advances in environment, behavior, and design
TRANSCRIPT
Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design
VOLUME 3
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Irwin Altman, Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Gilles Barbey, Architecte EPFZ, Lausanne, Switzerland Robert B. Bechtel, Department of Psychology, University of Arizona,
Tucson, Arizona Michael Brill, Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological
Innovation, Inc., Buffalo, New York Gary W. Evans, Program in Social Ecology, University of California,
Irvine, California Mark Francis, Department of Environmental Design, University of
California, Davis, California Tommy Garling, Department of Psychology, University of Umeli, Umeli, Sweden Linda N. Groat, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Stephen Kaplan, Psychological Laboratories, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan M. Powell Lawton, Philadelphia Geriatric Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Setha M. Low (EDRA Board Representative), Graduate School and
University Center, City University of New York, New York, New York
William Michelson, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Rudolf H. Moos, Social Ecology Laboratory, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California
George L. Peterson, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Ft. Collins, Colorado
Toomas Niit, Department of Sociology, Institute of Philosophy, Sociology, and Law, Tallinn, Estonian S.S.R.
J. Douglas Porteous, Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Amos Rapoport, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Andrew D. Seidel, College of Architecture, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
Maija-Leena Setala, Tamere Regional Institute of Occupational Health, T ampere, Finland
Daniel Stokols, Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California
Takashi Takahashi, Department of Architecture, Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Ross Thome, Department of Architecture, Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
Seymour Wapner, Heinz Werner Institute for Developmental Analysis, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts
John Zeisel, Building Diagnostics, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts
A Conhnuation Order Plan IS available for tlus senes A contInuatIon order WIll bnng delIvery of each new volume Immediately upon publication. Volumes are bIlled only upon actual shIpment For further mformatIon please contact the publisher.
Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design
VOLUME 3
Edited by
ERVIN H. ZUBE School of Renewable Natural Resources
University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona
and
GARY T. MOORE School of Architecture and Urban Planning
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Published in cooperation with the Environmental Design Research Association
PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 88-649861
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-5816-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-5814-5 DOL 10.1007/978-1-4684-5814-5
© 1991 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopymg, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
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Contribu tors
Franklin Becker, Department of Design and Environmental Analysis, College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
Louise Chawla, Whitney Young College, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
Carole Despres, School of Architecture, Laval University, Quebec G1K 7P4, Canada
Jay Farbstein, Jay Farbstein & Associates, Inc., 1411 Marsh Street, Suite 204, San Luis Obispo, California 93401
Linda N. Groat, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
Thomas C. Hubka, Department of Architecture, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201
Min Kantrowitz, Min Kantrowitz & Associates, Inc., P.O. Box 792, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103
David Kernohan, School of Architecture, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Martin Krampen, University of the Arts Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany; Am Hochstrasse 18, 0-7900 Ulm-Donau, Federal Republic of Germany
v
vi Contributors
Sonia Kruks, Department of Government, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio 44074
Jon Lang, School of Architecture, University of New South Wales, Kensington, N.S.W., Australia
David Stea, International Center for Built Environment, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87131. Present address: Universidad National Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico D.F., Mexico
Martin S. Symes, Department of Architecture, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
Ben Wisner, School of Social Science, Hampshire College, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
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Preface
This third volume in Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design follows the conceptual framework adopted in the previous two volumes (see the Preface to Volume 1, 1987). It is organized into five sectionsadvances in theory, advances in place, user group, and sociobehavioral research, and advances in research utilization.
The authors of this volume represent a wide spectrum of the multidisciplinary environment-behavior and design field including architecture, environmental psychology, facility management, geography, human factors, sociology, and urban design. The volume offers international perspectives from North America (Carole Despres from Canada, several authors from the U.S.), Europe (Martin Krampen from Germany, Martin Symes from England), and New Zealand (David Kernohan). More so than any of the previous volumes, they are drawn from both academia and professional practice.
While there continues to be a continuity in format in the series, we are actively exploring new directions that are on the cutting edges of the field and bode well for a more integrated future. This volume will further develop the themes of design and professional practice to complement the earlier emphases on theory, research, and methods.
We have invited leading scholars on design theory to present critical chapters on the comparison and possible integration of explanatory environment-behavior theories and prescriptive design theories. Advances in environment-behavior theory will continue to be a strong focus of this series-but in this volume we are expanding theory to the realm of design theory and the possible integration of environmentbehavior and design theory.
Since the mid-1980s, we have convened sessions on theory at the annual conferences of EDRA, the Environmental Design Research Association (Atlanta, 1986, Ottawa, 1987), and the biennial conferences of
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lAPS, the International Association for the Study of People and their Physical Environments (Haifa, 1986, Delft, 1988). A selection of these papers has been edited and expanded into chapters appearing in this series. In Volume 1, we dealt with a pair of theories diametrically opposed to each other that have led to major debates in the environmentbehavior field-empiricism and phenomenology (Volume 1, chapters by Richard Winett and David Seamon). We then moved to two theories that begin to make a bridge between academic research and environmental problem solving-ecological and structural theories (Volume 2, chapters by Gerhard Kaminski and Roderick Lawrence). Now, in Volume 3, we have invited two chapters that explicitly investigate the possible integration of science and design, discipline and profession, and research and practice (chapters by Linda Groat and Carole Despres, and Jon Lang).
Fields advance by research focused on the development of theories and by investigations exploring basic conceptual issues. In the multidisciplinary environment-behavior and design field, calls have been made since the early 1970s for the development of theory. In 1973, Amos Rapoport argued for the development of explanatory theory and suggested five reasons why theory was needed: to make sense of findings, to reveal gaps, to lead from description to explanation, to aid in teaching, and to aid in application.
According to a source that seldom does us wrong, the Oxford English Dictionary, theory is a "scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are held to be general laws, principles, or causes of something known or observed." A theory, then, is a set of interrelated concepts held as an explanation for observable phenomena by recourse to unobserved, more abstract principles.
This is the way in which most people have been using the word "theory" in the past 15 or so years of the environmental psychology/environment-behavior field. (See, for example, the work of Irwin Altman [Altman & Rogoff, 1987], Amos Rapoport [1973], and Daniel Stokols [1983].)
It may serve us well to use an adjective before this noun "theory." Thus theory as used in science, by the above authors, and so far in this series is scientific theory or explanatory theory.
But how about design theories? How do we conceptualize them? Are they also theories? How about the writings of major thinkers in architecture and the other environmental professions like Vitruvius, architect to Caesar Augustus two thousand years ago, who argued that good architecture had three conditions: utilitas, finnitas, and venustas, or,
Preface ix
as we now know them, commodity (function), firmness (technics), and delight (aesthetics)? How about the more recent theories of architecture, like the theory of complexity and contradiction in a book by the same title by Robert Venturi (1966)? How do we conceptualize the writings of Juan-Pablo Bonta (1979) in Architecture and Its Interpretation based on structuralism, or of Christian Norberg-Schultz (1980) in Genius Loci: Toward a Phenomenology of Architecture based on phenomenology, or of Geoffrey Broadbent (1973) in Design in Architecture or Christopher Jencks (1977) in The Language of Post-Modern architecture based on the analytic procedures of semiotics? Architectural scholars have always called these "theories," but in what way are they theories? Are they akin to the theories of science, or do they not deserve the term "theory"?
A second type of theory, also covered by the Oxford, may lead us out of this apparent dilemma. Theory, it suggests, is also a "conception or mental scheme of something to be done, or of the method of doing it; a systematic statement of rules or principles to be followed." Theory in this second sense can be conceived of as a doctrine or ideology, a programmatic idea of how things should be done, almost a manifesto.
In 1984, as a result of a symposium on the topic of doctoral education for architectural research (Moore & Templer, 1984), Peter McCleary proposed a view of "theory" as used in his teachings. Drawn from Bacon's 1626 distinction between theory and practice, between the speculative and the practical, this view emphasizes that theory can be conceived of as a scheme of ideas that explains practice.
Again, we need an objective to modify "theory." We would agree with our late colleague, Kevin Lynch (his discussion of three normative theories in Good City Form [1981]), Jon Lang (in his book on Creating Architectural Theory [1987]), and McCleary, that we call this second type of theory normative theory or prescriptive theory or, in the more limited case, design theories. Design theories, then, are a scheme of ideas or concepts that relate to observable phenomena and serve, in some way as yet undefined, to "explain" them; but they also serve to define that which is proposed or that which should be done through a program of design action or practice.
To examine these ideas further, we invited Linda Groat and Carole Despres to discuss the significance of architectural theory for environment-behavior research, and Jon Lang to explore design theory from an environment-behavior perspective. While there are many points of convergence between these two chapters, the Groat-Despres chapter places more emphasis on physical form variables while the Lang chapter takes a more behavioral orientation. Both chapters-individually and as a pair-represent significant new advances to the field.
As in the earlier volumes in the series, we invited another leading
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scholar, Martin Symes of the University of Manchester, to comment on these two chapters by surveying the relationships between research and design.
The middle part of the volume examines place, user group, and sociobehavioral research topics which have experienced recent empirical developments but which have not yet been covered in the Advances series.
Chapters that address place-oriented research in Volumes 1 and 2 of this series varied in context from urban to rural and in scale from sites to regions. They include site-scale environments such as urban plazas, parks, and malls (Mark Francis, Volume 1) and a variation on the theme of urban parks-urban forests (Herbert Schroeder, Volume 2), to regional scales such as rural areas (Frederick Buttel et aI., Volume 1), vernacular landscapes (Robert Riley, Volume 2), and developing countries (Graeme Hardie, Volume 2). .
The place-oriented research included in this volume fits into the site end of the scale continuum and addresses individual buildings and spaces within buildings. Thomas Hubka provides a new perspective on vernacular architecture, one that expands the scope of the field and that is a companion to Robert Riley's chapter in Volume 2 on vernacular landscapes. Franklin Becker provides a historical review of environment and behavior research in the workplace and discusses key behavioral and spatial issues in the design of facilitative workplaces.
User group chapters in previous volumes have tended to emphasize urban or built environment contexts whether they addressed gender issues (Rebecca Peterson, Volume 1), social groups (William Michelson, Volume 1), or health-care providers in hospitals (Sally Shumaker and Will Pequegnat, Volume 2). Louise Chawla's chapter in this volume follows that same pattern and focuses on children and housing-specificallyon policy, planning, and design for housing that recognizes the diversity of family structures within which children now live within the urban context.
Martin Krampen expands on part of the theme of environmental cognition and meaning begun by Tommy Garling and Reginald Golledge in Volume 2. Initially we had hoped for one chapter that would deal with the entire gamut from perception to meaning, from association to symbolism. But the task was too large. The Garling-Golledge chapter treated the associational end of the continuum, while Martin Krampen now looks in some detail at three distinctly different traditions for the study of environmental meaning-semiotics, environmental psychology, and ecological psychology. This chapter ought to stimulate much debate and discussion in the field. It merits a follow-up in a subsequent volume in
Preface xi
this series, not as a rebuttal, but rather a chapter that might look at the two other major approaches to environmental meaning-the nonverbal communication and the historical-symbolic approaches-and might further develop some of the issues Krampen addresses. To date, one of those issues, Gibson's work on perception, has had only a small impact on the field. We have commissioned a chapter for Volume 4 devoted to the Gibsonian intellectual tradition and its current and potential impacts on our field, not only in terms of meaning but also the more concrete aspects of environmental perception and environmental design.
Considerable attention has been given in the first two volumes of the series to advances in methods for conducting research and utilizing it in environmental problem-solving applications (e.g., chapters on quantitative research methods by Robert Marans and Sherry Ahrentzen and on qualitative methods by Setha Low in Volume 1, on facility programming by Henry Sanoff and postoccupancy evaluation by Richard Wener in Volume 2, and on professional practice by Lynda Schneekloth in Volume 1 and policy development by Francis Ventre in Volume 2). We continue this tradition with two new chapters on research utilization methods in the current volume.
Lynda Schnee kloth's chapter in Volume 1 sets the stage for the two current chapters. She made the distinction between information transfer and action research. In a recent dissertation, Min Byung-Ho (1988) extended this distinction philosophically and through case studies to two more general types: a one-community paradigm based on the notion that research and action necessarily go hand-in-hand, and a two-community paradigm based on the notion that research must be independent from and precede action. The two-community approach has the longer and more recognized history in the field of environment and behavior (e.g., the many books of facility programming and postoccupancy evaluation and the series of annual design research awards premiated by Progressive Architecture). But the one-community approach is on the ascendancy and is subject to lively debate. We continue to explore its development in the series.
Participatory and action research methods are examined in depth by Ben Wisner, David Stea, and Sonia Kruks. They refer extensively to five detailed case studies in which they have been involved in development contexts, mostly in the Third World. The possible emergence of a new design-decision research paradigm for the field is scrutinized by two leading practitioners, Jay Farbstein and Min Kantrowitz, both principles of major professional firms. The Wisner-Stea-Kruks chapter places emphasis on facilitating participation as a primary goal, whereas the Farbstein-Kantrowitz chapter places emphasis on decision making, even
xii Preface
though both chapters are written about a kind of one-community action research. The distinction between participation and decision making may be related to the fact that the former chapter is based on experiences in developing contexts, while the latter is in a developed country.
To round out this section, we invited David Kernohan from New Zealand to comment on emerging research utilization/professional practice methods. He draws a brilliant analogy between environment-behavior research and Einstein's theory in discussing these two chapters and putting them into a larger, more inclusive context.
In the preparation of this volume, we were once again assisted by many people. We would like to thank Ernest Alexander, Friederich Dieckmann, and the students of Theories of Environment and Behavior at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee who offered valuable comments on chapter drafts; our Editorial Advisory Board, who offered advice on the series as whole; Michele Lien, who served as editorial assistant for Volume 3; and Eliot Werner, our executive editor at Plenum Press.
REFERENCES
ERVIN H. ZUBE
GARY T. MOORE
Altman, I. (1973). Some perspectives on the study of man-environment phenomena. Representative Research In Social Psychology, 4, 109-186.
Bonta, J. P. (1979). Architecture and its interpretation: A study of expressIOn systems In architec-ture. London: Lund Humphries.
Broadbent, G. (1973). DeSign In architecture: Architecture and human science. New York: Wiley. Jencks, C. (1977). The language of post-modern architecture. New York: Rizzoli. Lang, J. (1987). Creating architectural theory. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Lynch, K. (1981). Good city form. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Min, B.-H. (1988). Research utilzzation in environment-behavior studies: A case study analysis of
the interactIOn of utilization models, context, and success. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.) Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms.
Moore, G. T., & Templer, J. (Eds.). (1984). Doctoral education for architectural research. Washington, DC: Architectural Research Centers Consortium.
Norberg-Schultz, C. (1980). Genius loci: Towards a phenomenology of architecture. New York: Rizzoli. •
Rapoport, A. (1973). An approach to the construction of man-environment theory. In W. F. E. Preiser (Ed.), Environmental design research (Vol. 2). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Stokols, D. (Ed.) (1983). Theories of environment and behavior. Special issue of EnVironment and Behavzor, 15 (Whole No.3).
Venturi, R. (1966). Complexity and contradiction In architecture. New York: Museum of Modem Art.
Preface xiii
POSTSCRIPT
Effective with this volume, Ervin Zube has resigned as coeditor of the series to devote more time to his research on human landscape transactions and landscape management. Erv and I initiated the idea for the series in late 1983 in discussions with Eliot Werner at Plenum and with the Board of Directors of EDRA (notably Daniel Stokols who suggested the link with Plenum). We have worked together on all aspects of the series since then. Erv's contributions to the series and to the field are immeasurable. His wisdom, guidance, and hard work over the first five years of the Advances series will be sorely missed. Fortunately, he has agreed to remain as a member of the Editorial Advisory Board.
Professor Zube will be replaced, starting with Volume 4, by Robert W. Marans, Professor of Architecture and Urban Planning, Director of the Ph.D. Program in Urban Technological and Environmental Planning, and Senior Research Scientist at the Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan. I am delighted to work with Bob Marans on the continuation of the series.
To gain a broader base of advice from North American and European environment-behavior studies, from design and practice, and from the international community, we also welcome Gilles Barbey, Robert Bechtel, Tommy Garling, Linda Groat, Stephen Kaplan, Setha Low, William Michelson, Rudolf Moos, Toomas Niit, Amos Rapoport, Andrew Seidel, Maija-Leena Setala, Seymour Wapner, and John Zeisel to the Editorial Advisory Board.
Work is progressing well on Volume 4 of the series. Volume 4 will again contain chapters on advances in the domains of the field that have experienced the most rapid development over the intervening years. In preparation are new chapters on urban social theory, Gibsonian ecological theory and cross-cultural theory, environmental aesthetics and the sick-building syndrome, new methodological developments, and research utilization with special attention to housing and facilities for people with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias.
GARY T. MOORE
1
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Contents
I ADVANCES IN THEORY
The Significance of Architectural Theory for Environmental Design Research
Linda N. Groat and Carole Despres
3
Getting Physical: The Need to Identify Formal Attributes 4 The Nature of Theory in Architecture and Its Links to Scientific
Epistemology: An Historical Perspective 6 The Renaissance-Baroque Tradition 8 The Premodern Tradition 12 The Modern Movement 16 Postmodernism 21
The Relation between Environment-Behavior Research and Architectural Theory: Rapprochement or Disjuncture? 26
Toward a Reconsideration of the Domain of Theory in Environment-Behavior and Design Research 30
The Major Themes of Architectural Theory 30 Style 33 Composition 36 Type 39 Morphology 43 Place 44
Implications for Future Research and Applications 46 References 48
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xvi Contents
2 Design Theory from an Environment and Behavior Perspective
Jon Lang
53
Understanding the Design Fields: Three Clarifications 54 The Design Fields as Art and as Environmental
D~~ ~ The Design Fields as Professions and as Disciplines 56 The Meaning of Theory 56
The Modern Movement as Art and as Environmental Design 60 The First Generation: The Anglo-Americans and the
Continentals 60 The Second Generation: The Rediscovery of Architectural
Symbolism 65 The Third Generation: Working a Function into a Form 67
The Positive Basis of Normative Modern Design Theory 67 The Design Fields as Art 70 The Design Fields as Environmental Design 71
Environment-Behavior Studies and Modernist Theory: A Commentary 76
Substantive Theory 77 Procedural Theory 78 Modernist Theory in Perspective 79
Our Contemporary Design Theories 79 Postmodernism, Deconstructivism, and Classicism:
Architecture as Art 80 Community Architecture: Architecture as Environmental
D~g~ ~ The Emergence of Landscape Architecture as Environmental
Design and as Art 87 The Mainstream of Current Architectural Thought:
Modernism 89 The Modernists Almost Got It Right 90 Implications for Future Research and Applications 91
Integrating Art, Environmental Design, and Science: A Normative Theory 92
The Role of Environment-Behavior Research: Building the Design Disciplines 96
References 98
Contents xvii
3 Relationships between Research and Design: 103 A Commentary on Theories
Martin S. Symes
The Case for Integration History Misunderstandings Useful Knowledge
104 105 106 107 108 108 109 110
The Case for Diversity Unpredictable Synthesis Variety of Paradigms
References
II ADVANCES IN PLACE RESEARCH
4 Workplace Planning, Design, and Management 115
Franklin Becker
Historical Overview 116 1910-1940: Efficiency and Individual Performance 116 1940-1950: Task Performance and Social Relations 117 1950-1960: Group Dynamics, Communication, and Conflict 117 1960-1970: Focus on the Nonpaying Client 118 1970-1980: Communication, Worker Comfort, and Satisfaction 120 The Performance Profile Concept 121 Summary of Historical Overview 122
Facility Management 123 Defining the Field 123 Key Organizational Trends 123
Five Key Workplace Issues 124 Control 124 Communication 127 Environmental Change Processes 131 Performance 133 International Influences 135
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Theory into Practice 137 140 141 145 146 147
Process: Employee Involvement Product: Design Concepts and Solutions
The Acceptability Factor and the Enculturation Process Implications for Future Research and Applications References
5 American Vernacular Architecture 153
Thomas C. Hubka
Defining Vernacular Architecture 153 Vernacular and Elite 157 Vernacular Past and Present 161
Ideology: The Hidden Agenda 164 Silent Artifacts and Common People: The "New History" 165 Vernacular Exceptionalism: The New Romanticism 166
Paradigms: The Acknowledged Agenda 167 Artifact and Meaning: What It Is and What It Means 167 Building Dominance and Theory Subordinance:
Artifact Positivism 169 Pluralism of Content, Theory, and Method: A Populist Strategy 170 Pattern in Building: Variations on a Theme 171
Implications for Future Research and Applications 174 Functional Categories: Organizing the Field 174 Demographics: Numbers Count 175 Popular Architecture: Between Elite and Vernacular 177
Conclusion 181 References 181
III ADVANCES IN USER GROUP RESEARCH
6 Homes for Children in a Changing Society
Louise Chawla
Methodological Issues in Child-Environment Research The Home Interior
Stimulus Levels in the Home
187
188 190 191
Contents xix
Housing Design The Meaning of Home
Access to the Outdoors: Transitional Spaces Access to Diverse Spaces
192 200 206 207 214 215 217 219 220 221 222 224
Outdoor Access from High-Rise Housing Outdoor Access for Latchkey Children
Children's Participation in Design Implications for Future Research and Applications
Research Integration New Research Directions Research Dissemination
References
IV ADVANCES IN SOCIOBEHAVIORAL RESEARCH
7 Environmental Meaning 231
Martin Krampen
Two Approaches to the Study of Environmental Meaning 231 The Origins of the Semiotic Approach to Research on
Environmental Meaning 223 Environmental Meaning in Semiotics 234
The Contribution of Greimas 238 Settlement Space 240 Urban Culture 243 Architectural Semiotics 244 Conclusions on the Semiotic Approach 246
The Origins of Environmental Psychology and Its Research on Environmental Meaning 246
Environmental Meaning in Environmental Psychology 247 Environmental Cognition 248 The Organismic-Developmental Perspective 250 A Microtheory of Environmental Meaning 250 Conclusions on the Environmental Psychology Approach 256
Outlook on the Future: Environmental Meaning in an Ecological Perspective 256
An Ecological Approach to Meaning: The Theory of Affordances 257
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Some Affordances Which Are Independent of Surface Layout 259 The Meaning of Surfaces and Their Layouts 259 Conclusions on the Ecological Approach 261
Implications for Future Research and Applications 261 References 262
V ADVANCES IN RESEARCH UTILIZATION
8 Participatory and Action Research Methods 271
Ben Wisner, David Stea, and Sonia Kruks
Action and Participation 271 Action Research: Origins and Preliminary Definition 271 Participation and Participatory Research 274
Frameworks for Participation 275 A Social Framework 275 A Communication Framework 279
Case Studies 281 Case I: Cas alta II-Reconstruction following a Landslide 281 Case II: Locally Improved Grain Storage in a Tanzanian Village 282 Case III: Elderly Housing and a Community Center for the
Texas Farm Workers' Union 285 Case IV: Planning Primary Health Care in Western Kenya 286 Case V: Community Land-Use Management in Ecuador 288
Implications for Future Research and Applications 289 References 290
9 Design Research in the Swamp: 297 Toward a New Paradigm
Jay Farbstein and Min Kantrowitz
Design-Decision Research 298 How is Design-Decision Research Different from Action
Research? 301 What Is Design-Decision Research? 302 Who Does Design-Decision Research? 305
Contents xxi
When Does Design-Decision Research Occur? 308 How Are Design-Decision Research Results Presented? 310
Why Are These Changes in Design Research Taking Place? 313 Implications for Future Research and Applications: Will We
Stay in the Swamp? 315 References 316
10 "Einstein's Theory" of Environment-Behavior Research: A Commentary on Research Utilization
The "Theory" The "Gap" A New Paradigm The Cautionary Tail References
David Kernohan
Contents of Previous Volumes
Index
319
319 320 323 324 325
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Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design
VOLUME 3