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ACTA U N I V E R S I T A T I S l o d z i e n s i s FOLIA LIXCUISTICA U , 1986_____________________ Jamie z Wróblewski THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE AND ITS POLISH EQUIVALENTS One of the most difficult problems facing people learning English as a foreign language is the use of the grammatical tenses. The structure of the English tenses is fairly easy to master (at least In writing), but even those learners who nev- er forget to insert an "is" between "Joan" and "writing a lettur" seldom know the range of the situational usage of the tense in question, and very few ever come to fully realize its meaning. The most complicated of all the English tenses is undoubt- edly the Future-Perfect-Continuoua-in-the-Past, but fortunately one does not often meet with sentences like: "Say, John, do you know that if you had not come on time, by now I would have been waiting for you for forty five minutes?" or "No, it's too late to visit her; she told me this morning that by ten o'clock she would have been sleeping soundly for at least two hours." How- ever, one does encounter'sentences like "Have you been to Lon- don?" or "Have you seen Haiders o f the Lost Ark?", and the Present Perfect Tense seems to be no less difficult to comprehend. Its name suggests th*t it is a present tense, but its mean- ing involves an action which is past; on the other hand, it is not normally u&ed with "an adverb of completely past and fin- ished time"1. The name is not a terribly important factor and J, K. W a r d, The Use of Tenses in English, London 1954, p. 47; but cf. also * . K. P a l me r , The English verb, London 1974, p. 42; T . K r z e s z o w s k i , Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków, Warszawa 1980, p. 90; cf. also idem, Angielskie czasy perfektywhe w procesie nauczania , "Zeszyty Naukowe UŁ" 1967, No 48, pp. 131-140; idem, Teach- ing English to Polish Learners , Warszawa 1970, p. 112.

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A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S l o d z i e n s i s

FOLIA LIXCUISTICA U , 1986_____________________

J a m ie z W r ó b le w s k i

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE AND ITS POLISH EQUIVALENTS

One o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m s f a c i n g p e o p l e l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h a s a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e i s t h e u s e o f t h e g r a m m a t i c a l t e n s e s . The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e E n g l i s h t e n s e s i s f a i r l y e a s y t o m a s t e r ( a t l e a s t In w r i t i n g ) , b u t e v e n t h o s e l e a r n e r s who n e v ­e r f o r g e t t o i n s e r t a n " i s " b e t w e e n " J o a n " a n d " w r i t i n g a l e t t u r " s e l d o m know t h e r a n g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a l u s a g e o f t h e t e n s e i n q u e s t i o n , a n d v e r y few e v e r come t o f u l l y r e a l i z e i t s m e a n in g .

The m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d o f a l l t h e E n g l i s h t e n s e s i s u n d o u b t ­e d l y t h e F u t u r e - P e r f e c t - C o n t i n u o u a - i n - t h e - P a s t , b u t f o r t u n a t e l y o n e d o e s n o t o f t e n m e e t w i t h s e n t e n c e s l i k e : " S a y , J o h n , d o y o u

know t h a t i f y o u h a d n o t come o n t i m e , b y now I w o u ld h a v e b e e n w a i t i n g f o r y o u f o r f o r t y f i v e m i n u t e s ? " o r "N o , i t ' s t o o l a t e t o v i s i t h e r ; s h e t o l d me t h i s m o r n i n g t h a t b y t e n o ' c l o c k s h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s l e e p i n g s o u n d l y f o r a t l e a s t tw o h o u r s . " How­e v e r , o n e d o e s e n c o u n t e r ' s e n t e n c e s l i k e "H ave y o u b e e n t o Lon­d o n ? " o r "H ave y o u s e e n H aiders o f the L ost A rk? ", a n d t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e s e e m s t o b e n o l e s s d i f f i c u l t t o c o m p re h e n d .

I t s name s u g g e s t s t h * t i t i s a p r e s e n t t e n s e , b u t i t s m ean­i n g i n v o l v e s an a c t i o n w h ic h i s p a s t ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t i s n o t n o r m a l l y u&ed w i t h " a n a d v e r b o f c o m p l e t e l y p a s t a n d f i n ­i s h e d t i m e " 1. The name i s n o t a t e r r i b l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a n d

J , K. W a r d , The Use o f Tenses in E nglish, London 1954, p. 47; but c f . a l so * . K. P a l m e r , The English verb, London 1974, p. 42; T . K r z e s z o w s k i , Gramatyka angielska d la Polaków, Warszawa 1980, p. 90; c f . a l so i d e m , A ng ie lsk ie czasy perfektywhe w procesie nauczania , "Zeszyty Naukowe UŁ" 1967, No 48, pp. 131-140; i d e m , Teach­ing English to Polish Learners, Warszawa 1970, p. 112.

c a n e a s i l y b e c h a n g e d - i n f a c t some d i f f e r e n t n am es h a v e a l -2r e a d y b e e n p r o p o s e d , f o r e x a m p le K o r s a k o v , o f f e r s a c o i n a o e

3t h e B e f o r e p r e s e n t S t a t i c , w h e r e a s K r z e s z o w s k i f o l l o w s R e i c h e n -

4b a c h a n d p o s t u l a t e s t h a t t h e w o rd " p e r f e c t “ b e r e p l a c e d w i t h “ a n t e r i o r " - b u t t h e p r o b l e m s o f m e a n in g a n d u s a g e r e m a i n .

Some e x p l a n a t i o n a s t o why a p r e s e n t t e n s e c a n d e n o t e a p a s t a c t i o n i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s t e n s e .

The P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e d e v e l o p e d f ro m O ld E n g l i s h s t r u c ­t u r e s o f t h e t y p e " I h a v e i t d o n e " , w h o se " h a v e " w as o f c o u r s e n o t c a u s a t i v e , b u t h a d t h e b a s i c m e a n in g o f " h o l d " o r " p o s s e s s " , a n d w h o se " d o n e " w as o r i g i n a l l y i n f l e c t e d f o r c a s e an d n u m b e r , i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e fo rm o f " t o h a v e " 5 .

R e l e v a n t a n d u s e f u l a s i t i s , h o w e v e r , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i s f a r f ro m b e i n g s u f f i c i e n t , f o r t h e p r e s e n t - d a y P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y m ore c o m p le x t h a n i t s a n c e s t o r .

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e p r e s e n t - d a y P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e h a s

two f u n c t i o n s - i t i s u s e d e i t h e r t o d e n o t e an a c t i o n c o m p l e t e d a t any t i r a s b e f o r e t h e p r e s e n t , o r t o show t h a t a n a c t i o n b e g a n t o h a p p e n i n t h e p a s t b u t h a s n o t y e t f i n i s h e d , i . e . i t i s s t i l l h a p p e n i n g a t t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g . The f o r m e r i s c a l l ­e d t h e “F i n i s h e d " U s e , t h e l a t t a r - t h e " U n f i n i s h e d " U s e 6 . The " U n f i n i s h e d " Use i s v e r y e a s y t o e x p l a i n . The t r o u b l e s t a r t s w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e " F i n i s h e d " U s e , b e c a u s e m o s t g ram m ar­i a n s t e n d t o o v e r l o o k i t s h e t e r o g e n e i t y .

2A. K. K o r s a k o v , The tee o f Tenses in English , Kiev 1978.

3 К r z e s z o v s k i , Gramatyka...4 iH. R e i c h e n b a c h , Elements o f Symbolic Logic, New York 1947.5 For more in fo rm a t io n as well as f o r some Old and Middle English Examples

see f o r i n s ta n c e s e e : R. B e r n d t , History o f the English Language, L ei­p z ig 1982, pp. 154-156; c f . a lso H. S w e e t , A New English Grammar, v o l .2, Oxford 1398, pp. 86-87; G. 0 . C u r m e , S yntax , [ in : ] G. 0 . C u r m e , J . A. К u r a t h , A Grammar o f the English Language, v o l . 3, Boston 1931, pp. 358-359; G. 0 . C u r m e , Part o f Speech and Accidence, [ in : ] C u r - m e , К u r a t h , Л Grammar..., v o l . 2 , Boston 1935, pp. 320-321; J . M a- j e r , The present perfec t Tense, and i t s Polish E quiva len ts, U nivers i ty of Łódź 1974, u n p u b l . A. t h e s i s .

6 A f t e r W a r d , o p . c i t . ; these two functions a re r e f e r r e d to as Ex­c l u s i v e and I n c l u s i v e , r e s p c c t i v e l l y , by G. G r a u s t e i n e t a l . , En­g l i s h Grammar. A U n iv e r s ity Handbook, Leipzig 1977, p. 160.

THE "FINISHED" USE

The u s u a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s u s e o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i s t h a t t h e t e n s e i s e m p lo y e d t o e x p r e s s an a c t i o n w h ic h to o k p l a c e i n t h e p a s t , b u t t h e r e s u l t s o f w h ic h a r e s t i l l i n e x i s t e n c e ,

7a n d i t i s t h e r e s u l t s t h a t a r e b e i n g s t r e s s e d h e r e . F o l l o w i n g W.

О

M a u r i c e . some g r a m m a r i a n s o b s e r v e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d i ­r e c t n e s s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f s o m e b o d y 's h a v i n g come so m ew h ere an d o f so m e b o d y ’ s h a v i n g r e a d a b o o k , a n d d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o b j e c ­t i v e ( o r d i r e c t ) a n d s u b j e c t i v e ( i n d i r e c t ) r e s u l t s , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d v e r y b r o a d l y , y e t e v e n w i t h t h i s r e s e r v a t i o n , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o t u n a c c e p t a b l e , d o e s n o t se e m a d ­

e q u a t e .F i r s t o f a l l , t h e n o t i o n o f i n d i r e c t r e s u l t s a p p e a r s t o b e

c o m p l e t e l y g r o u n d l e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l g r a m m a r s , a s e n ­t e n c e l i k e

( 1 ) I h a v e r e a d David C opperfie ld .

w o u l d i n p l y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r knows t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e b o o k an d

i s a b l e t o d i s c u s s i t , t h i s k n o w le d g e a n d a b i l i t y b e i n g t h e r e -9

s u i t s i n q u e s t i o n . Any p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r w a n t s t o c o n v e y s u c h an i d e a c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d , b u t t h e i d e a i s n o t i n h e r e n t i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e : r e a d i n g a n d r e m e m b e r in g a r e n o t t h e sam e t h i n g , a n d a p e r s o n who h a s r e a d some b o o k s may i n s i s t t h a t h e h a s r e a d th e m e v e n i f h e h a s a b a d iremory and d o e s n o t rem e m b er h a l f o f th e m .

S e c o n d l y , we f i n d e x a m p l e s w h ic h r e f u t e t h e t n e o r y o f d i r e c t r e s u l t s .

( 2 ) The s e v e n t e e n - f o u r t e e n t r a i n h a s come a n a g o n e . v jo n n C h e e v e r ) 1 0 .

7 C f. f o r e x a n p le : F. V. B y w a t e r , A P roficiency Course in English, London 1969; J . C y g a n , O znaczeniach ka tegorii gramatycznych czasowni­ka angielskiego , " j ę z y k i Obce w Szko le" 1966, n r 2 ( 4 9 ) , pp . 65 -73 ; V. L. K a u s h a n s k a y a e t a l . , A Grammar o f the English Language, L en in ­g ra d 1S73; J . B. K h l e b n i k o v a , Binary R s la t io n s in H orphology (wi th Special Reference to the English Verb), " P h i l o l o g i c a P ra g e n s ia " 1964, no7 (.46)2, pp. 150-158; A. P r e j b i s z , Gramatyka j f z yka ang ielskiego ,Warszawa 1959.

tilW. M a u r i c e , P r e s e n t . Past and future Versus P e r fe c t, " Z e i t ­

s c h r i f t f ü r F ra n z ö s is c h e n und E n g l i s c h e n U n t e r r i c h t " 1927 Bd. 2ó, H. 7 , p . 524 ( a f t e r K orsakov , op. c i t . , p . 4 3 ) .

P r e j b i s z , op. c i t . , p . f15.

The ex au p le i s taken from K o r s a k o v , op. c i t . , p. 44.

( 3 ) I ' v e h i t i t t w i c e , b u t i t ' s s t i l l s t a n d i n g u p 1 1 .

A n a l y s e d r é s u l t a t ! v e l y , s e n t e n c e ( 2 ) y i e l d s c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e ­s u l t s , a n d s e n t e n c e ( 3 ) w h a t P a l m e r c a l l s " n i l r e s u l t s " . U n d e r t h e r e s u l t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f s e n t e n c e ( 2 ) - t h e t r a i n h a s come - w o u l d mean t h a t a t t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g t h e t r a i n i s s t i l l a t t h e s t a t i o n , m e a n w h i le t h e s e c o n d p a r t m akes i t p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t i t i s a l r e a d y so m e w h e re e l s e ,

f u r t h e r o n i t s w a y . S i n c e t h a t i s i m p o s s i b l e , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e no o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n b u t t h a t t h e t h o u g h t o f r e s u l t s i s n o t t h e s p e a k e r ' s r e a s o n f o r e m p l o y i n g t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t . As B r y a n

s t a t e s :

" I b e l i e v e t h a t any id e a t h e r e i a o f r e s u l t s o r consequences i s n o t im plied

i n the p e r f e c t te n s e form b u t d e r i v e s from th e meaning o r c h a r a c t e r o f th e

v e r b , o r from th e c o n t e x t , o r from th e s t a te m e n t as a w ho le . T h a t i s to

a s s ig n to the p e r f e c t ten se form i t s e l f a r e s u l t a t i v e f u n c t io n means a f a i l -. . „12 u re i n a n a l y s i s

What t h e n i s t h e t r u e m e a n in g o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ?A c c o r d i n g t o T w a d d e l l , t h e t e n s e ( o r w h a t h e c a l l s M o d i f i ­

c a t i o n I I )

" e x p l i c i t l y l i n k s an e a r l i e r e v e n t o r s t a t e w i th the c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . I t

s i g n a l s a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r s i s t e n c e o f r e s u l t s , a c o n t in u e d t r u t h v a lu e , a

v a l id , p r e s e n t r e le v a n c e o f the e f f e c t s o f e a r l i e r e v e n t s , th e c o n t in u e d r e ­

l i a b i l i t y o f c o n c lu s io n s b ased on e l a r l i e r b e h a v io r " 1^.

T w a d d e l l ' s d e f i n i t i o n i s p r o b a b l y s u f f i c i e n t l y b r o a d t o i n c l u d e e v e r y s e n t e n c e i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t , b u t i t s p h r a s i n g i s r a t h ­e r u n f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e r e l e v a n c e i s r e l a t i v e , a n d b e s i d e s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o t e x c l u d e s e n t e n c e s i n t h e P a s t S i m p l e . Twad­d e l l h i m s e l f a d m i t s t h a t “ t h e ' P a s t ' m o d i f i c a t i o n b y n o m eans

d e n i e s s u c h c u r r e n t r e l e v a n c e " 1 4 .

' ' p a l m e r , op . c i t . , p . 50.12 W. F. 3 r y a n , The P re te r ite and the P erfect Tense in Present-Dau

E nglish . " J o u rn a l o f E n g l i s h and Germanic P h i lo lo g y " 1936, v o l . 35, p . 363- -3 8 2 , 369 ( a f t e r M a j e r , op. c i t . ) ; c f . a l s o A. A. H i I 1 , Introduc­tion to L in g u is tic S tructures: from Sound to Sentence in E nglish , New York 1958, p . 212; R.’ L. A 1 1 e n , The \erb System o f Present-Day Ameri­can E nglish , The Hague 1966, pp. 142-143.

J O

rf. F . T w a d d e l l , The English Verb A u x ilia r ie s , P ro v id e n c e , Rhode I s l a n d 1965, p . 8.

A k i r a O t a ' s v ie w i s s a f e r :

"The a c tu a l p e r f e c t (g e n e r ic a sp ec t) in d ic a te s the occurrence o f an ac t io n o r the e x is te n ce o f a s t a t e in o r fo r a pe r iod extending from some time in

the p a s t up to the moment of speaking"

I n h i s r e v i e w J o o s c r i t i c i z e s O t a a n d i n s i s t s t h a t T w a d d e l l h a s " b e e n t o t a l l y r i g h t a b o u t ' c u r r e n t r e l e v a n c e ' a s t h e mean­i n g o f o u r ' p e r f e c t ' " * ^ b u t h i s own f o r m u l a t i o n i s r a t h e r d i f ­f e r e n t f r o m T w a d d e l l ' s : " t h e p e r f e c t p h a s e m eans t h a t t h e e v e n t i s n o t m e n t i o n e d f o r i t s own s a k e b u t f o r t h e s a k e o f i t s c o n ­s e q u e n c e s " 1 7 , a n d - a t l e a s t t o t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r - seem s t o b e j u s t a r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e s u l t a t i v e h y p o ­t h e s i s 1 8 .

H o w e v e r , i t m u s t n o t be i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e i d e a o f r e s u l t si s c o n p l e t e l y a b s e n t f ro m a l l t h e u s e s o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c tT e n s e . O t a ' s s t a t e m e n t , a s w e l l a s W a r d ' s d e f i n i t i o n t h a t " t h eF i n i s h e d Use o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t sh o w s t h a t an a c t i o n h a p p e n da n d f i n i s h e d a t some t i m e i n t h e p a s t b u t i t s a y s n o t h i n g

10a t a l l t o i n d i c a t e w hen" , a l t h o u g h much b e t t e r t h a n t h e t r a ­d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n , a r e n o t p e r f e c t e i t h e r , b e c a u s e i n some c a s e s , l i k e f o r e x a m p le

( 4 ) 1 h a v e d e c i d e d t o c a t c h a H e f f a l u m p 2 0 .

t h e r e s u l t s a r e t o o t a n g i b l e t o b e i g n o r e d . ^The c o n c l u s i o n i s o b v i o u s - t h e s o - c a l l e d " F i n i s h e d " Use

c o m p r i s e s a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t u s e s , f o r w h ic h o n e d e f i n i t i o n2 1d o e s n o t s u f f i c e . A c o o r d i n a t o McCawley , w h o se a p p r o a c h se e m s

b e s t t o me a n d w h o se p o i n t o f v ie w I s h a l l a d o p t h e r e , i t com-

A. 0 t a , Review o f M, Joos, The E nglish Verb: Form and Meanings, Madison and Milwaukee 1964, "Language" 1965, No 41, pp. 657-674, quot. p. 668.

16 M. J o o s , Review o f A. O ta, Tense and A spect o f P resent Day Amer­ic an E n g lish , Tokyo 1963, "Language" 1964, No 40, pp. 487-498, quot. p. 495.

J о о s , The E ng lish V e r b . , . , p . 140.18 Oddly enough, Joos* and Twaddell’s conceptions are equated by F. R.

P a l m e r , The Sem antics o f th e E nglish Verb, “Lingua" 1967, no 1S, p. 186, bu t see a l s o pp. 189-190.

19 W a r d, op. c i t . , p. 47.20 A. A. M i 1 n e , W innie-the-P ooh, Magnet 1980, p. 52.21 J . D. M с C a w 1 e y . Tense and Time R eference in E n g lish , [ in : ]

Ch. J . F i l l m o r e , D. T. L a n g e n d o e n f e d s . ] , S tu d ie s in L in ­g u i s t i c Sem antics, New York 1971, pp. 97-113.

p r i s e s t h r e e , n a m e l y : t h e E x i s t e n t i a l , t h e S t a t i v e , a n d t h e H o t News U se . (T o b e e x a c t - McCawley d o e s n o t u s e t h e t e r m " F i n ­i s h e d " , n o r d o e s h e g r o u p t h e s e t h r e e u s e s u n d e r any common head­i n g ) .

THE EXISTENTIAL USE

The E x i s t e n t i a l Use o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i n d i c a t e s t h e ex i ­s t e n c e o f a p a s t a c t i o n , t h a t i s , i t i n f o r m s u s a b o u t t h e f a c t o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f some a c t i o n o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t i s n o t i m p o r t a n t when t h e a c t i o n h a p p e n e d b u t r a t h e r t h a t i t i s now on r e c o r d . W h e th e r a n y r e s u l t s o f t h e a c t i o n a r e s t i l l i n e x i s t e n c e i s a b s o l u t e l y i r r e l e v a n t f ro m t h e l i n g u i s t i c p o i n t o f v i e w . The a c t i o n c a n b e t e r m i n a t i v e o r n o n - t e r m i n a t i v e , s i n g l e o r r e p e a t e d .

( 5 ) B u t God f o r g i v e me t h e w ro n g I ' v e done y o u t 22

( 6 ) " T e r m o l i , i s i t ? P l a c e I ' v e a l w a y s w a n t e d t o s e e . "M i l l e r p a u s e d . "W here t h e h e l l ' s T e r m o l i ? " 23

( 7 ) T h e v a m p i r e h a s b e e n d e a d many t i m e s .

The t e p p o r a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e n d o f t h e a c t i o n a n d t h e m om ent o f s p e a k i n g i s i n n o way l i m i t e d , b u t t h e t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n c a n n o t b e s p e c i f i e d i n t h e s e n t e n c e . S t a t e m e n t s i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e a lw a y s r e l a t e t h e a c t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e a p p a r e n t l y t h e y s h o u l d e i t h e r c o n t a i n n o a d v e r b i a l o f t i m e , o r h a v e some p r e s e n t t im e a d v e r b i a l , w h ic h i s o n l y l o ­g i c a l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n p r a c t i c e n o t e v e r y b o d y c o n f o r m s t o t h a t l o g i c , a n d t h e p o p u l a r r u l e t h a t t h e a d v e r b i a l i o f t i m e

u s e d w i t h t h e E n g l i s h P r e s e n t P e r f e c t m u s t a l w a y s i n c l u d e t h e p r e s e n t m om ent h a s t o b e r e f o r m u l a t e d .

C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :

( 8 ) W a l l , I ' v e come a c r o s s h im i n ^ t h e p a s t t o o . ( A . C r o n i n )

22 A. H o p e , P risoner o f Zenda, K ia s te r C la s s ic s 1968,p. 20*.

A. M a c L e a n , Fox со 10 from Navarone, Foat&na 1970, p .

( 9 ) You n e e d n ' t t h i n k I ' m a o i n g t o ao on e n d u r i n g a l l t h i s2ч

a s I h a v e i n t h e p a s t . I ' m n o t . ( T h . D r e i s e r )

K o r s a k o v , who p r e s e n t s t h e s e e x a n p l e s , d o e s n o t n o t i c e a n y t h i n g s t r a n g e a b o u t th e m a n d h e n c e d o e s n o t o f f e r any e x p l a n a t i o n , b u t i t s e e m s to ' ms t h a t t h e y d e s e r v e a t l e a s t some r e m a r k s . A f ­t e r a l l , t h e e x p r e s s i o n " i n t h e p a s t " c l e a r l y i s o l a t e s t h e v e r ­b a l p r o c e s s f ro m t h e p r e s e n t moment a n d i s i n c o n s p i c u o u s c o n ­f l i c t w i t h t h e r u l e . Can we somehow a c c o u n t f o r t h i s ?

T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t two p o s s i b i l i t i e s . The f i r s t i s t h e f o l ­l o w i n g : t h e s e e x a m p le s m i g h t e v i d e n c e a l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e i n ­f l u e n c i n g t h e r u l e g o v e r n i n g t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e t i m e a d ­v e r b i a l e w i t h t h e E n g l i s h P r e s e n t P e r f e c t . I t i s p e r f e c t l y

g r a m m a t i c a l i n German t o u s e daa P e r fe k t w i t h a d v e r b l a l s w h ic h a r e d e f i n i t e l y p a s t , a l t h o u g h t h e a u x i l i a r y v e r b i s m a rk e d f o r

t h e p r e s e n t :

(1 0 ) W i r h a b e n g ee tern d i e S t a d t b e s i c h t i g t . '2 5( 1 1 ) D e r L e h r e r h a t in vorigen Jahr s e i n Examen a b g e l e g t

A l s o i n F r e n c h p a s t a d v e r b l a l s a r e n o r m a l w i t h p a s s é com posé ( t h e F r e n c h c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e E n g l i s h P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ) , e . g . :

(1 2 ) H i e r , j ' a i é t é d a n s une p a p e t e r i e 2* .

Somehow i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s t h e a d v e r b l a l s o f t im e arą^ a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a in v e r b r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e a u x i l i a r y . P e r h a p s a d e ­v e l o p m e n t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s now t a k i n g p l a c e i n E n g l i s h ?

B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y . T he e x p r e s s i o n " i n t h e p a s t " i s n o t m a r k e d ly d i f f e r e n t f r o m s u c h a d v e r b s o f t i m e a s " l a t e l y " , " r e c e a t l y “ , a n d " b e f o r e " , w h o se o c c u r r e n c e w i t h t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e i s a p p r o v e d o f b y e v e n t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a ­t i v e p r e s c r i p t i v e g r a m m a r i a n s o n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r b e i n g s o i n ­d e f i n i t e a s t o so n e h c w b o r d e r on t h e p r e s e n t . Why t h e n s h o u l d " i n t h e p a s t " b e r e f u s e d t h i 3 p r i v i l e g e a n d l e f t o u t ? P e r h a p s i t i s e n o u g h t o s a y t h a t t h e t i m e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r ­f e c t m u s t e i t h e r I n c l u d e t h e p r e s e n t moment o r b e i n some way

cp . c i t . , p. 143.J . B u s с h a , ' Deutsche GraomatiJt, Leipz ig 1975,

Parlez-vous frança is! Kurs I , W arszawa 1969, p . 97.

24 _K o r s s k o v ,‘ 5 С. 4 e 1 b i g ,

p . 128.26 , ,A. 2 a г a с b.

t a n g e n t i a l t o i t , o r , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t o n l y d e f i n i t e p a s t a d -27v e r b i a l s a r e f o r b i d d e n w i t h t h i s t e n s e

U n f o r t u n a t e l y a g a i n , o c c a s i o n a l l y we f i n d s e n t e n c e s i n w h ic h e v e n d e f i n i t e p a s t a d v e r b i a l s c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e .

( 1 3 ) Ohe memoe r o f t h e g r o u p h a s a c t u a l l y s e r v e d a s a P u l -28

b r i ÿ i t s c h o l a r i n B urm a a few y e a r s ago

O t a i s a t a l o s s t o a c o o u n t f o r t h i s u s a g e . J o o s e x p l a i n s :

"The a d v e r b ia l a few years ago i s n o t c o l l i g a t e d w ich h as se r v ed b u t o n ly

w ith the w ording th a t f o l lo w s i t , p erhaps o n ly w ith in Burma, p erhaps e sp e ­

c i a l l y w ith as a F u lb rig h t scho lars t h i s much a n b ig u ity i s r o u t in e in con­

v e r s a t io n in any la n g u a g e , w h ile c o l l i g a t i o n w ith the p e r f e c t v erb i s gram - 29

m a t ic a l ly im p o ss ib le "

O t a 1965 a c e p t s J o o s ' a n a l y s i s , a d d s o n e m o re e x a m p l e :

( .14) Dr T u r n e r [ . . . ) h a s h a d , i t i s a n n o u n c e d , a h e a r t a t t a c k t h r e e d a y s a g o .

b u t e x p r e s s e s h i s d o u b t a b o u t J o o s ' - r i g h t t o r e j e c t s e n t e n c e s o f t h e t y p e " I h a v e show n i t t o h e r y e s t e r d a y " . B u t a p p a r e n t l y i n s u c h s e n t e n c e s a p a s t t i m e a d v e r b i a l i s j u s t i f i e d o n l y i f i t i s a d d e d a s an a f t e r t h o u g h t 3 0 .

I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a s p e c i f i c a n d an i n d e f i n i t e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , a s e n t e n c e l i k e :

( 1 5 ) The t r a i n h a s a r r i v p d a t 5 o ' c l o c k 3 *.

se e m s t o b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l , a n d i t d e f i n i t e l y i s , i f we mean o n e d e f i n i t e 5 o ' c l o c k . B u t s e n t e n c e ( 1 5 ) h a s n o t b e e n t r i g g e r e d by a n d d o e s n o t a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n

( 1 6 ) When d i d t h e t r a i n a r r i v e ?

S e n c e n c e ( 1 5 ) c o u l d o n l y b e u t t e r e d - w i t h t h e s e n t e n c e s t r e s s on " h a s " - w hen we a r e f a n n i n g h o pes - ( o r . s i m p l y e x p e c t ) t h a t

C f. A l l e n , op. c i t . , pp . 1 5 6 -1 5 7 .28 O t a , Tense and A s p e c t . . .29 J o o s , Review o f . . . , p. 4 9 5 .

30 Ibidem ; a l so В . С о m r i e , A spect, Cambridge 19 7 8 , p . 5 4 .

31 1 owe th i s example to P ro f . T. P . Krzeszowski.

a t r a i n w h ic h i s f r e q u e n t l y l a t e may b e p u n c t u a l t h i s t i m e , m e a n in g t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a t l e a s t o n e c a s e b e f o r e now o f t h e t r a i n b e i n g a t o u r s t a t i o n o n t i m e . The o v e r t t i n e a d v e r b j i a l w o u l d t h e n b e an i n d e f i n i t e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e n o t c o n n e ­c t e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r a i n t _on t h e u s e o f t h e a d v e r b i a l s o f t i m e w i t h t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t , a n d t h e r e a l s p e c i f i c p o i n t o f r e f ­e r e n c e t o w h ic h t h e a c t i o n i s a n t e r i o r w o u ld b e t h e c o v e r t

32" n o w " , t h a t i s t h e moment o f s p e a k i n gS i m i l a r l y , t h e u s e o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e i s e n t i r e l y

j u s t i f i e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :

( 1 7 ) I t e l l y o u . I ' v e s a t a n d l o o k e d i n t o t h a t d o g ' s e y e s t i l l t h e s h i v e r s r a n up a n d down my s p i n e . ( j . L o n d o n )

( 1 8 ) I h a v e s a t a n d t h o u g h t upon i t t i l l my h e a d w e n t r o u n d . ( . J , L o n d o n ) 33

b e c a u s e t h e a d v e r b i a l c l a u s e s o f t i m e c o n t a i n i n g t h e P a s t S im ­p l e T e n s e a r e n o t m e a n t t o b e p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e a c t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n . I n a s e n s e t h e y l i e on a d i f f e r e n t p l a n e , m a r k i n g o n l y t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n s w h ic h i n a c t u a l f a c t a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g .

The p r o b l e m o f t h e t i m e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i s c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e r e c o r d .

I t i s a common b e l i e f t h a t t h e s u b j e c t o f a s e n t e n c e i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t m u s t b e a l i v e o r s t i l l e x i s t i n g . Curme i l ­l u s t r a t e s t h i s b y c o x p a r l n g t h e s e n t e n c e s :

(•19) My g r a n d f a t h e r h a s s e e n a g o o d d e a l i n h i s l i f e t i m e .

a n d

( 2 0 ) E n g l a n d h a s h a d many a b l e r u l e r s .

w i t h

( 2 1 ) * C a e s a r h a s s e e n a g o o d d e a l i n h i s l i f e t i m e .

an d

( 2 2 ) ^ A s s y r i a h a s h a d many a b l e r u l e r s .

32 С о m r i e , op. c i t . , p . 5 4 .33

152 _____ __________J a n usz Wr ó b l e w s k i_________ __________________________

3/ J 5r e s p e c t i v e l y . McCawley p r o v e s h o w e v e r t h a t t h e b e l i e f i s

3 6w ro n g . To Chomsky , t h e s e n t e n c e :

♦ ( 2 3 ) E i n s t e i n h a s v i s i t e d P r i n c e t o n .

s e e m s o d d a s c o m p a r e d w i t h :

(2 4 ) P r i n c e t o n h a s b e e n v i s i t e d by E i n s t e i n .

b e c a u s e w h i l e P r i n c e t o n s t i l l e x i s t s , E i n s t e i n i s n o l o n g e r a l i v e . B u t a c c o r d i n g t o M cC aw ley , i f o n e r e a d s t h e s e n t e n c e s w i t h t h e s e n t e n c e s t r e s s o n t h e f i r s t w o rd i n b o t h e x a m p l e s , t h e n c l e a r l y i n ( 2 1 ) " o n e i s t a l k i n g a b o u t e v e n t s o f v i s i t i n gq 7P r i n c e t o n " , a n d i n ( 2 2 ) " a b o u t e v e n t s o f E i n s t e i n v i s i t i n g " . T h u t t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e b e c o m e s g r a m m a t i c a l a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e s e e m s o d d i n t u r n , w h ic h p r o v e s t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n o f b e i n g a l i v e o r e x i s t i n g r e f e r s t o t h e t o p i c r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e s u b ­j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e - t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e d o e s n o t

38h a v e t o b e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e r e c o r dMcCawley c o m p a r e s a l s o t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :

( 2 5 ) Many p e o p l e h a v e d i e d i n a u t o a c c i d e n t s .

( 2 6 ) D e n n i s B r a i n h a s d i e d i n an a u t o a c c i d e n t 3 9 . ,

The s u b j e c t s o f b o t h s e n t e n c e s a r e d e a d , b u t o n l y t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e i s u n g r a m m a t i c a l . The f i r s t s e n t e n c e s p e a k s a b o u t d e a t h s i n c a r a c c i d e n t s w h ic h c a n ( a n d w h ic h d o ) s t i l l h a p p e n ,

w h e r e a s t h e s e c o n d o n e i s a b o u t o n e d e a t h i n o n e p a r t i c u l a r a c c i d e n t - a n d t h u s b e l o n g s t o t h e p a s t ( u n l e s s i t i s "H ot News“ , d i s c u s s e d l a t e r ) . I t . i s h o w e v e r p o s s i b l e t o s a y ;

34 С u r m e . Parts o f S p e e c h . . . , p . 321.35 M c C a w l e y , op . c i t .

3^ л . C h o m s k y , Ocep s t r u c t u r e . S u r f a c e S tructure and Semantic In ­te rp re ta tio n , [ i n : ] Û. D. S t e i n b e r g , L. A. J a k o b o v i t s [ e d s . j . Semantics, Cambridge 1971, pp . 183-217.

37 .M c C a w l e y , op. c i t . , p . 106.38 I t s e e a s to r e t h a t Cherasky i s s l i g h t l y i n c o n s i s t e n t , because ques­

t i o n in g the g ram m atica l i t y o f ( 2 3 ) , he a t the saae t i n e ad m its " t h a t i f Hi­l a r y had j u s t aBnour.cfcd t h a t he had succeeded i n c lim bing E v e r e s t , i t would have been a p p r o p r i a t e , w i th o u t the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t Marco P o lo i s a l i v e , to have s a i d , But Marco P o lo has done i t too" - C h o m s k y , o p . c i t . , pp. 212-213. C t . a l s o P a l m e r , The English Verb, p. 53.

39

( 2 7 ) D e n n is B r a i n a n d manv o t h e fam ous m u s i c i a n s h a v e d i e d40i n a u t o a c c i d e n t s

. TUE STATIVE USE

The S t a t i v e Use i n d i c a t e s t h a t an a c t i o n w h ic h h a p p e n e d i n t h e p a s t h a s some r e s u l t s i n t h e p r e s e n t , t h a t i s , i t s d i r e c t e f f e c t s t i l l c o n t i n u e s . E v i d e n t l y , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a ­t i o n o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t c o r r e s p o n d s o n l y t o t h i s u s e . F o r e x a m p le :

( 2 8 ) I ' m f ro m t h e o o l l e c t i o n a g e n c y [ . . . ] I ' v e come t o c o l -41l e c t my w i fe

The way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e a c t i o n i n t h e S t a t i v e Use i s n a t ­

u r a l l y t h e same a s i n t h e E x i s t e n t i a l U s e , h e n c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e a d v e r b i a l s o f t im e i s r e g u l a t e d by m ore o r l e s s t h e same c o n s t r a i n t s . The t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n , i f i t i s a t a l l g i v e n , i s s p e c i f i e d o n l y a s b e l o n g i n g t o some b r o a d e r o r n a r r o w e r s e c ­t o r o f t h e p r e s e n t , o r - i n so ire c a s e s - a v e r y g e n e r a l p a s t e x p r e s s i o n i s u s e d , f o r e x a i t p l e :

( 2 9 ) Why, I b e l i e v e y o u . You h a v e c o n v i n c e d me l o n g a g o . (G. B. S haw )

( 3 0 ) I ' m s u r e s h e ' s f o r g o t t e n a l l a b o u t y o u l o n g a g o . (H. W a l p o l e ) 42

To s a y t o w h a t e f f e c t s s e n t e n c e s i n t h e S t a t i v e Use r e ­f e r i s f a i r l y e a s y ; t o a c c o u n t f o r i t i s h o w e v e r i m p o s s i b l e . O n ly o n e t h i n g c a n b e s t a t e d : i n s p i t e o f w h a t we f r e q u e n t l y f i n d i n g ram m ars and t e x t b o o k s , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a c t i o n do n o t h a v e t o a f f e c t t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e ; f o r e x a m p le i n t h e s e n t e n c e :

The p o l i c e h a v e a r r e s t e d my w i f e , s o we c a n ' t come t o y o u r p a r t y .

40 Ib id em , p . 108.4 t P. В o w e n, M. H a y d e n , F. R i e s s , Screen T e s t, P inguin

dooks 1974, p . 148 .

42 К о r s a к о v , op. c i t . , p . 142.

" i t i s t h e s p e a k e r ' s w i f e a n d n o t t h e p o l i c e t h a t i s b e i n a a s -4 3s e r t e d t o b e i n t h e s t a t e i n q u e s t i o n *

A l s o , i t s h o u l d b e a d d e d t h a t t h e c u r r e n t e x i s t e n c e o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a c t i o n i s t o some e x t e n t o n l y a s i d e e f f e c t a n d i n some c a s e s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a l m o s t e q u a l l y w e l l b y m eans o f t h e P a s t S i m p l e . As K o r s a k o v h a s k e e n l y o b s e r v e d , we f i n d t h e tw o r e s p e c t i v e t e n s e s n o t o n l y i n m ore o r l e s s p a r a l l e l s i ­t u a t i o n s , e g . : ^

( 3 2 ) I ' v e b r o u g h t y o u a b o x o f c h o c o l a t e s . G e t t h r o u g h th e m a s q u i c k l y a s y o u c a n a n d p u t some w e i g h t o n . ( D . C u s a c k )

( 3 3 ) "By t h e w a y , I b r o u g h t y o u a b o x o f c i g a r s “ . A n n i x t e r s t a r e d a s P r e s l e y l a i d t h e b o x o n t h e e d g e o f t h e w a s h s t a n d ( F . N o r r i s ')**4

( 3 4 ) "T h e y l i k e h a y c o m s , ” s a i d P o o h , " s o t h a t ' s w h a t w e ' v e come f o r , b e c a u s e p o o r T i g g e r h a s n ' t h a d an y b r e a k f a s t y e t " 4 5 .

(3 5 ) . . . T i g g e r e x p l a i n e d t o an y b o d y who w as l i s t e n i n g t h a t h e h a d n ' t h a d an y b r e a k f a s t y e t .

" I knew t h e r e w as s o m e t h i n g , " s a i d P o o h . “T i g g e r s a lw a y s e a tA 6t h i s t l e s , s o t h a t w a s why we came t o s e e y o u , B e y b r e ” .

b u t a l s o e m p lo y e d b y o n e p e r s o n i n a s e q u e n c e r e f e r r i n g t o t h e same e v e n t :

(3 6 ) And t h a t ' s t h e r e a s o n I ' v e come t o s e e y o u . I came m ore o r l e s s t o a s k y o u r a d v i c e . ( A . C r o n i n ) 47

The tw o t e n s e s c a n n o t b e s a i d t o b e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , b e c a u s e t h e u s e o f e i t h e r d o e s b r i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e o f m e a n i n g , o n l y s o m e t im e s t h e c h a n g e i s v e r y s l i g h t a n d d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e u t t e r a n c e . The c r i t e r i o n g o v e r n ­i n g t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e tw o t e n s e s i n s u c h c a s e s i s t h e s p e a k e r ' s s t a t e o f m in d a t t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g . I f t h e s p e a k e r i s c o n c e n t r a t i n g on. t h e r e s u l t s w i t h o u t r e l a t i n g t h e

/ 3M c C a w l e y , op. c i t . , p . 109.K o r s a k o v , op. c i t . , p. 43.

45A . A. M i l n e , The Housev o f Pooh Corner, Magnet 1980, p . 23,

46 Ib idem , p. 26.47

a c t i o n t o any p a r t i c u l a r p a s t t i m e , h e w i l l u s e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ; i f h e i s m e n t a l l y i n t h e p a s t , i f he somehow a s s o c i a ­t e s t h e a c t i o n w i t h some p a s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h e w i l l s h i f t t o t h e P a s t S i m p l e .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e 4 a r e s e n t e n c e s i n w h ic h i n o r d e r t o c o n v e y t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a c t i o n a r e s t i l l i n e x i s t e n c e t h e s p e a k e r h a s n o o p t i o n b u t t o u s e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n se . F o r e x a m p le J e s p e r s e n s t a t e s t h a t we s h o u l d s a y :

( 3 7 ) N ew ton h a s e x p l a i n e d t h e m ovem ents o f t h e пхзоп.

i f N e w t o n ' s t h e o r y i s s t i l l t h o u g h t t o b e c o r r e c t , b e c a u s e t h e u s e o f t h e P a s t S im p le i n t h i s s e n t e n c e :

( 3 8 ) N ew ton e x p l a i n e d t h e m ovem ents o f t h e moon.

m i g h t mean t h a t N e w t o n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n h a s s i n c e b e e n g i v e n u p 4 8 . ( N o t e , i n c i d e n t a l l y , a n o t h e r p r o o f t h a t t h e s u b j e c t o f a s e n ­t e n c e i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t d e f i n i t e l y n e e d n o t b e a l i v e ) .

THE HOT NEWS USE

U s u a l l y t h e t e n s e i n i t s H o t News Use e x p r e s s e s a c t i o n s f ro m t h e i m m e d ia t e p a s t . The a c t i o n s a r e s o r e c e n t , t h a t i t d o e s n o t y e t make s e n s e t o s e p a r a t e t h e t i m e o f t h e i r h a p p e n ­i n g f ro m t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g . The u s e i s f r e q u e n t l y ( a l ­t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y ) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d v e r b " j u s t " .

(3 9 ) I t h a s j u s t s t r u c k t w e l v e .

( 4 0 ) W here h a v e y o u b e e n ? I t ' s a l m o s t m i d n i g h t .

H o w e v e r , t h e t e m p o r a l p r o x i m i t y o f t h e a c t i o n i s n o t a p r e ­r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e e m p lo y m e n t o f t h e H o t News U s e . The a c t i o n c a n b e f a i r l y r e m o t e , o n l y t h e l i s t e n e r i s n o t s u p p o s e d t o have h e a r d a b o u t i t . As McCawley e x p l a i n s i t :

"The h o t nevs p r e s e n t p e r f e c t i s an e x i s t e n t i a l p r e s e n t p e r f e c t i n which

the sp eak e r b a se s th e range o f th e q u a n t i f i e r n o t on h i s own p r e s u p p o s i -

400 . J e s p e r s e n , E s s e n t ia l s o f E n g lish Grammar, U n iv e r s i t y o f

Alabama P re s s 1964, p . 245.

t i o n s as to when th e e v e n t in q u e s t io n n ig h t happen but on h i« e s t im a te o fM49

h is a d d r e s s e e ’ s p r e su p p o s it io n s "

In other words: a speaker reporting the news of an event as­sîmes that his hearer does not yet know that the event - took place in the pastj not knowing about it, the hearer cannot treat the action as definitely past; therefore, the period in which the action happened somehow seems to belong to the pres­ent.

To quote McCawley once again:"The p e r io d i s a lw ays e x ten d ed forw ard s so a s to in c lu d e th e t i n e th a t i t

would cake f o r th e news o f i t s happening to g e t around and [ . . . ] in the c a se

o f a s e n te n c e a c t u a l ly b e in g used to con v ey th e new s, g e t around i s taken50 "

to mean g e t to th e p erso n to whom th e s e n te n c e i s a d d re ssed " .

Thus it is possible to say:(41) Kennedy has been assassinated51.

provided that the sentence is uttered to a person who has lived— 5 0in complete isolation since, for instance, 1960

Before we pass on to the next section, tu o more things haveto be pointed out.

First, that the three subtypes of the "Finished" Use arenot always easily distinguishable and that some utterancesmight be hard to classify. For exairple the sentence "Max hasbeen fired" can be either interpreted existentially (therewere occasions on which Max was fired), or regarded as HotNews ("Hi, Johnny, what's.new?"), with a possible resultativeconnotation (he has not found another job yet)53.

Second, that an action expressed by the Present PerfectTense is not always related to the moment of speaking (acommon misconception). Sometimes it can be anterior simply toa general present point of reference, regardless of whether thetense is in its Existential, Stative, or Hot Newe Use.

49M c C a w l e y , op. c i t . , p . 109 .

I b id en.51 Ibidem .32 C f. a l s o С о m r i e , op . c i t . , p.

53 C i. M c C t w l e y , op. c i t . , p.

( 4 2 ) A lum nus - n . A Boy o r man who h a s a t t e n d e d o r b e e n g r a d -54u a t e d f ro m a s c h o o l , c o l l e g e , e t c .

(4 3) The f e m a l e b o x t u r t l e comes t o s e l e c t a p l a c e t o l a y h e r e g g s a t a b o u t s i x o ' c l o c k i n t h e e v e n i n g , a t a t i m e when t u r t l e s h a v e g e n e r a l l y r e t i r e d f o r " t h e n i g h t . ( P . F . C o l l i e r ) 55

( 4 4 ) So P ooh r o s e a n d s a t down a n d s a i d "Thank y o u , " w h ic h I s t h e p r o p e r t h i n g t o s a y when y o u h a v e b e e n made a K n i g h t [ . , . ] 56

THE "UNFINISHED" USE

The " U n f i n i s h e d " Use o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ( c a l l e d U n i v e r ­

s a l by McCawley) i n d i c a t e s “ t h a t a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s p r e v a i l e d t h r o u g h o u t some I n t e r v a l s t r e t c h i n g f ro m t h e p a s t i n t o t h e p r e s -

„57e n t . i n o t h e r w o r d s , i t e x p r e s s e s t h e p a s t d u r a t i o n o f a p r e s e n t s t a t e o r a c t i o n .

A s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t C on­t i n u o u s T e n s e b u t , n a t u r a l l y , i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t c o m p l e t e ­l y e q u i v a l e n t w i t h t h a t o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s some o v e r l a p p i n g b e t w e e n t h e tw o t e n s e s ) . T he m a in d i f f e r ­e n c e b e t w e e n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e a n d i t s p r o g r e s s i v e c o u n ­t e r p a r t i s t h e way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e a c t i o n . I f t h e a c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t a s a w h o l e , i f we v ie w i t s y n o p t i c a l l y , we u s e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t ; i f we w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e a c ­t i o n , i f we v ie w i t a n a l y t i c a l l y , we u s e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t C o n t i n u o u s .

The P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e i n i t s " U n f i n i s h e d " Use i s t h e r e ­f o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o s t a t i v e v e r b s :

( 4 5 ) I h a v e known h e r f o r a b o u t e i g h t y e a r s ,

t o c e r t a i n n o n - t e r m i n a t i v e v e r b s :

( 4 6 ) B i l l h a s w o r k e d i n o u r f a c t o r y s i n c e 1 9 7 7 .

( 4 7 ) How l o n g h a v e y o u l i v e d i n o u r to w n ?

54 K o r s a k o v , op. c i t . , p . 135.

" 5 Ib id em .

^ К i 1 о e , The H o u s e . . . , p . 174.

57 M c C a w l e y , o p . c i t . , p. 104.

a n d t o s e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e s t a t e o f t h e c o m p l e t e l a c k o f an

a c t i v i t y :58( 4 6 ) I h a v e n ' t s e e n h im f o r tw o y e a r s

I t i s n o r m a l l y v e r y e a s y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e " F i n i s h ­e d " a n d t h e " U n f i n i s h e d " Use o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t , b e c a u s e o f t h e p e r i o d s o f t im e t h a t m u s t a l w a y s a p p e a r w i t h t h i s u s e : t h e s p e a k e r h a s t o s p e c i f y e i t h e r t h e l e n g t h o f t h e p e r i o df o r w h ic h t h e a c t i o n h a s b e e n h a p p e n i n g o r t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s i n c e when t h e a c t i o n h a s b e e n h a p p e n i n g .

Thus t h e s e n t e n c e " R i c h a r d h a s b e e n i l l " r e p r e s e n t s t h e " F i n ­i s h e d * Use a n d m eans t h a t h e i s n o t i l l an y l o n g e r , a n d t h e s e n t e n c e " R i c h a r d h a s b e e n i l l f o r n e a r l y a m on th / s i n c e Mon­day " i m m e d i a t e l y t e l l s u s t h a t h e i s s t i l l i l l 5 9 .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h a t r u l e o f thumb - i n some c a s e s t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e i n i t s " F i n i s h e d " Use c a n a l s o b e f o l l o w e d b y a p e r i o d . F o r e x a m p l e , a c o n p l e t e d a c ­t i o n may h a v e t a k e n a s i g n i f i c a n t am oun t o f t i m e , w h ic h t h e s p e a k e r w a n t s t o e m p h a s i z e ( t h e E x i s t e n t i a l a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e H o t News U s e ) :

(4 9 ) He l i v e s i n E n g l a n d p e r m a n e n t l y now - b u t h e h a s b e e n i nC h i n a f o r t h i r t y y e a r s .

( 5 0 ) W here h a v e y o u b e e n f o r s u c h a l o n g t i m e ? 60

o r t h e s p e a k e r may w a n t t o s p e c i f y t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e a s t a t e

h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d f o r ( p l e a s e n o t e t h a t t h e u s e o f a p e r i o d i n t h e S t a t i v e Use a l w a y s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e s u l t w i l l c o n ­t i n u e b e y o n d t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g ) :

( 5 1 ) T h e y 'v e gone t o E n g l a n d f o r two m o n th s .

58 .C f . K a u s h a n s k a y a , op . c i t . , p . 97. P a s t d u r a t io n o f a

p r e s e n t s t a t e i s sometimes e x p re s sed by means o f th e P r e s e n t Simple Tense: " I know you f o r tO y e a rs a l r e a d y now" (T h , D r e i s e r ) a f t e r K o r s a k o v , op. c i t . , p . 5. "S in ce when do you smoke so much"? but th e g ram m atica l s t a ­tu s o f such s e n te n c e s i s no t q u i t e d e a r . Korsakov a t t r i b u t e s such ca ses to a change o f i n t e n t i o n in the m iddle o f th e s e n t e n c e . C lo se - sp e a k s about the "d ou b le fo cu s" o f such c o n s t r u c t i o n s - th e sp e a k e r wants to emphasize bo th the p a s t d u r a t io n and th e g e n e r a l p r e s e n t v a l i d i t y o f th e s t a t e o r a c t i o n (R. A. C l o s e , E n g lish as a F oreign Language: Grammar and S y n ta x fo r T eachers and Advanced S tu d e n t s , London 1962).

W a r d , op. c i t . , p . 55.

60 Ib id em , p . 54.

H o w e v e r , t h e m e a n in g o f s u c h s e n t e n c e s i s c l e a r and m i s i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n h a r d l y p o s s i b l e .

SPECIAL USE

The P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e r e p l a c e s t h e F u t u r e P e r f e c t T e n s e i n t e m p o r a l a n d c o n d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s :

( 5 2 ) As s o o n a s y o u h a v e r e a d t h i s b o o k , b r i n g i t b a c k t o me.

( 5 3 ) When y o u h a v e f i n i s h e d , w e ' l l go t o t h e z o o .

( 5 4 ) H u r r y u p ! You w o n ' t go t o t h e p a r t y u n l e s s y o u h a v e done

y o u r homework b y s e v e n o ' c l o c k .

THE POLISH EQUIVALENTS OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

The P o l i s h l a n g u a g e d o e s n o t h a v e a p r e s e n t p e r f e c t t e n s e . I n f a c t , n o n e o f t h e t e m p o r o - a s p e c t u a l o p p o s i t i o n s p r e s e n t i n t h e g r a m m a t i c a l t e n s e s o f E n g l i s h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e P o l i s h s y s t e m o f t e n s e s .

The c a t e g o r y o f t e n s e i n E n g l i s h c a n b e s a i d t o c o m p r i s e f o u r e l e m e n t s , o n e o b l i g a t o r y a n d t h r e e o p t i o n a l . Tłje o b l i g a t o ­r y e l e m e n t i s t e n s e p r o p e r , e s t a b l i s h i n g f o r t h e a c t i o n a p o i n t Of r e f e r e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t im e o f t h e u t t e r a n c e , w i t h

j u s t tw o r e a l i z a t i o n s , n a m e ly t h e P r e s e n t , o r r a t h e r N o n ~ P a s t , an d t h e P a s t . T he t h r e e o p t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a ï e :

- m o d a l i t y - f o r t h e s a k e o f s i m p l i c i t y l e t u s a s su m e t h a t i t i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y " s h a l l " a n d " w i l l " o n l y a n d i s u s e d t o d e ­n o t e f u t u r i t y , a l t h o u g h i n r e a l i t y t h e c a t e g o r y i s much more c o m p le x , a n d , I n c l u d i n g a l s o s u c h m o d a l a u x i l i a r i e s a s " c a n " , " m a y " , " m u s t “ , " n e e d " , e t c . , i t i s e m p lo y e d t o s t a t e t h a t a c ­t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e , a l l o w e d , f o r b i d d e n , n e c e s s a r y , a d v i s a b l e , o r t h e l i k e ;

- a s p e c t p e r f e c t i v e , , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e a c t i o n i s a n t e r i o r t o t h e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h i t ;

- a s p e c t p r o g r e s s i v e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e a c t i o n i s v i e w e d a n a l y t i c a l l y , a s i f f ro m t h e i n s i d e , n o t s y n o p t i c a l l y , f ro m t h e outride.

T h u s a p r e d i c a t e i n E n g l i s h w i l l b e m a rk e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g

c o n t r a s t s :

+ p a s t + f u t u r e

+ a n t e r i o r + a n a l y t i c a l

a n d s e n t e n c e s i n t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t w i l l b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s [ - p a s t , - f u t u r e , + a n t e r i o r , - a n a l y t i c a l ] , w h ic h m eans t h a t

t h e y e x p r e s s s y n o p t i c a l l y s e e n a c t i o n s a n t e r i o r t o a p r e s e n t p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e .

I n P o l i s h , t h e c a t e g o r y o f t e n s e p r o p e r d o e s n o t e s t a b l i s h an a b s t r a c t p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , r a t h e r i t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e s t h e t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e s e n t e n c e t o t h e t i m e o f t h e u t t e r a n c e , a n d , t h e P r e - P a s t T e n s e h a v i n g f a l l e n o u t o f use , i t s t h r e e r e a l i z a t i o n s - t h e P a s t , t h e P r e s e n t , a n d t h e F u t u r e- c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e u s u a l d i v i s i o n o f t i m e . ( i t m u s t b e remem­b e r e d t h a t f ro m t h e p h y s i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w t h e p r e s e n t c o n s t i ­

t u t e s o n l y t h e u n d i m e n s i o n a l b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e , a n d t h a t i n p r a c t i c e i t i s e x t e n d e d i n t o b o t h o f th e m a n d c a n e m b r a c e e v e n t h e w h o le o f e t e r n i t y ) .

M o r e o v e r , P o l i s h v e r b s d i s p l a y a tw o -w a y a s p e c t u a l o p p o s i ­t i o n , b u t i t i s n e i t h e r t h a t o f a n t e r i o r i t y v s . no n - a n t e r i o r i t y n o r t h a t o f a n a l y t i c a l v s . s y n o p t i c a l v i e w i n g . A s p e c t i n P o l i s h i n v o l v e s c o m p l e t i o n o r i n c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n 6 1 , a n d a l ­t h o u g h t h e t e r m s e m p lo y e d h e r e may b e t h e same ( c o m p l e t e d v e r b s

a r e s o m e t im e s c a l l e d p e r f e c t i v e , i n c o m p l e t e d n a t u r a l l y i m p e r ­f e c t ! ve ) , t h e p h e n o m e n a t h e y d e n o t e a r e n o t t h e s a m e . I t may b e w o r t h w h i l e a d d i n g t h a t w i t h m o m e n ta ry v e r b s c o n p l e t i o n m eans a s i n g l e a c t , a n d i n c o i r p l e t i o n a s e r i e s o f a c t s , f o r i n s t a n c e : aachnąć/m aahać.

N o t e v e r y P o l i s h v e r b Ь а з b o t h a s p e c t u a l v e r s i o n s - t h e r e d o e s n o t e x i s t f o r e x a m p le an i m p e r f e c t i v e fo rm o f z a s t r z e l i ć ,

n o r c a n we f i n d a p e r f e c t i v e f o rm o f t h e v e r b c h o d z ić ( .p ó jś ć

se e m s r a t h e r t h e c o m p l e t e d v e r s i o n o f i ś ć ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

6 Î T л ' •I . G r a n i c * a , E n g lish P a st Tenses and P o lish A sp ec t - a C o n tr i­

b u tio n to th e L i n g u i s t i c Theory o f T r a n s la t io n , U n iv e r s i ty o f Łódź 1967, u npub l. Ph. D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , p . 5.

some v e r b s h a v e a l s o s p e c i a l f o r i r s i n d i c a t i n g a r o c c a s i o n a l l y r e p e a t e d a c t i o n ( t h e g e n e r a l i i r p e r f e c t i v e fo rm s e x p r e s s i t a s w e l l ) , s o a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t t h e c a t e g o r y o f a s p e c t i n P o l i s h i s t h r e e f o l d :

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e t e n s e s an d t h e t h r e e - w a y a s p e c -

( p e r f e c t i v e v e r b s c a n n o t b e u s e d i n t h e P r e s e n t T e n s e ) . As h a s b e e n s a i d , n o n e o f th e m w o u ld mean e x a c t l y t h a t an a c t i o n w h ic h i s v i e w e d s y n o p t i c a l l y i s a n t e r i o r t o a p r e s e n t p o i n t o f r e f e r ­e n c e , ' b u t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n two s y s t e m s i s

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n th e m (гм toes i t by the way g u a r a n t e e t h e e q u i v a l e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t h e e l e m e n t s within t h e r e s p e c ­t i v e s y s t e m s - co m p a re t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the E n g l i s h P r e s e n t P e r f e c t w i t h t h a t o f dae P e r fe k t i n G e rm a n ) .

Thus t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s e i n i t s " F i n i s h e d " Use c o r r e ­s p o n d s t o t h e P o l i s h P a s t T en se - ,

When i t d e n o t e s a t e r m i n a t i v e a c t i o n (single or r e p e a t e d ) , i t i s u s u a l l y r e n d e r e d b y m eans o f the Past Tense in its P e r ­f e c t i v e A s p e c t . When t h e a c t i o n i s n o n - t e r m i n a t i v e , t h e t e n s e i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e P a s t T e n s e i n i t s Iirperfective A s p e c t . When i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a r e p e a t e d n o n - t e r m i n a t i v e a c t i o n i s in e a n t a n d t h e P o l i s h v e r b h a p p e n s t o h a v e t h e iterative form, t h e P a s t I t e r a t i v e ca n b e u s e d .

H o w e v e r , i t h a p p e n s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y t h a t we u s e t h e P a s t I m p e r f e c t i v e i n s t e a d o f ( a n d i n t h e m e a n in g o f ) t h e P a s t P e r ­f e c t i v e : t h e p r o c e s s i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e

62 Far ïüore in f o ro a t io o see: .1. F i s i a k a M. I i p i ń s k a-G r z e - g о г e к , I . Z a fa г о с к i , Ли In tro d u c to ry Ел g lIsn -P ö lis h C o n tra s tive (Ягаяхпг. V a n t u a <4 78 ; 2 . К 1 o r n e n t ; i e w i с r., podszawowe uIbóohd- ś c i z gramatyki Jeżyka p o lsk ie g o , Wars za w л 19 73 ; W. S m i e с h , Funk­c je aspektów czasownikowych we współczesnym ję zy k u ogólnopolskim . Łódź 'Л 1 ; К, T u r a w i с z , The Couplet? and uticimpi e t -г vor.jj in

and th e ir E q u iva len ts in E n g lish , U n ivers i ty of Łódź 1977, un- publ. M. A. th e s i s .

p e r f e c t i v eg e n e r a l

i m p e r f e c t i v e ^6 2i t e r a t i v e ( f r e q u e n t a t i v e )

t u a l o p p o s i t i o n r e s u l t s i n an i n v e n t o r y o f e i g h t t e n s e fo rm s

n o t a p r e r e q u i s i t e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l

63a c t i o n . C z o c h r a l s k i c a l l s t h i s p h enom enon A o rie tia c h e Exten­s io n . a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e s tw o c a s e s o f s u c h u s a g e :

1) S e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g s i n g l e a c t i o n s o f a s p e c i a l t v p e w h e r e i t i s s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n i s m e a n t :

bh( 5 5 ) C z y t a ł e ś t ą k s i ą ż k ę ?

( 5 6 ) S ł y s z a ł e m o ty m w c z o r a j .

2 ) S e n t e n c e s i n w h ic h we m e n t io n ( o r a s k a b o u t ) a c r e a t o r a n d

t h e f i n i s h e d r e s u l t o f h i s a c t i o n :

( 5 7 ) K to m a lo w a ł t e n o b r a z ? ^ 5

( 5 8 ) T en f i l m r e ż y s e r o w a ł G e o rg e Roy H i l l .

Thus i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s l a t e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t d e n o ­t i n g a t e r m i n a t i v e a c t i o n b y means o f t h e P o l i s h P a s t I m p e r f e c -

t i v e 6 6 .S e n t e n c e s ( l ) - ( 9 ) a n d ( l 7 ) - ( 2 0 ) w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t r a n s l a t e d

i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w ay :

( 1 ' ) C z y t a ł e m " D a v i d a C o p p e r f i e l d a " .

( 2 ' ) P o c i ą g s i e d e m n a s t a c z t e r n a ś c i e [ ? ] p r z y j e c h a ł i o d j e c h a ł .

( 3 ' ) U d e r z y ł e m t o dwa r a z y , a l e n a d a l s t o i .

( 4 ' ) P o s t a n o w i ł e m z ł a p a ć S ł o n i a .

( 5 * ) A l e n i e c h В<5g w y b a c z y mi z ł o , k t d r e c i w y r z ą d z i ł e m .

( 6 ' ) - A h a , T e r m o l i . M i e j s c e , k t d r e z a w sz e c h c i a ł e m z o b a c z y ć- M i l l e r p r z e r w a ł - G d z ie u d i a b ł a j e s t T e r m o l i ?

( 7 ' ) W airp ir b y ł m artw y w i e l e r a z y .

( 8 ' ) C ó ż , j a r ó w n i e ż n a t k n ą ł e m s i ę n a n i e g o w p r z e s z ł o ś c i .

( 9 ' ) N ie m y ś l , ż e z a m i e r z a m d a l e j z n o s i ć t o w s z y s t k o t a k , j a k z n o s i ł - e m ( - a m ) t o w p r z e s z ł o ś c i , n i e mam z a m i a r u .

63 J . С z o c h r a 1 s к i , terbalaspekt und Tempussystem im Deutschen und P oln ischen . Eine Konfrontative D arstellung, Warszawa 1975, p. 181.

6 4 Ibidem.65 Ibidem .f t f i Cf. a l s o T. W ó j с i k, Gramatyka j f zyka rosyjskiego - studium коп-

trastyw ne, Warszawa 1973, p . 121-122.

( 1 7 ' ) Mówią c i , s i a d y w a ł e m i w p a t r y w a ł e m s i ę w o c z y t e g o p s a ,

a ż c i a r k i p r z e c h o d z i ł y mi p o p l e c a c h .

( 1 8 ' ) P r z e s i a d y w a ł e m i r o z m y ś l a ł e m n a d ty m , aż z a c z y n a ł o mi

s i ę k o ło w a ć w g ł o w i e .

( 1 9 ' ) Mój d z i a d e k w i d z i a ł s p o r o w sw oim ż y c i u .

( 2 0 ' ) A n g l i a m i a ł a w i e l u z d o l n y c h w ła d c ó w .

And h e r e i s t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t e x a m p le s f ro m

among s e n t e n c e s (2 8 )* - (4 4 ) :

( 2 8 ' ) J e s t e m z MPO.. . [?] P r z y s z e d ł e m po s w o j ą ż o n ę .

( 2 9 ' ) A le ż w i e r z ę c i . P r z e k o n a ł - e ś ( - a ś ) m n ie dawno te m u .

( 3 0 ' ) J e s t e m p e w i e n , ż e z a p o m n i a ł a o t o b i e dawno te m u .

( 3 1 ' ) P o l i c j a a r e s z t o w a ł a m o ją ż o n ę , w i ę c n i e możemy p r z y j ś ć

n a t w o j e p r z y j ę c i e .

( 3 2 ' ) P r z y n i o s ł e m c i p u d e ł k o c z e k o l a d e k . 2 j e d z j e j a k n a j s z y ­

b c i e j i p r z y b ą d ź t r o c h ę n a w a d z e .

( 3 4 ' ) - One l u b i ą ż o ł ę d z i e - p o w i e d z i a ł P u c h a t e k - w i ę c po t o p r z y s z l i ś m y , gdyż b i e d n y T y g r y s n i e j a d ł j e s z c z e ś n i a d a n i a .

( 3 6 ' ) I w ł a ś n i e d l a t e g o p r z y s z e d ł e m s i ę z t o b ą z o b a c z y ć . P r z y ­s z e d ł e m m n i e j w i ę c e j p r o s i ć c i ę o r a d ę .

( 3 7 ' ) N ew ton w y j a ś n i ł r u c h y K s i ę ż y c a .

( 3 9 ' ) W ł a ś n i e w y b i ł a d w u n a s t a .

( 4 0 ' ) G d z ie b y ł e ś ? J e s t j u ż p r a w i e p ó ł n o c .

(4 1 ' ) K ennedy z o s t a ł zam o rd o w an y .

The “U n f i n i s h e d " Use o f t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i s r e n d e r e d i n ­t o P o l i s h b y m eans o f t h e P r e s e n t G e n e r a l , e x c e p t f o r s e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e s t a t e o f t h e c o m p l e t e l a c k o f an a c t i v i t y , w h e r e i t i s t r a n s l a t e d b y m eans o f e i t h e r t h e P a s t P e r f e c t i v e ( . t e r m i -

n a t i v e a c t i o n s ) o r t h e P a s t I m p e r f e c t i v e ( a c t i o n s w h ic h a r e n o n -

- t e r m i n a t i v e ) :

(45') Znam ją od około ośmiu lat.(46') Bill pracuje w naszej fabryce od 1977 roku.(47') Od jak dawna mieszkasz w naszym mieście?(48') Nie widziałem go od dwóch lat.

When t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t T e n s s i s u s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e F u t u r e P e r f e c t T e n s e , i t i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o P o l i s h b y m eans o f o n e o f

t h e f u t u r e t e n s e s :

( 5 2 ' ) J a k t y l k o p r z e c z y t a s z t ę k s i ą ż k ę , p r z y n i e ś mi j ą г p o ­

w ro te m .

( 5 3 ' ) K ie d y s k o ń c z y s z , p ó j d z i e m y do z o o .

( 5 4 ' ) P o ś p i e s z s i ę ! N ie p ó j d z i e s z n a p r z y j ę c i e , j e ż e l i n i e z r o b i s z ( s k o ń c z y s z ) p r a c y domowej p r z e d s ió d m ą .

The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s e s t a b l i s h e d a b o v e can b e p r e s e n t e d i n

t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m ( t a b l e 1 ) .

T a b l e I

The co rresp o n d en ces betw een th e P re s e n t P e r f e c t T ense and th e P o l i s h te n s e forms

X - ty p ic a l r e n d e r in g

/ X / - o c c a s io n a l re n d e r in g

I t m u s t b e a d d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h i l e t h e P r e s e n t P e r f e c t i n i t s • F i n i s h e d ' ’ a n d " U n f i n i s h e d " Use i s g e n e r a l l y r e a d i l y t r a n s ­l a t a b l e i n t o p o l i s h , t h e t e n s e i n i t s S p e c i a l Use c a n p o s e s e ­r i o u s p r o b l e m s f o r t h e t r a n s l a t o r ( a s c a n t h e F u t u r e P e r f e c t

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T e n s e ) . S a y i n g t h a t a n a c t i o n i s a n t e r i o r t o a future p o i n t of r e f e r e n o e i s n o t t h e sam e t h i n g a s s a y i n g t h a t it is f u t u r e in r e l a t i o n t o t h e moment o f s p e a k i n g , and, c o n s e o u e n t l y , in or­d e r t o c o n v e y t h e p r e c i s e m e a n in g o f a p e r f e c t t e n s e w i t h a future r e f e r e n c e , t h e t r a n s l a t o r . i r . a y o f t e n h a v e t o r e s o r t t o para­p h r a s e , a n d p e r h a p s u s e a d i f f e r e n t P o l i s h t e n s e .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , e v e n t h e " e a s y " u s e s o f t h e P r e s e n t Per­f e c t ca n s o m e t im e s b e d i f f i c u l t t o r e n d e r , f o r example' because o f t h e l a c k o f e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n some v e r b s i n E n g l i s h and P o l i s h , b u t t h e s e a r e p r o b l e m s f o r t h e t h e o r y o f , translation an d l i e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this paper.

I n s t y t u t F i l o l o g i i A n g ie l s k ie j Zakład Językoznawstwa Stosowanego

Ja n u sz Wróblewski

CZAS PRESENT PERFECT I .JEGO POLSKIE ODPOWIEDNIKI

A rty k u ł do ty czy u ż y c ia a n g ie ls k ie g o cza su P re s e n t P e r f e c t i jfy,.» odpo­

wiedników w jeży k u po le

A’j t o r p rz e c iw s ta w ia s i e p o p u la rn e j k o n c e p c ji , że u ż y c ie P re s e n t P e r f e c t

zw iązane j e s t z trwaniem w c h w ili m ów ienia re z u l ta tó w c z y n n o śc i, o k tó r e j mo­

wa u zd an iu , a n a s tę p n ie p rz e d s ta w ia szczegółow a d y s t ry b u c je teg o c z a su .

Czas P re s e n t P e r f e c t s łu ż y do: w y rażan ia czy n n o śc i p r z e s z ły c h , j e ż e l i

n i e i s t o tn e j e s t , k ied y s i ę one o d b y ły , l e c z r a c z e j , ż e S3 o b ecn ie •« r e j e ­s t r z e ; p o d k r e ś l e n i a f a k t u , ż e b e z p o ś re d n ie r e z u l t a t y czynnośc i p r z e s z łe j

t rw a ją w t e r a ź n i e j s z o ś c i ; a ó w ie n ia o c zy n n o śc ia ch z p r z e s z ł o ś c i b ezp o śred ­

n i e j ; podaw ania , ja k d łu g o j a k a ś czynność t e r a ź n i e j s z a j e s t już wykonywana.

Wspocmiane j e s t też u ż y c ie s p e c j a ln e - w zd an ia ch podrzędnych rko l ic zn ik o w y c h

cza su i warunku.A u to r zw raca uw agę, że n iepraw d« j e e t , i ż c z a s fr«.s«?>it r e r f e c t n i e Boże

być u ży ty z окэ! ic zo i-k aa i c z a su p rz e s z łe g o , p o d k re ś la ' ‘ , ż e a k c j a wyrażona

tym czasvQ n ie (susi być u p rz e d n ia w s to su n k u do восн'Г.ы siôw xenia; j e j punk-

te n o d n ie s ie n ia może być dow olna (n a v e t w ie lo k ro tn a ] < h y i l * w t e r a ź n ie j s z o ś c i .

W c z ę ś c i loon trastyw nej porównana j e s t s t r u k tu r a sy .ita k ty c z n o -se m a n ty c iń a

system u czasów v Języku a n g ic ls W s i po lsk i"* , o ra z pi J i t* .v io n c sę p o ls k ie

odpow iedn ik i a n g ie ls k ie g o cza su P re s e n t P e r f e c t .