucosidea
seric
eaLeaf,bark
androots
Southern
AfricaAntim
icrobialandanti-inflammatory
prop
ertie
sPh
enolics,alkaloidsa
ndsapo
nins
[210]
Pygeum
afric
anum
Hoo
k.f.
African
plum
tree
RedStinkw
ood
Bark
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatory.
Usedto
treatagainstb
enignprostatic
hyperplasia
,prosta
titis
14%triterpenes(urolic
acids,oleano
licacid,
crataegolic
acid),0.5%
n-do
cosano
lPh
ytosterol(𝛽-sito
sterol,𝛽-sito
sterone,
Cam
peste
rol
[188,324–327]
Rubiaceae
Crossopteryx
febrifuga
Benth.
RogerB
lench
“rim
ajogoo-hi/je
”
Seeds
Leafand
roots
Mali
Nigeria
Radicalscaveng
ingandlip
oxygenase
inhibitio
nactiv
ities.
Usedto
treatfevera
ndvario
usrespira
tory
diseases
Flavon
oids
[328–330]
Rutaceae
Agathosm
abetulin
a(Berg.)P
illans.
Roun
d-leaf
buchu
Leaves,
stems
SouthAfrica
Hydroxylradicalionscavenging
ability.
Usedforstomachprob
lems,kidn
eyand
urinarytrackdiseases.
Essentialoils
andflavono
ids
[188,331,332]
A.crenulata(L.)
Pillans
Oval-leaf
buchu
Leaves,
stems
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity.
Usedto
treatbenign
prostatic
hyperplasia
,prosta
titis,
diabetes,
inflammationof
thec
olon
,gum
s,and
mucou
smem
branes.L
eavesc
hewe
dto
relieve
stomachcomplaints.
Essentialoils
andflavono
ids
[84,188,331,332]
-
20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
andplan
tnam
eVe
rnacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/ore
xperim
ental
valid
ation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Fagara
zanthoxyloides
Lam.
xeti,
xeWô
Roots,
root-bark
Cam
eroo
n,Ugand
a
Antioxidant
activ
ity.
Usedto
treatging
ivitis,toothache,
urinaryandvenerealdiseases,
rheumatism
andlumbago,m
alariaand
otherinfectio
ns.
Phenylethano
idderiv
ative,lignans
andfagaronine
[333–336]
Sapind
aceae
Dodonaeaviscosa
Jacq.
Syno
nyms:Dodonaea
angustifolia
L.f.;
Ptele
aviscosaL.
Umusasa
Leaves
Rwanda
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity
byinhibitin
gthes
ynthesisof
prostaglandin(PG)E
(2).
Usedto
treatrheumatism
,skininfections,
diarrhea,stomachaches,pains
ofhepatic
andsplenico
rigin,uterin
ecolic.Itisa
lsoused
asan
antip
ruriticin
skin
rashes
and
forthe
treatmento
fsom
ethroat,
derm
atitisa
ndhemorrhoids.
Quercetin,isorham
netin
[337–341]
Xan
thorrhoeaceae
Aloe
feroxMill.
Bitte
raloeo
rCapea
loe
Leaves
SouthAfrica,
Lesotho
A.fer
oxgelcon
tainsa
tleast130medicinal
agentswith
anti-inflammatory,analgesic
,calm
ing,antiseptic
,antivira
l,antip
arasitic
andantic
ancere
ffects
Chromon
es,anthraquino
nes,anthrone,
anthrone-C
-glycosid
es,and
otherp
heno
liccompo
unds
Barbaloin
[9]
Zing
iberaceae
Siphonochilusa
ethiopicu
s(Schwe
inf.)
B.L.Bu
rtt.
Wild
ginger
Natalginger
African
Ginger
Rhizom
eSouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity
throug
hcycloo
xygenase
inhibitory
(prosta
glandin-synthetase
inhibitio
n),
activ
ity.
Usedto
treatCou
ghs,colds,asthma.
Sesquiterpenoid
[188,264,342]
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21
Free radicalformation
Oxidativestress
Cellular andtissue damage
Delayedhealing
Free radicalscavenging Repair
Antioxidants
Signallingmessengers
Upregulation ofantioxidant compounds
and enzymes
Figure 2: Mechanism of antioxidant action in wounds.
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and other free radicals [348, 349].
Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests a relationshipbetween metal overload and several chronic diseases throughthe induction of oxidative stress [350]. Therefore, inhibitionof free radical formation using metal ions as targets could beuseful therapeutically. Antioxidant assays designed for thispurpose include the cupric and ferric reducing antioxidantpower (CUPRAC/FRAP).Thesemethods measure the abilityof antioxidants to reduce cupric (Cu2+) and ferric (Fe3+) ions,respectively.
Another mechanism bywhich antioxidants act is throughthe suppression of oxidative stress by directly scaveng-ing active free radicals. Most commonly reported antioxi-dant assays such as 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-p-picrylhydrazyl radi-cal (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC),Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), total oxyrad-ical scavenging capacity (TOSC), and total radical antioxi-dant parameter (TRAP) are focused on testing the ability toscavenge free radicals. Furthermore, there are diverse cellularantioxidant assays that assess the ability of antioxidant com-pounds and substances to protect cells against excessive freeradical generation. Such assays involve the use of a fluorescentcompound such as 2,7-dichlorofluoroscein to determine theability of test samples to quench intracellularly generated freeradicals and inhibit radical formation and lipid peroxidation[345].
There are also numerous reports of the ability of antioxi-dants to repair damaged tissues and improve healing. Topicalapplication of kojic acid and deferiprone, two compoundswith the ability to scavenge free radicals, enhanced healing ofwounds in rats [351]. Also, the mitochondria-targeted antiox-idant, 10-(6-plastoquinonyl) decyltriphenylphosphonium,
acceleratedwound closure, stimulated epithelialization, gran-ulation tissue formation, and vascularization, and loweredlipid peroxidation in mice [352]. Moreover, an antioxidantpeptide (cathelicidin-OA1) promoted wound healing in amouse model with full-thickness skin wounds, acceler-ated reepithelialization and granulation tissue formation byenhancing the recruitment of macrophages to the woundsite, and induced cell proliferation and migration [353].Some antioxidants have also been reported to contribute tohealing by enhancing the activity of endogenous antioxidantcompounds and enzymes.The induction of the nuclear factorE2-related factor 2-(Nrf2)mediated antioxidative pathway bya rhomboid family protein (RHBDF2) promoted healing ofinjured tissues, suggesting a relationship between antioxidantgene induction and healing [354]. Niconyl-peptide enhancedwound healing and protected against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death by increasing the expression of Nrf2expression in human keratinocytes [355].
The most common tests used to determine the antiox-idant activity of samples included the assessment of theability to scavenge free radicals such as DPPH, ABTS+ [16,19, 35, 62, 85, 94, 98, 99, 139, 158, 175, 184, 187, 266, 282,302, 356–364], or the hydroxyl radicals [79, 188, 267, 365,366], as well as the hydroperoxyl radicals by the Briggs-Rauscher reaction [104]. The ability of the extracts to chelatemetal ions was also determined as further indication oftheir ability to contribute in the reduction of free radicalssuch as the hydroxyl radical [114]. In addition, assessmentof the ability of these medicinal plant extracts to protectagainst lipid peroxidation was also included, which in turnwas measured by the malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid(MDA) test [320, 367], the modified thiobarbituric acidreactive species (TBARS) assay [18, 22], or conjugated diene
-
22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
formation [367]. Moreover, lipid peroxidation was assessedusing the fluorescent probe, diphenyl-1-pyrenylphosphine(DPPP) [188], or using the inhibition of Cu(2+)-mediatedoxidation of human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) [187, 367].The ability of extracts to protect against damage toDNAusingthe Comet assay was also employed [114, 188].
The antioxidant capacity of the medicinal plant extractswas determined using either the TEAC or FRAP assays [11,85, 302, 313, 321, 368]. The ability of extracts to modulatethe gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes, such asCu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD),Mn-superoxidedismutase (Mn-SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase(GPx), was also used as a measure of their antioxidantproperties [293]. The photochemilumiescence (PLC) assay isa more recent antioxidant capacity assessment method andwas employed for the evaluation of antioxidant capacity ofbaobab fruit pulp extracts [369].
Anti-inflammatory properties of these extracts wereassessed by their ability to inhibit 5-lipoxygenases [94, 370,371] or cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) activities [65,275, 317, 372, 373]. Using the former [374] and the latter[264, 331] methodologies, respectively, a great number ofSouth African medicinal plant extracts were screened fortheir anti-inflammatory properties. The effect of medicinalextracts on the biosynthesis of different prostaglandins wasassessed as a measure of their anti-inflammatory effect[239, 337, 375]. Extracts of Podocarpus species were shownto inhibit the activities of the COX enzymes [317]. Onceagain, using this test, the anti-inflammatory properties ofthe aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 39 plants used intraditional Zulu medicine were screened [376].TheHen’s EggTest-Chorioallantoic Membrane (HET-CAM) assay whichutilizes the CAM’s capillary system in bred hen eggs wasalso used to assess the anti-inflammatory activity throughantiangiogenic effects of the ethanol and aqueous extracts ofDrosera rotundifolia and D. madagascariensis [155].
The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities of theherbal extracts were further assessed by evaluating their abil-ity to control the production of ROS produced by oxidativeburst in neutrophils stimulated with L-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) [21, 246]. The inhibitionof neutrophils elastase was used as a measure of anti-inflammatory property and it was proposed that the presenceof flavonoids such as hyperoside, quercetin, and isoquercitrinin D. rotundifolia [377] and five flavonoid compounds intwo Polypodium species (P. decumanum and P. triseriale)[378] were thought to contribute to this anti-inflammatoryactivity. These and other in vitro tests were used to assess theantioxidant properties of three Ghanaian species: Spathodeacampanulata, Commelina diffusa, and Secamone afzelii [63].
Inflammation is a complex mechanism with many path-ways. Several extracts derived from medicinal plants havebeen shown to modulate or inhibit the activities of mediatorsof inflammation. For instance, kolaviron, a bioflavonoidcompound isolated from the seeds of Garcinia kola, hasbeen reported to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidantactivities via its effects on COX-2 and inducible nitric oxidesynthase (iNOS) by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factorkappa B (NF-𝜅B) [115]. Quercetin is a flavonoid molecule
ubiquitous in nature and functions as an antioxidant andanti-inflammatory agent. Dose- and time-dependent effectsof quercetin have been investigated on proinflammatorycytokine expression and iNOS, focusing on its effects onNF-𝜅B signal transduction pathways in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by using real time polymerasechain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblotting. Curcumin, ayellow pigment of turmeric, has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Curcumin has been found effectivein the treatment or control of chronic inflammatory condi-tions such as rheumatism, atherosclerosis, type II diabetes,and cancer [203]. Calixto et al. reported that the anti-inflammatory action of active spice-derived componentsresults from the disruption of the production of variousinflammatory proteins (e.g., cytokines such as tumour necro-sis factor-alpha (TNF-𝛼), iNOS, and COX-2) [379].
Animal studies were also conducted to assess theantioxidant properties of several medicinal extracts. Theantioxidant potential of Hypericum perforatum, containingmany polyphenolic compounds, was evaluated on splanch-nic artery occlusion (SAO) shock-mediated injury [477]and also against elevated brain oxidative status induced byamnestic dose of scopolamine in rats [126]. Some medic-inal plant extracts were tested for their ability to protectagainst carbon tetrachloride-, 2-acetylaminofluorene- (2-AAF-), and galactosamine-induced liver as well as aflatoxinB1-(AFB1-)induced genotoxicity. Using this test, it was foundthat an extract of Garcinia kola seeds [116, 478, 479], adecoction of Trichilia roka root [270], extracts of Entadaafricana [442], and Thonningia sanguinea [98, 480] pos-sessed protective abilities. The antioxidant properties ofplant extracts against potassium bromate (KBrO(3))-inducedkidney damage showed the ability of G. kola seed extract toprotect the kidneys [481].
Animal studies were also used to assess the anti-inflammatory ability of a great number of medicinal plantextracts using the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedemamodel. Plants investigated include seed extracts of Picral-ima nitida [399], crude methanol extract of the root ofMoringa oleifera [469], powdered leaves and root ofMallotusoppositifolium [167], methanolic extract of Picralima nitidafruit [400], hot water extract of Alstonia boonei root-bark,Rauvolfia vomitoria root-bark, andElaeis guineensisnuts [56],secondary root aqueous extract of Harpagophytum procum-bens [303], crude extracts of Sphenocentrum jollyanum [272],aqueous and methanolic extracts of Hypoxis hemerocallideacorm [482], aqueous and methanolic extracts of Sclerocaryabirrea stem-bark [483], aqueous extract of Mangifera indicastem-bark [13], aqueous extracts of Leonotis leonurus leaves[484], leaf extracts of Bryophyllum pinnatum [148], methanolextracts of the stem-bark of Alstonia boonei [485], aerialparts of Amaranthus caudatus [486], methanolic extractsof Kigelia pinnata flower [415], and leaf and twig extractsof Dorstenia barteri [276]. In all of these studies, the anti-inflammatory effect against carrageenan-induced rat pawoedema was attributed to flavonoids and other polyphenoliccompounds. Animal tests also employed to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of the medicinal plant extracts includedinflammatory cell response such as neutrophil chemotaxis
-
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23
Table2:Medicinalplantswith
confi
rmed
antio
xidant
activ
ityor
medicinalplantsthatcontaincompo
unds
thataren
otkn
ownto
have
antio
xidant
activ
ity.
Family
andplan
tna
me
Vernacular
name
Plan
tpart
Cou
ntry
/area
Med
icinalusea
nd/or
expe
rimentalvalidation
Com
poun
dsisolated
Reference
Acantha
ceae
Barle
riaspecies
B.alboste
llata,
B.greenii,
B.prionitis
Leaves,
twigsa
ndroots
SouthAfrica
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ndantio
xidant
activ
ities
Not
identifi
ed[212,213]
Hypoeste
srosea
Decne.
Not
signalized
Leaf
extract
Nigeria
Anti-infl
ammatorya
ctivity
duein
partto
itsability
toinhibit
NF-kapp
aBactiv
ationthroug
hdirectinhibitio
nof
IkappaBkinase
(IKK
).
Diterpene:Hypoesto
xide
(abicyclo[9,3,1]
pentadecane)
[380,381]
Aizoa
ceae
Glinus
lotoidesL.
“Mettere”
Hairy
carpet-w
eed
Seeds
Cam
eroo
nEthiop
ia,
Sudan,
Ugand
a,Eg
ypt.
Usedto
treatcardiovascular
and
gastr
ointestin
alsyste
m.
Threefl
avon
oids:apigenin-7-O-glucosid
e,iso
vitexin,andluteolin-7-O
-glucosid
eTh
reeisoflavono
ids:
5,7,2,4-te
trahydroxy-6-(3,3-
dimethylallyl)isoflavone,
5,7,4-tr
ihydroxy
-6,3-di-(3,3-dimethylallyl)isoflavone,and
5,7,2,4-te
trahydroxy-6,3-di-(3,3-dimethy