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WEEK 3 - LECTURE 1Dr. Margherita Dore

margherita.dore@gmail.com

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Overview • Stylistic Devices and Figures of Speech (continued) • Metaphor and Metonymy• The Stylistic Analysis of Humour - Ambiguity • Bilingual Humour (Italian)• What is grammar for?• Types of Grammar: One English Grammar or Many?• Grammatical structure and function• Five functional elements• Interpreting a sentence

Exercise 2

Read the stanza below and explain the figures of speech in it (along with anything else you can think of according to what we studied so far):

He was my North, my South, my East, my West,My working week and my Sunday rest,My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song; I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.

(Funeral Blues, W. H. Auden)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HtL51SvbRos

Exercise 2 - Key

He was my North, my South, my East, my West,My working week and my Sunday rest,My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song; I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.

The rhyme scheme is AABB (phonological parallelism). The poet conceptualises his lover in logically paradoxical (hyperbolic) ways. This stanza is effective in its parallel and large use of complements and lexical links that cover direction, days and time.

MetonymyIn Metonymy, the transfer occurs within a single conceptual domain. It involves the transportation between associated concepts in the same domain.It results in transfer between the part and the whole, a producer and the produced, an institution and its location, etc.

Buckingham Palace is thought to be furious

The Pentagon refused to comment on the story.

Greece beat England in today’s match.

Example

Now consider this metonymy taken again from SylviaPlath’s poem ‘Metaphors’:

O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers!

This metonymy is linked to the metaphor we analysedabove. Fruit refers to nurturing, ivory to somethingprecious, timbers to security

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The Stylistic Analysis of Humour • Two key theoretical principles underpin the language ofhumour, the first of which is that humour requires anincongruity.

• The principle of incongruity applies more generally to(i) any kind of stylistic twist in a pattern of language or(ii) any situation where there is a mismatch between what

someone says and what they mean.

• incongruity can be situated in any layer of linguisticstructure.

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Puns and verbal play• The stylistic analysis of humour therefore involvesidentifying an incongruity in a text and pinpointingwhereabouts in the language system it occurs.

• One of the most commonly used stylistic devices forcreating humour is the pun, a form of word-play in whichsome feature of linguistic structure simultaneouslycombines two unrelated meanings (see Simpson 2004:45 for some interesting examples).

• Punning (or word-playing) is possible because of theinherent ambiguity that any language entails.

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Ambiguity

• Ambiguity is an inherent feature of language sincewords may have more than one meaning (polysemy)

• Words may be used to mean something else (metaphor):Mark is a pig (he is not literally a pig but he behaves assuch)

• Words may be used to refer to a whole by using just apart of it (metonymy):I drank a glass of water (the contained, not the container)

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Context

• Context helps us choose the correct meaning(disambiguation process)

In Hollywood you can see many stars

With a telescope you can see many stars in the sky

The disambiguation process is also possible thanks toyour encyclopedic knowledge about the word itself that isstored in your brain -> frames or scripts

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Intentional Ambiguity is FunCauliflower Olive Sheep Eggplant Penguins

Lettuce Duck

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Intentional Ambiguity is Fun

On a Garbage Truck: “Our business is pickingup.”

Optometrist’s Sign: “There’s more to a visionexamination than meets the eye.”

Ad for Aspirin: “We go to a lot of pains.”

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Unintentional Ambiguity is Funnier

Law School Questionnaire: “How many facultymembers do you have, broken down by sex?”

Diner Sign: “Wanted: Man to scrub floor and twowaitresses.”

Dance Hall Sign: “Clean and decent dancing everynight except Monday.”

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Bilingual Humour (Italian)What’s black and white and red all over?

A newspaper.

ITALIAN VERSION:Che cosa è nero, bianco e rosso ovunque?A. L’Unità, or (a Communist newspaper)B. Una zebra con l’abbronzatura (a zebra with a sunburn)

NOTE: The first “red” retains the “read” association, while thesecond “red” does not.

(Chiaro [2008]: 580)

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Bilingual Humour (Italian) - Discussion• Neither of these translations encapsulate the semantic

ambivalency attached to the words “red/read.” “Nevertheless, solution A does capture the ‘read’ element of the original riddle coupled with the metaphorical value of the colour term ‘red’ attached to a popular left wing newspaper L’Unità.”

• Since this is a children’s riddle, the first answer is inappropriate because children wouldn’t know about L’Unità.

• Furthermore the second answer has the kind of silliness that would be found in a children’s riddle.

(Chiaro [2008]: 580)

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Overview• What is grammar for?• Types of Grammar• One English Grammar or Many?• Grammatical structure and function• Five functional elements• Interpreting a sentence

Before StartingLet’s look at this text. Can you find instances of metaphoric language(including similes)

DiscussionYou can distinguish a simile from a metaphor because the former always includes “like” (or “as”) whereas the latter does not. Hence:

Simile: “reading your paper was like watching unfamiliar…..”

Metaphor: “you didn’t submit a research paper. You submitted and hostage situation”

Source domain: HOSTAGE SITUATIONTarget domain: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

The elements mapped from the source domain are: people held hostage, kidnapping is a violent deed, it often happens at night, Therefore, “words” (like people) held in a place they don’t want to be (the research paper) because the kidnapper (the student) has violently forced them to be there.

Conceptual metaphor: READING THIS PAPER WAS A PAINFUL EXPERIENCE

Before Starting

Please watch this video by G. Lakoff who talks about howhe started to be interested in Conceptual Metaphor Theory

CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eu-9rpJITY8

What is grammar for?

John is watching Amy

If we only know the meaning of each of the wordsabove, we cannot know that John is the persondoing the watching and Amy is the person beingwatched. The fact that in English subjects typicallycome before verbs, and objects typically come afterthem, enables us to know that John is doing thewatching and Amy is being watched. So grammaris used in languages to specify the relationsamong the words and phrases we use.

Types of Grammar

Synthetic languages: they can specify grammaticalrelations among words and phrases by addinggrammatical morphemes to words (e.g. Italian, Spanish,etc.)

Analytic languages: they can use place ordering byassociating particular grammatical functions with particularplaces in sentences, clause and phrases (e.g. MandarinChinese)

English is a predominantly analytic language, doing most of itsgrammar by place-ordering. However, it still uses grammaticalmorphemes to do some of its grammar, e.g. '-ed' past tenseendings on verbs, plural markers on nouns and comparative (-er') and superlative (-est) endings on short adjectives, etc.

One English Grammar or Many?

The grammar of (modern) Englishvaries over time (cf. Shakespeare’s vs.today’s) and according to places (inYorkshire you can still hear people use“thee” and “thou” instead of “you”).

So there is not one monolithic Englishgrammar - no complete system wecould call THE grammar of English

Example

[Daylong this tomcat lies…] Then reappear his eyes

(Ted Hughes, Easter's Tomcat)

Subjects in English clauses normally come before thepredicators they are acting as subject to. Hence, we shouldnormally have:

Then his eyes reappear

Comment: by using the unusual ordering, Hughesforegrounds the clause, and also positions the subject at theend of the clause, thus helping to 'enact' grammatically theidea of the eyes appearing out of nowhere (effect!).

Exercise 1

Place the words in what you consider it to bethe correct order, and work out why it is thatyour ordering feels more usual than the oneHughes uses.Then, think of the reason why Hughes usesthe ordering below:

Over the roofs go his eyes and outcry

(Ted Hughes, Easter's Tomcat)

Exercise 1 - key

His eyes and outcry go over the roofs

Comment: The noun phrase ‘his eyes and outcry’acts as subject to the predicator 'go' and thereforeneeds to be placed before that predicator. Theprepositional phrase ‘over the roofs’ needs to go atthe end of the sentences (the normal position inEnglish sentences).

As before, Hughes achieves a foregrounding effectby means of a deviant grammatical structure thatpushes the subject to the end of the sentence.

Grammatical structure and function

N V NJohn kissed Mary Mary kissed John

These two sentences have the same grammatical structure.However, they mean different things because the two words (or,more accurately, the two one-word phrases) 'John' and 'Mary'have different grammatical functions in the sentences.

REMEMBER: the verb is the PREDICATOR!

Five Functional ElementsSubjects (S): A Noun Phrase; usually comes first in the sentence, before the Predicator.Predicators (P): A Verb Phrase which expresses the action/process or relationship.Objects (O): A Noun Phrase; refers to the entity which is the recipient of the action/process. Only occurs with transitive verbs. Usually comes after the Predicator.Complements (C): A Noun Phrase or Adjective Phrase; normally comes after a linking Predicator; expresses some attribute or role of the SUBJECT or the OBJECT.Adverbials (A): An Adverbial, Prepositional or Noun Phrase which usually specifies some condition related to the Predicator; Its most normal position is at the end of the sentence.

Grammatical structure and function (AGAIN)

N V NJohn kissed Mary

S P O

Mary kissed JohnS P O

Exercise 2

Let’s now look at these two sentences again and try to analyse them according to the five functional elements presented above:

Then reappear his eyes

Over the roofs go his eyes and outcry

Exercise 2 - key

Then reappear his eyesA P S

Over the roofs go his eyes and outcry.A P S

Interpreting a sentence

Picture the scene described by the following sentence:

Mary kissed the boy on the nose

Interpreting a sentence

The grammatical analysis of the sentence isthe following:

Mary kissed the boy on the noseS P O A

Interpreting a sentence

But the sentence is actually grammaticallyambiguous, leading to two different understandings(or 'readings') of it. Let's make the alternativemeaning obvious by adding a bit more context:

Mary kissed the boy on the nose. But thenose sneezed and the boy fell off.

This would also lead to a different analysis ofthe sentence:

Mary kissed the boy on the nose.S P O

Interpreting a sentence

If we wanted to avoid the ambiguity we wouldhave to change the structure, for example to:

Mary kissed the boy who was standing on the nose.S P O

Now only this absurd interpretation is possible.Note that to achieve the disambiguation wehave had to use a more complex structure.The above sentence now has a clauseembedded inside the noun phrase, post-modifying 'boy‘.

Exercise 3Find all the examples of deviant grammar and stylistic devices you canthink of. Also reflect on the possible meaning of this poem:love is more thicker than forgetmore thinner than recallmore seldom than a wave is wetmore frequent than to failit is most mad and moonlyand less it shall unbethan all the sea which onlyis deeper than the sealove is less always than to winless never than aliveless bigger than the least beginless littler than forgiveit is most sane and sunlyand more it cannot diethan all the sky which onlyis higher than the sky

(cummings 1954 [1939]: 381)

Exercise 3 - Keylove is more thicker than forgetmore thinner than recallmore seldom than a wave is wetmore frequent than to failit is most mad and moonlyand less it shall unbethan all the sea which onlyis deeper than the sealove is less always than to winless never than aliveless bigger than the least beginless littler than forgiveit is most sane and sunlyand more it cannot diethan all the sky which onlyis higher than the sky

(for a full commentary, please read Simpson, Stylistics, p.53-59)

...And to Cheer you up a bit A language group in France was asked whether the word 'computer‘ should be masculine or feminine. The men decided that 'la computer' was definitely right because:1) No-one but their creator understands their internal logic2) The native language they use to communicate is incomprehensible to everyone else3) Even the smallest mistakes are stored in long-term memory for possible later retrieval4) As soon as you make a commitment to one, you find yourself spending half your pay-cheque on accessories for it.

The women, however, concluded that computers should be masculine, 'le computer', because:1) In order to get their attention, you have to turn them on2) They have a lot of data, but they are still clueless3) They are supposed to help you to solve problems, but half the time they are the problem4) As soon as you commit to one, you realize that if you'd waited a little you could have got a better model.

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WEEK 3 - LECTURE 3Dr. Margherita Dore

margherita.dore@gmail.com

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Overview • Language Variation and Dialects• Accents• Dialects in Literature• Language Variation and Social Groups• Register• Medium• Domain• Tenor

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But before starting…Something to cheer you up

But please do not agree with Homer

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And…Let’s look at the first chapter of each of the three novels that we are

considering in this course.

Let’s discuss the instances of:

1. Graphological deviation

2. Semantic Deviation

3. Lexical Deviation

4. Figures of speech

Why do you think the author is using these devices and what effect

do you get from them? (These are your personal opinions which

however need to be backed up by the theory; also try and use the

adequate terminology: metaphor, simile, ecc. noun phrases, verb

prases etc.)

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DialectsDialects are semi-permanent language varieties oflanguage which vary mainly according togeographical region and social class:

Yorkshire dialect, Lancashire dialect, LondonCockney, but also working class dialect, middleclass dialect

As for English, many people equate dialects withaccents, but accents only account for dialectvariation in relation to pronunciation (phonetics).Dialects also vary in terms of other linguistic levels,particularly lexis and grammar.

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Dialect

• Dialect is defined through vocabulary:

sofa (North America), couch (UK), davenport (elder

person, the name of a company who used to make them),

chesterfield (UK in the 1900s) or divan (UK, Turkish origin)

• Dialect is defined through grammar:

y’all (South), youse (Bronx), yunz (Pittsburgh) for the

second person plural....

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Accent

• When we hear someone using a different pronunciationbut saying the same words we would have used, we saythat person has an accent.

• Accent is the phonological part and aspect of a dialect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-en-iDeZEE

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Language Variation• Language defines us even if we think it does not!

• We tend to think that the way we speak is perfectly normaland natural while others talk funny!

Examples:U.S. White male Bubba -> slang for a white, uneducatedand assertive man from the southern United States (UrbanDictionary)

The Valley Girl of Californiahttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81IZDhXeJBk

Dialect in literature 1Way a wee screwed up protestant face an' a head of black hair a was born, in a state of original sin. Me ma didn't like me, but who's te blame the poor woman, sure a didn't look like a catholic wain atall. The state of original sin didn't last long. That's wan good thing about me ma, she maybe didn't like me but by god she done hir duty by me an' didn't lave me lyin' there in the clutches of the divil. That very day a was took te the chapel at the tap of the town be me godmother, that me ma didn't like either, an' hirhusband who could have been me uncle if me ma hada married hes brother who was handsome an' beautiful an' iverythin' me dawasn't. But me ma, on a point of principle, jilted him, an' he went te England way a broken heart an' married an oul' woman an' made a lot of money.

(Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1)

Dialect in literature - Key

With a small screwed up protestant face and I head of blackhair I was born, in a state of original sin. My mother didn't like me, but who's to blame the poor woman, because I didn't look like a catholic child at all. The state of original sin didn't last long. That's one good thing about my mother, maybe she didn't like me but by god she did her duty by me and didn't lave me lying there in the clutches of the devil. That very day a was takento the chapel at the top of the town by my godmother, who my mother didn't like either, and her husband who could have been my uncle if my mother had married his brother who was handsome and beautiful and everything my dad wasn't. (6) But my mother, on a point of principle, jilted him, and he went toEngland with a broken heart and married an old woman andmade a lot of money.

(Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1)

Questions and Comments

Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1

What dialect do you think is being represented?The novel is set in Belfast and the dialect is working class Catholic Northern Irish.

Why is Standard English not being used? The novel is a first-person narration and the character is of a woman who comes from a working class, Northern Irish background. Therefore, the author probably felt it right she needed to be narrated in this marked dialectal form.

Dialect in literature 2[Context: Nellie Dean is reading out a letter which Isabella Linton, who has recently married Heathcliff, has written to her. In this part of the letter Isabella reports part of a conversation she had with the servant Joseph]

The contents of the pan began to boil, and he turned to plunge his hand into the bowl I conjectured that this preparation was probably for our supper, and, being hungry, I resolved it should be eatable; so, crying out sharply, "I'll make the porridge!" I removed the vessel out of his reach, and proceeded to take off my hat and riding habit. "Mr. Earnshaw," I continued, "directs me to wait on myself: I will. I'm not going to act the lady among you, for fear I should starve.""Gooid Lord!" he muttered, sitting down, and stroking his ribbed stockings from the knee to the ankle. "If there's to be fresh ortherings - just when I getten used to two maisters, if I mun hev a mistress set oe'r my heead, it's like time to be flitting. I niver did think to see t' day that I mud lave th' owldplace - but I doubt it's nigh at hand!"

(Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128)

Questions and CommentsEmily Brontë, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128

What dialect does Isabella write in and what dialect is Joseph represented as speaking?

Isabella appears to use a fairly formal Standard English,which is appropriate for her social status: she is an educated woman and at that time many women would not have been able to write. Joseph is an uneducated Yorkshire man, and sois given a dialect representation. The variationbetween the Standard English of the novel's narrationand the dialect indicating devices for Joseph help us to imagine him as rough, uneducated, dressed in working clothes, and so on.

Dialect in literature 2Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128

Markers of Joseph’s dialect:

“Gooid Lord!" he muttered, sitting down, and stroking hisribbed stockings from the knee to the ankle. "If there's to befresh ortherings - just when I getten used to two maisters, ifI mun hev a mistress set oe'r my heead, it's like time to beflitting. I niver did think to see t' day that I mud lave th' owldplace - but I doubt it's nigh at hand!"

(Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128)

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Language Variation and Social Groups• Language use is affected by the social group aperson belongs to (we all belong to at least onesocial group)

• Linguistics choices are driven by many factors.Here we will look at:

• Register

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Register• Register is a variation of language and it isdetermined by the subject matter. It is defined as a setof choices among linguistic features, which have to berecognised (and opposed to another register)

• Examples of different registers can be:Baby talk, also called motherese or parentese, or child-directed speech itsy-bisty (small); boo-boo (small cut or bruise), jammies (pyjama), passy (pacifier), nana (grandmother) pee-pee (urination or penis),scrummy (tasty)

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Register

• Examples of different registers can be:Newspaper English, also called Block Language used in headlines

and it features: 1. dropping of the articles

2. dropping of the verb “to be” (especially with present the

continuous)

3. Special tense-system. It is unusual to find complex forms like

“is coming” or “has produced”; generally the simple present form (“comes”, “produces”) is used, whether the headline is

about something that has happened, something that is

happened, or something that has happened repeatedly; the

infinitive is used to refer to future and the participle (with no auxiliary

verb) is used to in passive sentences

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Register – Tabloid vs. Broadsheet

Register

Formality or appropriateness of the Registerdepend on situation.

Register can vary according to:MediumDomainTenor

MediumMedium: (sometimes called 'mode') Theprecise method and/or materials used toconvey discourse.

For example: written language may use themedium of books, email, graffiti etc; spokenlanguage may use the medium of thetelephone, or public announcement etc.

DomainDomain: (sometimes called 'field‘) it is scope orfield of influence. Language changes accordingto the domain that the language is related to.

This includes (a) the subject matter beingspoken or written about (cf. 'the language ofscience', 'the language of law') and (b) thefunction that the language is being used for (cf.'the language of advertising', 'the language ofgovernment').

TenorTenor: the relationship between participants in situation -roles and status - informal/formal everyday/scientific.

The tenor of language (e.g. how politely or formallypeople speak) changes according to (a) who you aretalking or writing to (cf. the language we use whentalking to close friends compared with that usedwhen talking to strangers or people who are sociallydistant from us) and (b) the social situation you findyourself in (e.g. a child whose mother is a teacherwill talk to her in different ways, depending onwhether they are at home or at school).

Exercise 1 - Medium(a) Identify which medium you think is involved (b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features areassociated with the medium you identified)

Monday, 11 NovemberDear Mary,

I'm writing to you in reference to the Call for Papers I received lastMonday via our Mailing List Newsletter. I would be very happy tocontribute to your book, but I was wondering what is thetimeframe for submitting an abstract and, upon acceptance, thepaper. I am extremely busy these days and I'm afraid I might notmeet a tight deadline. I would be grateful if you could let me knowtomorrow (Tuesday) at the latest. You can e-mail me or call.

Best wishes,

Margherita

Exercise 1 – Medium - key

This is clearly a letter and so it is an example ofwriting. The graphological layout, and formulaicopening and closing, is typical of a letter. Thesentences are well-constructed and some ofthem (sentences 2) are quite complexgrammatically. This is typical of writing.

Exercise 1 – Domain(a) Identify which domain they come from

(b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features are associated with

each medium)

Text 1The following provisions of this clause are a Statement of the

general aims of the Charity to which the Trustees are (subject to

the following) to have regard at all times but no part of or

provision in such Statement is to qualify derogate from add to or

otherwise affect the Objects set out in clause 3.1…

Text 2The exact way in which information is 'coded' in the auditory

nerve is not clear. However, we know that any single neurone is

activated only by vibration on a limited part of the basilar

membrane. Each neuron is 'tuned' and responds to only a limited

range of frequencies.

Exercise 1 – Domain - KeyText 1: the Domain is Law, since this is an extract from a legaldocument setting up a charitable trust. The term ‘derogate’ can befound mainly in the law, and ‘clause’, ‘provisions’ here have specialmeanings compared with their more normal uses. The lexis issomewhat arcane, the grammar is complex, and also involves listconstructions with frequent use of 'and' and 'or‘. The grammaticaland punctuation characteristics are typical of legal documentsbecause they need to be worded in such a way that there are nomisunderstandings or ambiguities about what is said.

Text 2: it is taken from a book on the nervous system written forstudents of psychology, biology and medicine. It has obviousbiological technical terms (e.g. 'auditory nerve', 'neurone') is writtenso that complex material can be understood clearly. The languageof science is fairy formal as shown by the prevalent use of the ofpassive constructions.

Exercise 1 – Tenor(a) Identify which of the extracts is from the tabloid, and which from the broadsheet(b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features are associated with the tenor of each medium)

PENSION AXE VOWUNIONS yesterday threatened a wave of

strikes to stop bosses axing workers‘pension schemes.

*************************************************************************************

TUC warns of strikes over pensions crisis BRITAIN'S EMPLOYERS were put on alert yesterday that employees were increasingly prepared to take

industrial action to defend their pensions, now the single most important issue at work.

Exercise 1 – Tenor - keyText 1: This extract is from a tabloid, The Sun; thetypical relationship between the paper and its relatively uneducated typical readership is that most of them are unlikely to read the whole article so they write the headline in big capital letters. simple straightforward lexical items are used ('bosses', 'workers'), emotionally loaded lexis -'threatened', 'wave', 'axing' - aimed at portraying the issue is as extreme terms as possible.

Text 2: This extract is from a broadsheet, The Independent; The graphological style of the headline is less striking; the lexis is considerably less emotive, even though 'strike' and 'crisis' occur along with more formal nouns: 'employers' and 'employees’; sentence are more complex and formal.

BibliographyWhat we covered so far:

• Leech, G. N. and Short, M. H. (2007) Style In Fiction, 2ndedition. London: Longman (Study Ch. 1, 2, 3)

• L. Wright, J. Hope, Stylistics, 1996 (Study Ch. 1, 2, 3)• C. Gregoriou, English Literary Stylistics, 2009 (Study Ch. 1(you can skip pp.9-17); Ch. 2 and practice yourunderstanding with Ch.3)

• Simpson, P. (2004) Stylistics: A Resource Book forStudents. London: Routledge. (Study Sections A1-A6 andB1-B4)