ADVANCED GRAMMARADVANCED GRAMMARFOR FOR

APAP

THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW HOW TO DO!HOW TO DO!punctuationpunctuation

DashDash EllipsisEllipsis

SemicolonSemicolon ColonColon

ADVANCED SENTENCE ADVANCED SENTENCE STRUCTURE!STRUCTURE!

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONSABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS PARALLELISMPARALLELISM

• WITHIN A SENTENCEWITHIN A SENTENCE• OVER SEVERAL SENTENCESOVER SEVERAL SENTENCES

BALANCED SENTENCESBALANCED SENTENCES NOUN, ADJECTIVE (and) ADJECTIVENOUN, ADJECTIVE (and) ADJECTIVE

CUMULATIVE SENTENCESCUMULATIVE SENTENCES• PERIODIC SENTENCESPERIODIC SENTENCES• LOOSE SENTENCESLOOSE SENTENCES• USE OF USE OF

VERB CLUSTERSVERB CLUSTERS ADJECTIVE CLUSTERSADJECTIVE CLUSTERS NOUN CLUSTERS (APPOSITIVES)NOUN CLUSTERS (APPOSITIVES) ADJ. + ADJ. PHRASEADJ. + ADJ. PHRASE

So let’s make a DASH into So let’s make a DASH into some fancy punctuation!some fancy punctuation!

THE DASHTHE DASH(NOT A HYPHEN)(NOT A HYPHEN)

Shows a major break in thought in a Shows a major break in thought in a sentence, or an interrupting thought.sentence, or an interrupting thought.• Will Jeff—can Jeff—continue the speech?Will Jeff—can Jeff—continue the speech?• This essay might—please, God—be This essay might—please, God—be

accepted this time.accepted this time.• Sue wrote for several hours—hours Sue wrote for several hours—hours

spent alone in the library—before she spent alone in the library—before she finished the report. finished the report.

The DashThe Dash

Show a parenthetical comment that Show a parenthetical comment that deserves emphasis.deserves emphasis.• Frodo managed—only with the help of Frodo managed—only with the help of

Sam—to carry the ring to Mt. Doom.Sam—to carry the ring to Mt. Doom.• The Overlords—with all the appearance The Overlords—with all the appearance

of demons—were really guardian angels of demons—were really guardian angels for humanity.for humanity.

On Dasher, on Dancer…On Dasher, on Dancer…

Set off an appositive that contains Set off an appositive that contains commascommas• The major characters in The major characters in Brave New Brave New

WorldWorld—Lenina Crowne, Bernard Marx, —Lenina Crowne, Bernard Marx, and Mustapha Mond—all react and Mustapha Mond—all react differently to the Savage.differently to the Savage.

Dash it all!Dash it all!

The dash is an INFORMAL device. It’s The dash is an INFORMAL device. It’s OK in TW’s, but not in formal papers.OK in TW’s, but not in formal papers.

To type it, use TWO hyphens with no To type it, use TWO hyphens with no space before, between, or after. space before, between, or after. Most word processors will turn it into Most word processors will turn it into a dash. a dash.

ELLIPSISELLIPSIS

YOU HAVE NO TIME in timed writing YOU HAVE NO TIME in timed writing to copy unnecessary words, so leave to copy unnecessary words, so leave them out!them out!

Use an ellipsis (…) to show your Use an ellipsis (…) to show your deletions.deletions.

……• "Rome had several mad emperors. "Rome had several mad emperors.

[Nero] was the maddest of them all. . . . [Nero] was the maddest of them all. . . . Legend has it . . . he played his harp Legend has it . . . he played his harp while the city went up in flames." while the city went up in flames."

The 4The 4thth dot after “all” is a period for dot after “all” is a period for the end of the sentence.the end of the sentence.

DO NOT leave out a phrase like DO NOT leave out a phrase like “legend has it,” because that would “legend has it,” because that would change the author’s meaning!change the author’s meaning!

"Rome had several mad emperors. [Nero] "Rome had several mad emperors. [Nero] was the maddest of them all. . . . Legend was the maddest of them all. . . . Legend has it . . . he played his harp [some say he has it . . . he played his harp [some say he fiddled] while the city went up in flames.“fiddled] while the city went up in flames.“

Notice the brackets to Notice the brackets to replacereplace “he” “he” with the name. Notice it’s not “He with the name. Notice it’s not “He [Nero] was…”[Nero] was…”

Notice the brackets to make an Notice the brackets to make an inserted comment after “harp.” Only inserted comment after “harp.” Only do that if it’s really necessary and do that if it’s really necessary and will save you time later.will save you time later.

SEMICOLONSSEMICOLONS

Put two Put two COMPLETECOMPLETE sentences sentences together.together.• Individual environmental action is Individual environmental action is

essential for saving the planet; everyone essential for saving the planet; everyone must take action in his or her must take action in his or her community. community.

• Frodo and Sam struggled toward the Frodo and Sam struggled toward the mountain; Gollum followed out of sight.mountain; Gollum followed out of sight.

• Bernard needed an advantage over the Bernard needed an advantage over the Director; he saw his chance when he met Director; he saw his chance when he met Linda.Linda.

They MUST be closely related.They MUST be closely related. You MUST be able to replace the You MUST be able to replace the

semicolon with a period and capital letter.semicolon with a period and capital letter.• Eliminating red meat from your diet is a good Eliminating red meat from your diet is a good

way to reduce cholesterol; besides, it also way to reduce cholesterol; besides, it also saves the lives of animals. saves the lives of animals.

• All college students should be given a Porsche All college students should be given a Porsche for graduation; after all, we've earned it! for graduation; after all, we've earned it!

COLON:COLON:

Use it between independent clauses Use it between independent clauses when the second restates or explains when the second restates or explains the first the first (like a super-semicolon)(like a super-semicolon). . • I’m glad to be at the Science Academy: I’m glad to be at the Science Academy:

it sure beats my local high school!it sure beats my local high school!• Frodo and Sam crossed the plain: they Frodo and Sam crossed the plain: they

struggled through smoke, ashes, and struggled through smoke, ashes, and orcs.orcs.

COLON:COLON:

Use it to set off appositives (usually Use it to set off appositives (usually done with commas).done with commas).• I will be traveling to three major cities in I will be traveling to three major cities in

the Orient: Tokyo, Hong Kong, and the Orient: Tokyo, Hong Kong, and Bangkok. Bangkok.

• The Fellowship received help from The Fellowship received help from Galadriel: the will to continue.Galadriel: the will to continue.

COLON:COLON:

To start lists (but NOT all lists!)To start lists (but NOT all lists!)• They received the following: food, They received the following: food,

cloaks, and boats.cloaks, and boats.• There were only three left: Gimli, There were only three left: Gimli,

Legolas, and StriderLegolas, and Strider NOTNOT THIS WAY: THIS WAY:

• They received: food cloaks and boats.They received: food cloaks and boats.• The three left were: Gimli, Legolas, and The three left were: Gimli, Legolas, and

Strider.Strider.

COLON:COLON:

The rule: use a colon to start a list The rule: use a colon to start a list onlyonly if what’s before it is an if what’s before it is an independent clause!independent clause!

ABSOLUTESABSOLUTES

• His determination stronger than everHis determination stronger than ever, , Frodo clawed his way up the slope.Frodo clawed his way up the slope.

• The mountain smoking and the ground The mountain smoking and the ground rumblingrumbling, Frodo stumbled from the , Frodo stumbled from the cave.cave.

Absolutes usually modify the whole Absolutes usually modify the whole sentence, rather than one word in it.sentence, rather than one word in it.

They’re like sentences They’re like sentences without without complete verbscomplete verbs..

AbsolutesAbsolutes

• They finished the pipeweed, They finished the pipeweed, their spirits their spirits at peace.at peace.

They’re usually set off with commas, They’re usually set off with commas, and sometimes dashes.and sometimes dashes.• The battle overThe battle over, Aragorn dismissed the , Aragorn dismissed the

ghosts.ghosts.• Ordered to lead the attackOrdered to lead the attack, Eomer , Eomer

spurred his horse forward.spurred his horse forward.

AbsolutesAbsolutes

They can go at the end to add more They can go at the end to add more detail:detail:• He dropped the sword, He dropped the sword, his hand burning his hand burning

with pain.with pain.• Aragorn strode forward, Aragorn strode forward, his manner his manner

intimidating, his glance fearsome, his intimidating, his glance fearsome, his hand on his sword.hand on his sword.

PARALLELISMPARALLELISM

““Parallel structures include word or phrase Parallel structures include word or phrase patterns that are similar. When ideas in a patterns that are similar. When ideas in a sentence or paragraph are similar, you can sentence or paragraph are similar, you can reinforce these similaritiesreinforce these similarities in meaning in meaning through creating parallel structures. through creating parallel structures. Effective parallelism Effective parallelism creates symmetrycreates symmetry in in sentences and sentences and adds forceadds force to your writing; to your writing; it emphasizes the likeness between two or it emphasizes the likeness between two or more ideas.”more ideas.”

-Writing Center, University of Richmond-Writing Center, University of Richmond

• The Fellowship needs people The Fellowship needs people who are who are determined, who are courageous, and determined, who are courageous, and who are resilientwho are resilient. .

• I came; I saw; I conquered.I came; I saw; I conquered. • Ask not what your country can do for Ask not what your country can do for

you; ask what you can do for your you; ask what you can do for your country.country.

• Preston has three goals: Preston has three goals: to wake us up, to wake us up, to scare us to death, and to sell books.to scare us to death, and to sell books.

Lists and series Lists and series MUSTMUST be parallel! be parallel!

These are WRONG:These are WRONG:• Sam likes to eat, drink, and dancing.Sam likes to eat, drink, and dancing.• It is a cooker, a pasteurizer and It is a cooker, a pasteurizer and

environmentally friendly. environmentally friendly. • Simple‑step cookbooks use basic Simple‑step cookbooks use basic

ingredients, have easy‑to‑follow ingredients, have easy‑to‑follow directions and cook divinely. directions and cook divinely.

• The candidates spent the day amid The candidates spent the day amid handshakes, sloganeering and a chance handshakes, sloganeering and a chance to meet with constituents. to meet with constituents.

Putting several parallel sentences together Putting several parallel sentences together is a powerful technique!is a powerful technique!• He walked in. He sat down. He laid his gun on He walked in. He sat down. He laid his gun on

the table.the table.• "In a land of great wealth, families must not "In a land of great wealth, families must not

live in hopeless poverty. In a land rich in live in hopeless poverty. In a land rich in harvest, children must not go hungry. In a land harvest, children must not go hungry. In a land of healing miracles, neighbors must not suffer of healing miracles, neighbors must not suffer and die unattended. In a great land of learning and die unattended. In a great land of learning and scholars, young people must be taught to and scholars, young people must be taught to read and write. read and write. "—Lyndon Bains Johnson (President of the "—Lyndon Bains Johnson (President of the

United States) from his Inaugural Address in January, 1965.United States) from his Inaugural Address in January, 1965.

I have a dream that one day… little black boys I have a dream that one day… little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls and walk together as white boys and white girls and walk together as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today. I have sisters and brothers. I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day every valley shall be a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together. This is our hope. This is the shall see it together. This is our hope. This is the faith with which I return to the South. With this faith with which I return to the South. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. knowing that we will be free one day.

BALANCED SENTENCESBALANCED SENTENCES

A balanced sentence is neatly A balanced sentence is neatly divided between two parallel divided between two parallel structuresstructures..• Do not pass GO; do not collect $200.Do not pass GO; do not collect $200.• It was the best of times; it was the worst It was the best of times; it was the worst

of times. of times. • He wanted a Big Mac, but he had no He wanted a Big Mac, but he had no

money.money.

Your people shall be my people. Your people shall be my people. Many are called but few are chosen.Many are called but few are chosen. The test of our progress is not The test of our progress is not

whether we add more to the whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for it is whether we provide enough for those who have little.those who have little.

-F. D. Roosevelt-F. D. Roosevelt

NOUN, ADJECTIVE and NOUN, ADJECTIVE and ADJECTIVEADJECTIVE

Gandalf, Gandalf, tall and imperioustall and imperious, faced , faced Wormtongue.Wormtongue.

Merry cowered before the Nazgul, Merry cowered before the Nazgul, terrible and mightyterrible and mighty..

Gandalf rode Shadowfax, Gandalf rode Shadowfax, swift and swift and indefatigableindefatigable, into the raging battle., into the raging battle.

CUMULATIVE SENTENCESCUMULATIVE SENTENCES

2 VARIETIES:2 VARIETIES: LOOSE SENTENCESLOOSE SENTENCES

ADDITIONS AFTER THE MAIN CLAUSEADDITIONS AFTER THE MAIN CLAUSE

PERIODIC SENTENCESPERIODIC SENTENCES ADDITIONS BEFORE THE MAIN CLAUSEADDITIONS BEFORE THE MAIN CLAUSE

Loose sentences Loose sentences ((main clausemain clause at the at the start)start)

I pledge allegianceI pledge allegiance• to the flagto the flag

of the United States of Americaof the United States of America• and to the republicand to the republic

for which it standsfor which it stands one nationone nation

under Godunder God indivisibleindivisible with liberty and justicewith liberty and justice

o for all.for all.

Loose sentences Loose sentences ((main clausemain clause at the at the start)start)

I would wait for him to arrive on his I would wait for him to arrive on his designated weekenddesignated weekend, watching intently for , watching intently for the first sign of the pale yellow 1966 the first sign of the pale yellow 1966 Dodge Dart with black racing stripes, Dodge Dart with black racing stripes, listening for the rackety sound that the listening for the rackety sound that the overstressed, oversized engine made, overstressed, oversized engine made, hoping that this weekend he would not hoping that this weekend he would not have forgotten or found something better have forgotten or found something better to do, waiting for one of the few precious to do, waiting for one of the few precious days I would have as a memory -- his salt days I would have as a memory -- his salt and pepper beard, his crisp, clear tenor and pepper beard, his crisp, clear tenor voice, his cruel, thoughtless laugh at a voice, his cruel, thoughtless laugh at a child's expense. child's expense.

Periodic sentences Periodic sentences ((main clausemain clause at the at the end)end)

When you can speak and know that When you can speak and know that he hears you, when you know that he hears you, when you know that it's you he is dreaming of, and no it's you he is dreaming of, and no one else, when you don't have to one else, when you don't have to wish you were thinner or younger or wish you were thinner or younger or taller or richer so he could love you taller or richer so he could love you more, when you can just show up more, when you can just show up and be yourself and you get to be and be yourself and you get to be loved, loved, that's when you know love is that's when you know love is real and you can trust itreal and you can trust it. .

Periodic sentences Periodic sentences ((main clausemain clause at the at the end)end)

Whenever I find myself growing grim Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November in my soul; whenever I drizzly November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses, and bringing up the coffin warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially rear of every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong moral hand of me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically stepping into the street, and methodically knocking people’s hats off--then, knocking people’s hats off--then, I account I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I canit high time to get to sea as soon as I can. .

Periodic sentences Periodic sentences ((main clausemain clause at the at the end)end)

If you’re a no-nonsense person, if you’re a If you’re a no-nonsense person, if you’re a straightforward writer and you expect the straightforward writer and you expect the same of others, if you don’t have any same of others, if you don’t have any patience with long-winded people—people, patience with long-winded people—people, that is, who never come directly to the that is, who never come directly to the point, but instead waste your time in point, but instead waste your time in seemingly endless digressions, as if they seemingly endless digressions, as if they were mentally incapable of putting first were mentally incapable of putting first things first—then things first—then you will probably you will probably consider periodic sentencesconsider periodic sentences, such as the , such as the one you are reading right now, which looks one you are reading right now, which looks like it may never come to an end, like it may never come to an end, to be an to be an exasperating waste of timeexasperating waste of time. .

Cumulative sentences: Cumulative sentences: things to things to accumulateaccumulate

Verb clusters:Verb clusters:• The orcs came on, The orcs came on, snarling with ragesnarling with rage, ,

shaking their swords.shaking their swords.

Cumulative sentences: Cumulative sentences: things to things to accumulateaccumulate

Adjective clustersAdjective clusters• Frodo, Frodo, bleeding and exhaustedbleeding and exhausted, crawled , crawled

into the cave.into the cave.

Cumulative sentences: Cumulative sentences: things to things to accumulateaccumulate

Noun clusters (appositives)Noun clusters (appositives)• Frodo, Frodo, the bearer of the Ringthe bearer of the Ring,, the hope the hope

of Middle-Earthof Middle-Earth, entered Mordor, , entered Mordor, land of land of despairdespair,, country of darkness country of darkness..

Cumulative sentences: Cumulative sentences: things to things to accumulateaccumulate

Adjective + adjective phrasesAdjective + adjective phrases• Frodo, Frodo, dejected and hopelessdejected and hopeless, struggled , struggled

up the slope, leaning on Sam, up the slope, leaning on Sam, determined and grimdetermined and grim..