aer/ags special report 112: chapter 25: 3d …chapter 25: 3d geoscience for the uk and beyond katie...

Chapter 25: 3D Geoscience for the UK and Beyond

Katie Whitbread1, Holger Kessler

2, Tim Kearsey

1, and Ricky Terrington

2

1British Geological Survey, The Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh, EH14 4AP, UK

2British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Nicker Hill, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK

Whitbread, K., Kessler, H., Kearsey, T., and Terrington, R. 2019. 3D geoscience for the UK and beyond; Chapter 25 in 2019 Synopsis ofCurrent Three-Dimensional Geological Mapping and Modelling in Geological Survey Organizations, K.E. MacCormack, R.C. Berg,H. Kessler, H.A.J. Russell, and L.H. Thorleifson (ed.), Alberta Energy Regulator / Alberta Geological Survey, AER/AGS Special Re-port 112, p. 266–277.

Introduction

With over 20 years of development in3D capability, geological modelling isnow becoming the primary tool forgeoscience investigation by the Brit-ish Geological Survey (BGS). 3Dmodelling underpins a broad range ofresearch activities, and geologicalmodels are being developed at allscales from sites, to cities, to the UKlandmass and continental shelf usinga range of different software tools andmethodological approaches.

3D modelling is advancing our under-standing of geological systems by al-lowing us to integrate more diversedata sources, attribute a range of dif-ferent properties, and assess the limi-tations of our data and knowledge.Recent advances in volumetric andgeostatistical modelling are also en-abling new integrated process model-ling and supporting pioneeringsubsurface environmental monitoringinitiatives.

The increasing availability of 3Dmodels is transforming the way inwhich we view the subsurface andcreating new opportunities for deliv-ering knowledge to our stakeholders—through development of new re-sources and services, by enabling newapproaches to knowledge exchangeand engagement, and by supportingour many international partnerships.

This paper presents an overview ofrecent geological modelling withinthe BGS, and highlights critical issuesarising from the growing influence ofmodelling across a range of BGS ac-

tivities. The rise of modelling is pro-viding many opportunities, but alsobrings a range of challenges for man-aging data, keeping pace with therapid rate of technological change,maintaining geoscience skills, and de-veloping new delivery methods. Mak-ing the most of the opportunities thatmodelling provides is therefore notjust the role of the geological model-ler, it also requires the wider evolu-tion of geological survey functions.

Organizational Structureand Business Model

The BGS is the UK’s public sector re-search institute tasked with the devel-opment, curation, and communicationof geological data, information, andknowledge. Alongside the provisionof up-to-date understanding of UKgeology for government, industry, andwider UK society, the BGS under-takes geoscience research to addresssocietal challenges in decarbonisa-tion, environmental adaptation, andEarth hazard mitigation both in theUK and globally through internationalresearch partnerships (British Geolog-ical Survey, 2019).

The BGS is operated under the newlyformed body UK Research and Inno-vation (UKRI), which supports theUK’s research councils and researchinstitutes and provides independentadministration of UK research fund-ing. The BGS is overseen by an inde-pendent Board on behalf of UKRIand the National Environment Re-search Council (NERC).

The BGS operates a mixed fundingmodel, with an annual turnover of ap-proximately £50 Million, of whichjust over 50% is from NERC throughour national capability allocation andcompetitively won NERC research in-come, and the other half comes fromcommercial contracts, research grants(e.g. Horizon 2020), and datalicencing.

Overview of 3DModelling Activities

Geological modelling is now usedwidely across BGS activities as a keytool for applied geoscience research.

Our modelling capability is under-pinned by the in-house developmentof explicit modelling tools (GSI3Dand Groundhog® Desktop; e.g.Kessler et al., 2009), and the use ofproprietary software such as PetrelE&PTM, DecisionSpace® and SKUA-GOCADTM (e.g. Aldiss et al., 2012;Campbell et al., 2010; Kearsey et al.,2018).

The BGS-developed GroundhogDesktop GSIS (desktop geoscientificinformation system) is a graphicalsoftware tool designed for the displayof geological and geospatial informa-tion, and the construction of cross-sections through stratigraphic correla-tions. The software facilitates the col-lation, display, filtering, and editingof a range of data including boreholedata, geological map linework, inter-preted cross sections and faults, aswell as elevation models and images(including seismic sections).

AER/AGS Special Report 112 • 266

Groundhog Desktop is being devel-oped to succeed the earlier GSI3Dplatform.

Over the past 15 years, geologicalmodels including fence diagrams ofintersecting cross-sections, surfaceand volumetric models have been de-veloped for many different parts ofthe UK. Many of the models pro-duced by the BGS are held in the na-tional GeoModel Store, a repositorycontaining c. 160 models, some ofwhich are available for licencing byexternal users. These models havebeen produced through centrallyfunded ‘national-capability’geoscience programmes, and were de-veloped as part of commercial con-tract work.

The models developed by the BGScover different geological settings inthe UK and overseas at scales rangingfrom development sites, transport cor-ridors and urban regions, to sedimen-tary basins and national coverage.Whilst many models are developedand designed for application to indus-try, strategic planning and regulation,targeted geological modelling is alsoundertaken by the BGS to advancegeoscience research in areas as di-verse as geological processes andstructures (e.g., Newell et al., 2018),aquifer systems (e.g., Jackson et al.,2011), and coastal evolution model-ling (e.g., Payo et al., 2018). Geologi-cal models are also being developedto underpin the new UKGEOS re-search platform for subsurface envi-ronmental monitoring, in which theintegration of real-time telemetry datafrom new subsurface sensor systemswill transition 3D models to 4D.

The National Geological Model pro-ject has recently been repositioned asthe focus of the BGS’s nationalgeoscience programme and will aimto develop surface and volumetricgeological models for the UK’s deepand shallow subsurface. These mod-els will provide a new generation ofgeological resources for the UK andsupport process and scenario model-

ling for environmental and energy re-source applications. A current projectbenefiting from early developments involumetric modelling for the UK isthe Hydro-JULES project, a multi-disciplinary collaboration to developthe UK ‘water model’ through inte-gration of climate, hydrological, andhydrogeological process models (Hy-dro-JULES, 2018).

Resources Allocated to3D Modelling Activities

The diversity and ubiquity of geologi-cal modelling within the BGS’s re-search and commercial activities pre-cludes detailed assessment of theresources and staff allocated to 3Dmodelling tasks. The BGS operates aproject-based system where staffwork on research activities across anumber of programmes, thus somedegree of 3D geological modellingcapability is increasingly being re-quired of all geoscience staff withinthe BGS. The development of model-ling skills is being encouragedthrough active training programmesand collaboration between geologistsand advanced geological modellers,in addition to targeted recruitment ofgeological modellers, data scientists,and statisticians. Cross-disciplinaryprojects are also stimulating innova-tion in our 3D geological modellingcommunity by linking geophysicists,geologists, petrophysicists, fluid mod-ellers, and data scientists.

The National Geological Model pro-ject (NGM) coordinates the UK’s na-tional geological modelling pro-gramme. The development of thecurrent UK3D national fence diagramunder the NGM (cf. Mathers et al.,2014), was supported financially bynational capability funding coveringthe equivalent of 6 – 7 full time staffwith additional commercial income.This funding supported work by ateam of c. 10 – 15 regional geologistsworking part time on the project.Since the completion of the UK3Dmodel in 2016, the national capabilityfunding for the NGM programme has

decreased to the equivalent of 2 –4 full time staff per year. The newNGM programme commencing in2019 will be predominantly supportedas a core national capability task withprojected funding equating to c. 3 – 4full time roles.

Geological modelling will also be akey component of new ‘RegionalCorridor’ projects, designed to deliverapplied geoscience for key socio-eco-nomic investment areas in northeast-ern England and to enhance ground-water management of the chalkaquifer in the London area.

Overview of RegionalGeological Setting

Located to the northwest of continen-tal Europe, the UK now lies on thestable passive margin of the North At-lantic Ocean. However, it preserves acomplex geological collage includingrocks and sediments that range in agefrom the Archean to the present, andreflect repeated Wilson cycles and alarge range of palaeoclimatic andpalaeogeographic regimes. There arestrong regional contrasts in landscapeand geological environment, with Me-sozoic and Cenozoic rocks generallyexposed at the surface in the southand east of Britain while Precambrianand Palaeozoic rocks are more widelyexposed in the north and west (Fig-ure 1). In northern and western Brit-ain and in Ireland multiple cycles ofice sheet development and decay dur-ing the Quaternary period conditionedthe current landscape through glacialerosion of uplands and the depositionof heterogeneous glacial and glacio-marine deposits of variable thicknessboth onshore, and across the UK’scontinental shelf.

Key areas for geological model devel-opment include the Carboniferousbasins of northern and eastern Britain(including the continental shelf), andthe broader Mesozoic basins of south-eastern Britain and the North Sea.The former are characterised by com-plex sedimentary fill comprising cy-


clic sequences of sandstone andmudstone with variable quantities oflimestone, coal and oil shale, and areeconomically important for energyand mineral resources. The latter aresignificant for the extent and qualityof major aquifers including theSherwood Sandstone (Triassic) andChalk (Cretaceous) that providegroundwater reserves for highly pop-ulated areas of southern Britain.Methods for basin modelling, includ-ing characterisation of normal and re-verse faults, stratigraphic surfaces andvolumes using both explicit and im-plicit methods have been appliedwidely in these areas at local, re-gional, and basin scales.

Demands for geological modelling inthe upland terrains of southwesternEngland, central and north Wales,northern England, and Scotland aremore limited because of their lowpopulation and relatively limited re-source potential. However, future ap-plications of geological modelling inthese areas, including the develop-ment of national coverage models,must accommodate complex struc-tural elements including folding andthrusting, and the diverse igneous in-trusions that form key features ofthese terrains.

The shallow subsurface environment(0 – 200 m depth) includes the bed-rock erosion surface, a weatheringzone, and overlying glacial and post-glacial sediment deposits. This zoneis of particular interest in the develop-ment of geological models for urbanareas, transport corridors, and catch-ments (groundwater and surface hy-drology). The properties of materialswithin this zone are typically highlyheterogeneous as a result of Cenozoic

(particularly Quaternary) environmen-tal processes and the impact of recentanthropogenic activities associatedwith industrial and urban develop-ment. Methods used for modelling theshallow subsurface include the devel-opment of explicit fence diagram, sur-face (and shell) models, and stochas-tic modelling where sufficient data isavailable.

The diversity of geologicalenvironments within the UK highlightthe importance of a robust scientificunderstanding as an essential basis forgeological modelling. Sound geologi-cal knowledge and reasoning are criti-cal for the selection of appropriatemethodologies, defining model speci-fications (including the stratigraphicframework used), integrating diverseinput data (e.g. assigning the relativeweight of different informationsources), and model evaluation.

Data Sources

A diverse range of data sources areavailable for UK geological model-ling, including geological maps, on-shore and offshore seismic data, bore-hole and well records, digital terrainmodels, and remote sensing data.Shallow geophysics and airborne geo-physical survey data are also avail-able for parts of the UK (Figure 1).

The BGS’ National Geoscience DataCentre hosts the UK’s national on-shore borehole archive, containingover 3 million scanned records. Theseinclude water wells, hydrocarbon ex-ploration wells, and BGS strati-graphic boreholes, however recordsof geotechnical site investigations do-nated by third-parties comprise thebulk of the dataset. Borehole records

available for modelling are thushighly variable in age and quality, andare typically focused in urban areasand along transport corridors (Fig-ure 1). Digitisation of legacy boreholerecords is undertaken largely on an ad

hoc basis through BGS research ac-tivities, although some systematicprogrammes for targeted boreholecoding have been undertaken. TheBGS currently holds digitised recordsfor over a million onshore boreholes.Many of these are open access re-cords, and increasing numbers of re-stricted-access legacy records are be-ing made open access as time-limitedconfidentiality clauses expire.

Seismic data (2D and 3D) and deepwell data, including downhole geo-physical logs, are available for theUK landmass and continental shelffrom the UK’s Oil and Gas Authority(the OGA). Offshore data in particu-lar are typically high quality, but havehistorically been subject to commer-cial restrictions on usage. However,released offshore well and seismicdata is increasingly being madeopenly available via the OGA’s OpenData Portal. Onshore seismic data anddeep wells are available for many ofthe UK’s major Carboniferous andPermo-Triassic basins, although thedistribution and quality is highly vari-able. Data coverage within pre-Car-boniferous terrains in Scotland,Wales, and southwestern England islimited (Figure 1).

Detailed mine plan data from histori-cal coal extraction, is available for re-gions in Central Scotland, northernEngland, and South Wales. Mineplans provide valuable sources ofstructural data, but are time-consum-ing and costly to digitise. Long-term


Figure 1. Overview maps of the UK: A) Geology of the UK landmass and continental shelf derived from the BGS onshore1:625,000 bedrock geology map and 1:250,000 marine bedrock geology map; B) UK gridded population density for areasclassed as urban and suburban (Reis et al., 2017; contains National Statistics data © Crown copyright and database rights)and major transport corridors; C) The distribution of BGS-held onshore digital borehole records and publically released off-shore wells supplied by the UK Oil and Gas Authority (Open Data), overlain by the distribution of geological models currentlyheld by BGS; D) The distribution of released geophysical datasets for the UK landmass and continental shelf, includes UKOil and Gas Authority Open Data. The UK coastline is shown by the blue outline in all images. Contains Ordnance SurveyData © Crown copyright and database rights 2018. Ordnance Survey Licence No. 100021290. Created using ArcGIS ©ESRI. All rights reserved.

investment by the BGS in mine plandigitisation in Central Scotland hasyielded a key dataset for geologicalmodelling in this region, which ishelping to support new research intogeothermal potential from mine-wa-ters (Monaghan et al., 2017).

A range of Digital Terrain Models(DTMs) derived from LIDAR, radar,and photogrammetry are available forthe UK at resolutions of 1 – 5 m (e.g.,NextMap and Bluesky). Remote sens-ing data are also available at a rangeof scales for most of the UK, al-though their use may be limited bycloud cover and vegetation/urban ef-fects. Increasingly, these datasets areenhancing our capability in modellingof near-surface geological systemsthrough the use of geomorphometricand data analytical techniques. Simi-larly, bathymetric data such asDigBath and GEBCO, together withoffshore seismic data are enablingmodelling of the near-surface geologyoffshore with relevance to windfarmdevelopment and large-scale model-ling/mapping of the UK’s continentalshelf (e.g., rock at sea bed).

The capture of shallow geophysicaldata using shallow and passive seis-mic, electrical resistivity tomography,and ground penetrating radar is agrowing focus for new data collec-tion. Although limited in coverage,these data are increasingly being inte-grated into modelling workflows asconstraining datasets for targeted lo-cal models, and will be used as testdatasets for validation of regional andnational-scale models.

High-resolution airborne geophysicaldata is also available for parts of theUK. The value of these data for ad-vancing geological understanding andgenerating new opportunities for min-eral exploration is highlighted by theTELLUS project in Northern Ireland(Young and Donald, 2013; Figure 1),where geological maps and models,including the UK3D fence diagram,are being updated through interpreta-tion of new high-resolution airborne

gravity and magnetic datasets (e.g.,Leslie et al., 2013).

3D Modelling Approach

The complex geology of the UK pro-vides both opportunities and chal-lenges for the development and appli-cation of geological models. A rangeof different approaches are employedwithin BGS geological modelling ac-tivities, with methods selected accord-ing to the research need, availabledata sources, and geological context.In some cases different modellingmethods are combined within inte-grated workflows.

The in-house GSI3D and GroundhogDesktop software tools are based onan explicit modelling methodology,using fence-diagrams constructed bygeologists to constrain the 3D struc-tures of the subsurface and interpola-tion algorithms to project surfaces(e.g., Kessler et al., 2009). The fence-diagram approach is most effectivefor the shallow subsurface whereborehole data and digital mappingcomprise the main data sources. It isalso valuable for regions where datais sparse or the distribution is highlyvariable. However, the ability of thesetools to calculate faulted structures islimited.

Explicit modelling of faulted bedrock(surfaces and structures) in morecomplex onshore structural terranes istypically undertaken using GOCAD,which allows integration of data froma range of sources including borehole,mine plan, seismic data, and digitalmap information (e.g., Gillespie et al.,2013; Kearsey et al., 2018;Monaghan, 2014). Explicit modellingapproaches using either GSI3D/Groundhog Desktop or GOCAD, orindeed both, are also commonly em-ployed by the BGS in commercialprojects due to well-defined explicitmodelling workflows. Geologicalmodelling for ‘deep’ geology utilisingseismic data in both onshore and off-shore areas is undertaken using theindustry standard software King-

domTM and Petrel, with previous us-age of DecisionSpace, GeoGraphix®and VulcanTM.

Implicit and geostatistical modellingapproaches are also being developedthrough targeted research projects.Geostatistical (stochastic) modellingof the central Glasgow area, usingGOCAD in conjunction with addi-tional geostatistical tools, has beentrialled as an approach for modellingheterogeneous Quaternary deposits inthe shallow surface using a largeborehole dataset (Figure 2; Bianchi etal., 2015; Kearsey et al., 2015; Wil-liams et al., 2018). Implicit modellingusing SKUA-GOCAD has also beenused to develop regional, property-at-tributed models (Newell, 2018; New-ell et al., 2018) and in the construc-tion of a prototype national-scalegridded bedrock model for the UKdesigned for advanced groundwatermodelling applications.

Current trends in geological model-ling innovation within the BGS areseeing increased integration of geo-physical data into 3D geologicalmodelling methods, growing use ofimplicit methodologies, and conver-gence of geostatistics and dataanalytical methods with geologicalmodelling, particularly in the charac-terisation of shallow subsurface sys-tems.

Clients

Bespoke model development for com-mercial clients in the UK and over-seas represents a substantial compo-nent of BGS modelling activities.Primary commercial clients for tar-geted or bespoke modelling in theBGS include the EnvironmentAgency (England), and companies inthe construction and geotechnical sec-tors.

The BGS has developed strong rela-tionships with a range of clients andstakeholders in planning, constructionand infrastructure development, andhas delivered geological models to in-


form development projects. Recentexamples include the award-winningFarringdon Station project (Aldiss etal., 2012), modelling the HS2 rail cor-ridor for Rayleigh Wave Assessment

(e.g., Gunn et al., 2015), and geologi-cal models to inform surface andsubsurface infrastructure developmentin Singapore (Building and Construc-tion Agency; Kearsey et al., 2018)

and the United Arab Emirates (e.g.,Ministry of Energy (Abu Dhabi);Farrant et al., 2018). In the exampleof the Farringdon Station project, un-dertaken for the Dr Sauer Group and


Figure 2. Examples of geological models produced by the BGS: a) Groundwater flow attributed geostatistical model (basedon (b) adapted after Williams et al., 2018); b) Urban geostatistical model of superficial deposits for central Glasgow (adaptedafter Kearsey et al., 2018); c) City-region superficial deposits model of the Glasgow conurbation; d) Catchment-scale super-ficial deposits model of the Clyde catchment; e) Site-scale bedrock model for Farringdon Station, central London; f) Regionalbedrock model for the Glasgow area; g) Basin-scale model showing the base of the Chalk (two-way travel time) in the Wes-sex Basin (southern UK).

CrossRail, geological model develop-ment was iterated in real-time duringthe construction phase of a new un-derground station in the city of Lon-don. Through efficient production ofpertinent geological information anddata flow, and strong partnershipworking between the BGS and theclients, the evolving geological modelinformed decision making during theconstruction process, resulting in re-duced construction cost and ahead-of-schedule project delivery (Aldiss etal., 2012; Gakis et al., 2016).

Geological modelling is also under-taken by the BGS to support the UK’snational and local government, andregulatory organisations. Commis-sioned urban, catchment and aquifermodels developed by the BGS for theEnvironment Agency (England) areused to understand aquifer systems,and inform environmental regulation(e.g., Whitbread et al., 2013). Basinmodels have also been developed bythe BGS as part of a series of shalegas resource assessments commis-sioned by the UK’s Oil and Gas Au-thority (OGA) (e.g., Greenhalgh,2016; Monaghan, 2014).

Geological modelling undertakenthrough the BGS’ national-capabilityRegional Geology programmes, par-ticularly the development of urban-re-gion models, have been important insupporting and stimulating engage-ment with stakeholders through asso-ciated knowledge-exchange fellow-ships and the development of theASK (Accessing Subsurface Knowl-edge) Network. The ASK Network isa knowledge-exchange consortiumlinking the BGS with a range ofgeoscience actors in industry and aca-demia, including water companies,construction and geotechnical firms,environmental regulators, and univer-sities. It enables dialogue over the useand applications of geological modelsand has also helped to promote newdigital data sharing initiatives andstandards for onshore borehole data inthe UK (Bonsor et al., 2013). Origi-nally established in Glasgow, the net-

work has now extended to Wales andNorthern Ireland, and is linked to anumber of knowledge sharing net-works in England. The developmentof the ASK Network has aligned withthe SubUrban COST programme, awider European collaboration focusedon enhancing geoscience data shar-ing, application, and integrationwithin policy and decision making atcity and regional levels (e.g., van derMeulen et al., 2016).

The BGS delivers a range ofpublically-accessible resources andservices from our national-capabilityfunded 3D geological models and se-lected commissioned models. Theseinclude open data access to our na-tional-scale bedrock model UK3D,open-access models, and associateddocumentation designed for use in ed-ucation, and licenced model data forselected regional models (e.g., Lon-don). The BGS geological models at arange of scales are also important insupporting the wider UK researchsector through collaborations such asthe NERC-funded Hydro-JULES pro-ject (Hydro-JULES, 2018), and thedevelopment of the UKGEOS re-search infrastructure for energy sys-tems and applied environmental mon-itoring (e.g., Monaghan et al., 2018).

Recent Jurisdictional-Scale Case StudyShowcasing Applicationof 3D Models

The initial development of the UK’snational-scale fence diagram was un-dertaken by the BGS to provide a co-herent national 3D understanding toinform groundwater management bythe Environment Agency, culminatingin the release of “GB3D” in 2012(Mathers et al., 2014). The GB3Dmodel has been used to assess the dis-tribution of key UK aquifers (Fig-ure 3), and their spatial proximity togeological units that may host poten-tial shale-gas resources (Bloomfieldet al., 2014).

During a second phase of develop-ment, the GB3D model was‘densified’ to increase the number ofsections, and extended to includeNorthern Ireland and offshore areasup to 20 km from the coast, leading tothe release of “UK3D” in 2015. Thismodel upgrade was prompted by aneed for full UK coverage and off-shore extension of the sections to in-form the National Geological Screen-ing process undertaken by RadioactiveWaste Management Limited (RWMLtd.). This screening process repre-sents a major UK research activitycommissioned by the UK Govern-ment to identify potential areas thatmay be geologically suitable for host-ing a geological disposal facility forradioactive waste. The UK3D modelhas formed a key input dataset for thescreening’s analysis of the distribu-tion of rock types of interest and tec-tonic structure (Radioactive WasteManagement Ltd., 2016).

The UK3D model is also available tothe public as an open data resourcevia the BGS website, providing a co-herent overview of the major struc-tural and stratigraphic elements of theUK geological system. To enhancethe delivery of 3D model data fornon-specialist users, a new set of Re-gional Geological Visualisation Mod-els (GV Models), has been developedfrom UK3D. These GV Models, for14 regions of England, Wales andNorthern Ireland, are constructed in a3D pdf format and were released asopen-access resources in January2019. The models are designed to en-courage user interaction with 3D dataand provide essential contextual in-formation for understanding the geo-logical system and interpreting themodel (Whitbread and Ritchie, 2018).The availability of these tools willalso facilitate stakeholder engagementand consultation activities undertakenby the BGS and by external partiessuch as RWM Ltd.


Current Challenges

Advances in modelling capability arecreating a wealth of new opportuni-ties across BGS research, commer-cial, and national capabilityprogrammes. The growth of model-ling, coupled with a move towardsmore diverse property attribution, isincreasing demand for high-qualitydigital data. In the BGS the two mainpathways for increasing digital dataavailability are the digitisation of leg-acy datasets and investment in newdata acquisition.

Current BGS modelling activities de-pend heavily on datasets developedthrough long-term (>20 years) invest-ment in digitisation of analogue dataassets, including borehole records,mine plans, and geophysical interpre-tations (e.g., Kearsey et al., 2018). Inorder to continue to increase modelresolution and reduce uncertainty, ad-vances in data quality and methodsfor integration of diverse data sets arerequired. To enhance the quality ofdata available for modelling, methodsfor using machine learning to selecthigh-quality data, and to recognise

patterns within datasets of differingqualities, are being trialled. For exam-ple, the former approach is being usedin selecting borehole records for de-velopment of a new version of theUK’s Superficial Thickness model(equivalent to depth-to-bedrock).

Developments in “text mining” arenow making a wealth of textual (nar-rative) information available for 2Dinterrogation and semantic analysis.The BGS is engaged with initiativessuch as GeoDeepDive, Geobiodiver-sity Database (GBDB), and Loop inwhich knowledge extraction from un-


Figure 3. The UK3D national fence diagram (v2015) and its applications. UK3Dv2015 has formed a key input dataset forseveral national-scale screening evaluations, including identification of potential sites for geological disposal of radioactivewaste, and assessment of aquifer-shale separation for management of groundwater risk associated with potential energy ex-traction. Contains Ordnance Survey Data © Crown copyright and database rights 2018. Ordnance Survey Licence No.100021290. Created using ArcGIS © ESRI. All rights reserved.

structured resources supports wideracademic research efforts. Harnessingthe potential of knowledge extractionand resource linkages to inform geo-logical interpretation in 3D modellingworkflows and enrich model deliveryis an important short to medium-terminnovation challenge for the BGS.

New data capture is increasinglypredicated on the need to validate andtest geological models. Recent yearshave seen a dramatic increase in theBGS capture of shallow geophysicaldata such as passive seismic, groundpenetrating radar, and tomography,particularly for constraining and vali-dating shallow subsurface models.This is requiring ongoing develop-ment of relevant skills and expertiseamongst BGS geoscientists and mod-ellers.

The use of increasingly rich datasources, not all of them quantitative,brings a range of challenges for un-derstanding the uncertainty of geolog-ical models. Improving the quantifica-tion of uncertainty is widelyrecognised as a key requirement forthe geological modelling community,and is a vibrant area of current re-search. Arguably, the greatest valuefor uncertainty information is in help-ing to direct and prioritise new datacollection. Within the BGS, a signifi-cant impact of improvements in quan-tifying uncertainty would be to stimu-late new programmes of data capturepotentially including mapping, geo-physical surveys, and borehole drill-ing.

Despite much dialogue within the re-search community, the value of quan-titative uncertainty information formany of our stakeholders remains lessclear. Dialogue with clients andmodel users over the value of uncer-tainty metrics, and relevance of thelanguage used to discuss them, isneeded to better understand how wecan effectively communicate the limi-tations of a model’s interpretation asrelevant to the user’s needs.

The number and diversity of geologi-cal models being generated thoughBGS research and commercial activi-ties poses a significant challenge forthe management of geological modelsas a UK resource. Model design is in-fluenced by a number of factors, in-cluding the geological context, the na-ture of the available data, and theintended use. Models must be opti-mised to be of value for research anddecision making, and as such, modelsintended for investigation of, for ex-ample, the behaviour and impact ofpotential energy technologies, radio-active waste disposal, or aquifer sys-tem characterisation, may differ intheir scope, scale, and the stratigraphyor properties that are represented.Thus, in addition to practical implica-tions for data management and main-tenance (i.e., versioning) of models,the question of appropriate contextsfor model reuse is also significant. Asa recent UK government review ofcomputational modelling notes:“Modellers need to be guided by aclear articulation of the model’s anal-ysis, and a model designed for onepurpose may not always be suitablefor another” (Government Office forScience, 2018). Our model manage-ment approaches must evolve to re-flect the dynamic world of modellingat the BGS, establishing robust deci-sion making processes, and ensuringappropriate information capture re-lated to model design, geological con-tent, and limitations.

Lessons Learned

Digital data capture from historic re-cords, although time-intensive andexpensive, has been critical for un-locking the power of modelling tech-nology to transform our understand-ing of the UK’s subsurface. Alongsidelong-term investment in digitisationof analogue records, the BGS has de-veloped a fully digital data manage-ment workflow - from supply to de-livery, including a digital recordsmanagement system, and a new UKdigital data deposit portal.

However, creating our digital data in-frastructure is only part of the story.Ensuring our future modelling capa-bility relies on sustained data supplyfrom industry, including thegeotechnical/construction, energy, andwater sectors. To secure future supplyand encourage digital data flow, theBGS has developed new consortium-based approaches for stakeholder en-gagement (including the ASK net-work), encouraged the pioneering useof contractual agreements to embeddigital data standards within industry(e.g., Whitbread et al., 2016), andworked to develop innovative partner-ships with industry to facilitate digitaldata sharing (e.g., Dig to Share). Thedigital revolution in geoscience doesnot just mean a change to the practiseof geological research – it also re-quires the geological survey to en-courage and facilitate behaviouralchange across industry.

Since the initiation of geologicalmodelling programmes at the BGS,the development of modelling capa-bility has gone hand-in-hand with in-vestment in stakeholder dialogue andknowledge exchange. As well as en-suring that our modelling programmedelivers quality geoscience and valuefor stakeholders, this partnership fo-cus has increased commercial interestin our modelling ‘services’ and en-couraged commissioned work. Thesecommissioned programmes have pro-vided a critical stimulus in the devel-opment of our modelling capability,driving innovation in software design,modelling approaches, property attri-bution, and delivery methods and for-mats. Thus, working closely withstakeholders and engaging in con-structive dialogue has been funda-mental for simulating both demandand innovation in the BGS’s 3Dgeoscience.

Geological models have significantvalue as communication tools, provid-ing 3D visualisations of the structuresand systems of the subsurface, how-ever delivery of 3D-formatgeoscience data to users is not


straightforward. In addition to deliv-ering data grids and Shapefiles, forexample for integration within Build-ing Information Management (BIM)workflows, a range of interactivevisualisation tools for 3D data havebeen developed, including 3D pdfs,interactive viewers and web-based ap-plications, and integration withinGeovisionary software and Minecraft(Figure 4). These methods enablevisualisation of 3D data and havevarying degrees of interactive capa-bility. The development of the 3D pdfhas proved to be a valuable tool forcommunication of 3D geology with awide range of users including the

general public (e.g., Whitbread andRitchie, 2018), as well as educationand industrial sectors. The value ofthe 3D pdf is enhanced by the abilityto integrate important contextual in-formation about the model content,data inputs and limitations, directlywithin the delivery format. Developedthrough collaboration between geolo-gists, geological modellers, and car-tographers, the success of the 3D pdfdelivery format is rooted in the atten-tion paid to communicating the richscientific content, and to the craftingof a user-orientated design.

Next Steps

From 2019, the BGS will be imple-menting a new Science Strategy, pro-viding renewed focus for the UK’s re-gional and national geoscienceprogrammes. Our national programmewill focus on the development of anew generation of volumetric modelsfor the UK, including the constructionof a UK onshore-offshore griddedbedrock model, and new property-at-tributed models for key structures ofthe shallow subsurface (e.g., the bed-rock erosion surface). The nationalbedrock model will involve the con-struction of a 3D structural ‘basins


Figure 4. Styles and formats for delivery of BGS models: a) the 3D pdf format illustrated by the Assynt Culmination model –cross-sections and the geological map are displayed in a ‘block’ format with modelled thrust planes (orange and green sur-faces) projected above ground; b) Grids for various modelling and visualisation applications, here displayed in ArcScene -the upper surface is the UK rockhead model (low elevation is pale green, high elevation is brown to white), the lower surfaceis the superficial thickness model (thin deposits are pale blue, thick are pink) – note the surfaces have been vertically offsetfor display purposes (developed using NEXTMap Britain elevation data from Intermap Technologies); c) The BGS-developedLithoframe Viewer is an example of 3D model viewer applications – this image shows part of the superficial deposits modelfor the city of Glasgow (a glacial till unit is blue, a glaciofluvial unit is orange, and a glaciolacustrine unit is green), d) 3Dvisualisation software and applications, illustrated by a Minecraft build of the Ingleborough model (model depth is c. 1 km).Contains data from Minecraft © Mojang 2009-2019. Images a) and b) created using ArcGIS © ESRI. All rights reserved.

and terranes’ framework for the UKlandmass and continental shelf as partof a 3D digital research infrastructure.These models will support the devel-opment of new geological informa-tion resources, underpin new appliedresearch such as integrated climate-groundwater-surface water modellingand energy resource assessments, andprovide a platform for the develop-ment of predictive (4D) ‘reservoir en-gineering’ type modelling approaches.

Geological modelling activities willalso form core elements of our re-gional work programmes designed toadvance our understanding of the in-fluence of heterogeneous ground con-ditions on groundwater flow; to testthe behaviour and impact of potentialenergy technologies such as under-ground deep thermal storage, geother-mal systems performance, and hydro-gen storage in porous media; and todeliver 3D characterisation of groundconditions to inform infrastructure de-velopment. The pioneering UKGeoenergy Observatories project(UKGEOS) to monitor environmentalchange in the subsurface environmentwill also supply new telemetry data totransition site-scale 3D geologicalmodels into 4D sub-surface monitor-ing platforms.

The significance of computationalmodelling for informing strategicplanning and policy in fields as di-verse as health, infrastructure, manu-facturing, and economics, has beenrecognised in a recent UK Govern-ment review (Government Office forScience, 2018). With critical rele-vance for energy, water, mineral re-sources, waste disposal, and infra-structure development, geoscienceplays an important role in the UK’sfuture socio-economic development.To ensure the impact of BGSgeoscience is not just felt in thespheres of research, environmentalregulation, and industry, but reachescritical areas of strategic planning andpolicy in Government, our geologicalmodelling must progress from 3Dcharacterisation towards the delivery

of advanced subsurface environmen-tal process and scenario modelling.Investment in innovative 4D environ-mental monitoring and developmentof predictive modelling capabilitieswill ensure that the BGS geosciencedelivers for decision makers in theUK, and for our global partners.

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