Acid Mine Drainage and Human Rights

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The South African Human Rights commission acknowledges MARIETTE LIEFFERINK and EUGENE VILJOEN for providing the photographs that appear in this booklet. Mariette is the CEO of the Federation for a Sustainable Environment and was a member of the SAHRC Section 05 Committee on Human Rights and Acid Mine Drainage. Eugene is one of the Commission’s valuable stakeholders who has worked on mining issues in the West Rand, Mogale City, for several years.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS1. What is Acid Mine Drainage? ---------------------------------------------------------4

2. How does Acid Mine Drainage impact on human rights? ---------------------6 2.1 Whoisaffectedbythedevelopmentofmines? --------------------------7 Consultation -----------------------------------------------------------------------8 Human rights and Business ----------------------------------------------------9

3. How is Acid Mine Drainage treated? --------------------------------------------- 10 Active Treatment Technology ------------------------------------------------ 11 Passive Treatment Technology ---------------------------------------------- 12 Recovery of useful minerals from AMD ----------------------------------- 13

4. WhatareminesdoingaboutAcidMineDrainage? --------------------------- 13 Industry Responses ------------------------------------------------------------- 14

5. WhatistheSouthAfricanGovernmentdoingabout AcidMineDrainageinGauteng? -------------------------------------------------- 15 5.1 DelayedGovernmentresponse --------------------------------------------- 18

6. Whataretheresponsibilitiesofminesinrelationto Acid Mine Drainage and human rights? ----------------------------------------- 20

7. WhatistheSAHRCdoingaboutAMD? ------------------------------------------ 22 7.1 Challengesgoingforward ---------------------------------------------------- 25

ANNEXURE 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

ANNEXURE 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

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1. What is Acid Mine Drainage?

AnumberofissuesdefineandchallengetheSouthAfricannaturalresourcebase.Themining sector has historically been one of South Africa’smain drivers of economicgrowth,andthecountry’swealthhasbeenbuiltonanabundanceofmineralresources.However, this industryhashadanegative impacton the country’swater resources.The natural scarcity ofwater resources in SouthAfrica, coupledwith the impact ofeconomicdevelopmentneeds,increasedlanduse,andagrowingpopulation,maketheimpactofminingonthesecurityofwaterresourcesamatterofgraveconcern.

Oneaspectoftheimpactofminingonwater,thathasreceivedattentionovertheyears,isthatofAcidMineDrainage(AMD).AMDisasideeffectofminingoperationstheworldover.Itoccursthroughnaturalrunoffafterrainsflushthroughaminedump;fromminecompaniesdisposingofthewaterusedintheiroperations;orfromold,disusedmineshaftsfillingupwithwater,eventuallydecanting,orflooding,aboveground.Thiswaterisnotcleanafterrunningthroughthemine.Suchwaterstypicallyposeanadditionalrisk to theenvironmentby the fact that theyoften containelevated concentrationsof metals (iron, aluminium and manganese, and possibly other heavy metals) andmetalloids (ofwhicharsenic isgenerallyofgreatestconcern).Watersdrainingactiveand,inparticular,abandonedminesandminewastesareoftennetacidic(sometimesextremelyso).1

In South Africa, AMD has been reported in a number of areas, including theWitwatersrandGoldFields,MpumalangaandKwaZulu-NatalCoalFields,andtheO’KiepCopper District. The Western, Central and Eastern Basins are identified as priorityareasrequiringimmediateactionbecauseof,inter alia,theurgencyofimplementinginterventionmeasuresbeforeproblemsbecomemorecriticaland theirproximity todenselypopulatedareas.Thesituationinotherminingregionsofthecountryrequiresadditionalinformation,monitoringandassessmentsofrisk,particularlyinvulnerableareas such as the Mpumalanga Coal Fields, where the impact of mining on thefreshwatersources intheupperreachesof theVaalandOlifantsRiverSystems isofserious concern.

1 PleaserefertoAnnex1(onpage27)formoreinformationonthetechnicalaspectsofAMD.

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The flow of AMD into South Africa’s surface and ground water systems is havingdevastatingconsequencesthatarebothfar-reachingandlong-term.Incidentsofheavyrainsinthecountryoverthelastcoupleofyearsonlyseemtobemakingadangeroussituation even worse. These consequences include degrading the quality of watersystems,poisoningoffoodcrops,endangeringhumanhealth,andthedestructionofwildlifeandecosystems,infrastructure,andheritagesites.Inindustry,contaminationfromAMD is associatedwithmining, construction, civil engineering, and quarryingactivities. Intermsoffurtherecological implications,AMDisaproblembecausethevastmajorityofnaturallifeisdesignedtoliveandsurviveat,ornear,apHof7(neutral).Thedrainageacidifiesthelocalwatercoursesandsoeitherkillsorlimitsthegrowthoftheriverecology.Effectsareevenmorepronouncedonvertebratelifesuchasfishthanontheplantandunicellularlife.Thereisalsoahumanhealthriskbecauseofthemetalscontained in the drainage.

Figure 1: Uraniferous and toxic spillages in the West Rand

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2. How does Acid Mine Drainage impact on human rights?

Therighttoahealthyenvironmentisfundamentaltotheenjoymentofallhumanrightsandiscloselylinkedwiththerighttohealth,wellbeinganddignity.Asoundandhealthynatural environment lends an enabling context for the enjoyment of other humanrights. It is thereforeclearthattherighttoahealthyenvironment isa fundamentalpartof the right to lifeand tohumandignity.Adversely, environmentaldestructionimpactsontheState’sabilitytoprovidebasicsocio-economicservicestothepeopleofSouthAfrica,andunnaturalenvironmentalchangeis“discriminatory”astherewillbeadisproportionateimpactonsociallyandeconomicallydisadvantagedpersonsorgroups.

Therearethreemaindimensionsoftheinterrelationshipbetweenhumanrightsandenvironmentalprotection:

◊ Asmentioned above, the environment as a pre-requisite for the enjoyment ofhumanrights(implyingthathumanrightsobligationsoftheStateshouldincludethedutytoensurethelevelofenvironmentalprotectionnecessarytoallowthefullexerciseofprotectedrights);

◊ Certainhuman rights, especially access to information,participation indecision-making, and access to justice in environmental matters, as essential to goodenvironmentaldecision-making(implyingthathumanrightsmustbeimplementedinordertoensureenvironmentalprotection);and

◊ Therighttoasafe,healthyandecologicallybalancedenvironmentasahumanrightinitself.

The environmental impacts of the mining industry may further undermine theagriculturalandindustrialsectors.AMDthereforeposesarisktotherealisationoftherightstohumanhealthservicesandaccesstofoodandsufficientwater;therighttohousing;therighttofreedomandsecurityoftheperson;therighttohumandignity;children’srights;aswellasthesafetyofemployees.

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Figure 2: The uraniferous Randfontein Robinson dump in 2012

2.1Whoisaffectedbythedevelopmentofmines?

The relationship between South Africa, South African communities, and mining isadmittedlyacomplexrelationshipwhichhasevolvedoverasubstantialperiodoftime.Where the existing vulnerabilities of host communities have not been adequatelyaddressed,addingbusiness,andextractiveindustriesinthisinstance,tothelandscapemayinfactexacerbatethesevulnerabilitiesandbringinequalitiesstarklyintofocus.Keyvulnerabilitiesexistacutelywithinhostcommunitiesaffectedbyminingdevelopmentsandoperations,and locatedwithin thesurroundingarea.Companiesneed tomovebeyondcompliance-basedplanningandactivitiesinordertolimittheexacerbationofexistingvulnerabilitiesandpotentialhumanrightsviolations.

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Figure 3: Informal settlement located on tailings dump

Consultation

Communities need to be assisted in understanding their rights and how to accessthem. Often times, consultation between stakeholders and communities eitherdoesnot takeplaceatall,orhappens inaway that isnotmeaningful, leading toadisintegrationoftrustbetweenallstakeholders.Miningcompaniesneedtoputplansinplacetoensurethataffectedcommunitiesareprovidedwithclarityandcertaintywithregardtoanydecisionsbeingmadeintheirareas.Grievancemechanismsshouldalsobeinplacetoenableaffectedcommunitiestoprovidecommentsorlaycomplaintstominecompaniesonissuesrelatedtothemine’sactivitiesandwhichmaybeharmfulto them in termsof impactingon their rights. In addition, suchmechanismswouldenablecommunitiestoquestionprocesses, includingthoserelatedtothetreatment

andmanagementofAMD,whichwouldthenlendtogreaterunderstandingandcertainty.Aprocessofcomplaintshandlingisessentialforcommunitiestohavefaithintheprocessknowingthattheyhavearighttorecourse.

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Human rights and Business

Businessengagementwithhumanrightsisanevolvingfield.Oneofthemostcrucialissuesatplayistheneedfornotsinglebutmultistakeholderengagementstoaddressalleged and potential future human rights violations at the hands of corporateactors. The formerUnitedNations Special Representative to the SecretaryGeneral,John Ruggie, iterates this in themodel that he created to broker away across theimpasse,maintainingthat:“thereisnosinglesilverbulletsolutiontotheinstitutionalmisalignment in the business and human rights domain. Instead all social actors –States, businesses, and civil society –must learn todo thingsdifferently. But thosethingsmustbecoherentandbecomecumulative...”2

Therefore, mines ought to make efforts to engage in broader multi-stakeholderengagement,particularlywithcivilsocietyorganisationswhichtheymaymisguidedly

2 ReportoftheSpecialRepresentativeoftheSecretary-Generalontheissueofhumanrightsandtransnational corporations and other business enterprises, Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Business and Human Rights(7Aprl2008,A/HRC/8/5).

Figure 4: AMD has serious adverse health consequences for humans and animals

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place themselves inopposition to, tomanage theirpotentialhumanrights impacts.Inconsideringthehumanrightsimplicationsoftheactivitiesofacompany,it isalsonecessarytocastthenetwiderandconsiderthecumulativeimpactoftheactionsofseveralcompaniesupononeaffectedcommunity.

More often than not, the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC) findsthat effective communication is lacking from all sides, and regular, more effectivecommunication is required from the mines. Furthermore, education and trainingwouldgreatlyassistmoststakeholders inunderstandingallassociated issuesfromahumanrightsperspectiveandwouldgenerateawarenesswithincommunitiesonwhatserviceswereavailabletothemfromthemineandhowtogoaboutaccessingtheseservices.

Thisbookattemptstodemonstratehowsocialandenvironmentalissuessurroundingtheoperationofamine,asisthecasewithAMD,mayleadtohumanrightsviolations.Althoughnot conferringbroadobligationson thepartof the company topromote,protectandrespectthehumanrightsofall individualswithin itsareaofoperations,thecomplaintsandreportsthattheSAHRChasreceivedfromstakeholdersaswellasaffectedcommunitymembersdirectedatmines, in thisparticularcase thoseminesoperating inAMDaffectedareas,shoulddemonstratethereputationalandfinancialrisksofnotengagingwithpotentialhumanrightsimpacts.Inmanycases,mitigatinghumanrightsrisknecessitatesanadditionallayerofanalysisaspartofanynormalriskassessmentandmitigationprocess.Minesshouldbeabletousehumanrightsrhetoricandadditionalcontextualanalysistobetterunderstandhowsocialimpactissuescanevolveintopotentialhumanrightsviolations.

3. How is Acid Mine Drainage treated?

It isgenerallypreferable,althoughnotalwayspragmatic, topreclude the formationofAMDinthefirstinstance.Suchtechniquesareknowncollectivelyassourcecontrolmeasures.GiventhepracticaldifficultiesentailedininhibitingtheformationofAMDatsource,often,theonlyalternativeistominimisetheimpactthatthispollutingwaterhason receiving streamsand rivers, and thewiderenvironment; suchanapproach

involvesmigrationcontrolmeasures.Quiteoften,thesehavebeendividedintoactive and passive processes, the former generally (though not exclusively)referringtothecontinuousapplicationofalkalinematerialstoneutraliseacidicmine waters and precipitate metals, and the latter to the use of natural and

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constructed wetland ecosystems. Passive systems have the advantage of requiringrelativelylittlemaintenance(andrecurringcosts)thanactivesystems,althoughtheymaybeexpensiveand/orimpracticaltosetupinthefirstplace.Inreality,allpassivetreatment technologies require a certain amount ofmaintenance costs. The choiceofwhichAMD treatmentoption touse is dictatedby anumberof economical andenvironmentalfactors.

Active Treatment Technology

Themostwidespreadmethodusedtomitigateacidiceffluentsisanactivetreatmentprocess involving additionof a chemical-neutralising agent.3 Additionof an alkalinematerial,suchaslime,toAMDwillraiseitspH,acceleratetherateofchemicaloxidationof ferrous iron, and causemany of themetals present in solution to precipitate ashydroxidesandcarbonates.TheuseoflimetoneutraliseAMDandprecipitatemetalsisconsidered,within thisbooklet,as thestandardagainstwhichothermethodsarecomparedasithasbeentheautomatictreatmentchoiceformanyyears.4

Figure 5: An example of an AMD water treatment plant – active treatment technology

3 CoultonR,BullenC,HalletC.Thedesignandoptimizationofactiveminewatertreatmentplants.LandContamReclam2003;11:273–9.

4 FurtherinformationregardingactiveAMDtreatmenttechnologyisofferedinAnnexure2.

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Passive Treatment Technology

Passive treatment systems by comparison are designed to allow for low, or no,maintenance and should be self-contained with regards to treatment and waste.ThiscategoryoftreatmentisgenerallyrestrictedtotheuseofwetlandstoremediatetheAMD. Therearemany instancesofminewater running intonaturally occurringwetlandswhere thewater emanating from thewetland is improvedwith regard tobothmetalcontentandacidity.Theattractionofthewetlandisthatthebacteriathatoccurnaturally inthesedimentsarecapableofreducingthesulphate intheacidtohydrogensulphidewhichcanreactwiththemetalstoformthemetalsulphidemineralswhichoriginallycausedtheAMD.

Figure 6: An example of a wetland for passive AMD treatment

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Recovery of useful minerals from AMD

ItispossibletousesomeofthetechnologiesavailabletoextractandretainvaluablemetalsfromtheAMDandusethesetooffsetthecostsoftreatment.Insomecasesthisrecoveryistheonlyreasontoconverttothetechnology.Ionexchangeandmembrane-basedseparationtreatmentsbothofferthisoption.

In thesecases themetalscanbe takenoutof solutionandselectivelyconcentrateduntil theyeffectacommercialproduct.Some lime-usingprocessesproducegypsumasawasteproduct.Thisgypsummayhaveamarkettowhichthewaste(orproduct)canbedisposed.InSouthAfrica,thisoptionhasbeenresearchedandinvestigatedbyscientificandresearchinstitutions,asawaytooffsetcosts.

4. What are mines doing about Acid Mine Drainage?

Itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenthecentury-longAMDproblemandtheproblemsposedbythecurrentexacerbationofAMD.AMDiswidelyperceivedasalegacyissue,asitspansSouthAfrica’s120yearsofmining,butitiscurrentandfuturegenerationsthat must cope with its effects. The inter-generational nature of AMD permeatesthe debates over accountability and responsibility for rehabilitation; treatment andremediation.Thesocial,economicandpoliticalconsequencesmeantheGovernmentandtheminingindustryarenowtakingstepstoavertwhatcouldbecomeacrisis.

TheAMDissuestrikesattheveryheartofsustainabilityfortheminingsectorandhowSouthAfricamanagesthethreatwillprovideausefulpacesetteronthegapbetweensustainabilityrhetoricandreality.InSouthAfrica,thecurrentchallengeswithAMDcanbeclearlytracedbacktoover120yearsofminingforgold,coalandothermineralswithoutappropriateenvironmentalsafeguards.

There are twomain sourcesof goldmining-relatedAMD. Thefirst is the estimated400km2ofslimesortailingsdumpsthatcanbefoundaroundJohannesburgandthesecondiswaterfillingabandoned,deep-undergroundshafts,turningacidic,andrapidlyapproachingthesurfaceasthewatertablerises.Thelattersourcenowrepresentsafarlargerchallenge–andoneforwhichminingcompanieshistoricallyevadedresponsibility by abandoning their operations without putting long-termmeasuresinplacetoaddresstheproblem.

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Industry Responses

Currentminingoperatorsrecognisethecritical importanceofestablishing long-termstrategiestomitigatefutureAMDrisksandpotentialcommercialliabilities.Onemine,GoldFieldsLtdagreesthatwaitingfortheminestoclosebeforedealingwiththeriskofAMDhasprovendisastrousforanumberofotherSouthAfricanminingcompanies.The company has proactively developed what it calls its ‘Liquid Gold’ strategy topreventfutureAMDfromitsdeepundergroundKDCandSouthDeepproperties,eventhoughKDChasatleasta10to20yearwindowbeforeclosure–whileSouthDeephasmorethana50yearwindowbeforeclosure.ItsapproachinvolvesfindingcommerciallysustainablewaystoavoidthemanifestationofAMDtobeginwith.

This will be achieved by providing treated potable and industrial water pumpedfrom closedoperations to localmunicipal, commercial and community users,whilesupportingAMDavoidancemeasures,suchasongoingcleananddirtywaterseparationandselectivetreatment.Throughthisapproach,GoldFieldshopestoavoidwhathashappenedelsewhereintheEastern,CentralandWesternbasinsandminimiseresidualliabilitiessurroundingitsmines’closure.

Inaddition, thiswill simultaneouslycontributeto improved localwatersecurityandfostereconomicdevelopmentanddiversificationintheregionssurroundingthetwooperations.GoldFieldshasnotedthatnoearningsfromtheprojectwillgointoitsownrevenuestreams.

Anglo American plc is also combining new technologies, institutional arrangementsandcommercialpartnershipstohelpminimisefutureAMDrisksfromitsSouthAfricanthermal coal business. In 2007 the company established – jointlywith BHP Billiton–theeMalahleniWaterReclamationScheme(EWRS)totreatwater fromitsnearbyoperationsandadisusedmineownedbyanothercompanyintheWitbankcoalfieldsofMpumalangaprovince.AngloAmerican’splantconvertsminewater intodrinkingwaterusingaprocessofreverseosmosisdesalination,similartothetechnologythatis applied in seawater desalination. It currently treats 30Ml/d, which is used bothin Anglo’s ownmining operations and to supply 12%of the nearby conurbation of

eMalahleni’sgrowingwaterneeds.Thecompanyisexpandingtheplanttotreat50Ml/day by early 2014 and is considering replicating the project at 10 otherthermal-coaloperations.

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The threat posed by AMD is also providing commercial opportunities for industryservicecompanies.Forexample,VeoliaWaterSolutions&TechnologiesSouthAfrica(VWSSA)andstate-ownedmineralsresearcherMintekannouncedearlierin2012thattheywerebringingtogethertheir independentlydevelopedtechnologiestodevelopamoreeffectiveAMDtreatmentsystem.Boththepublic-privatetreatmentinitiativeinvolvingVWSSAandMintekandAnglo’sEWRSschemealsolooktorecovermarketableby-productssuchasgypsumandmetalhydroxidesfromthetreatmentprocess,addingfurtherrevenuestreamsthatcanhelpfundpost-mineclosuretreatmentactivities.

5. What is the South African Government doing about Acid Mine Drainage in Gauteng?

AMD is a significant and costly environmental challenge facing themining industryworldwide. In SouthAfrica, there is a clear need for a better understanding of themethods that can be used to control and limit pollution from the oxidation ofsulphidic wastes, and how to select the waste management strategy or strategiesmost appropriate for a givenmine. The lackof knowledgeor uncertainty as to theeffectivenessof thewastemanagement strategiesbeingusedhas leftmineownersand theState facing significant long termcomplications. It is amatterof concern ifminesitesdonothaveenoughinformationtoknowiftheirwastesarepotentiallyacidgenerating.Thislackofinformationcanleaveminesitesexposedtosignificantfinancialrisk.

ThemanagementofpotentialAMDisunforgiving;itmustbedoneproperlythefirst

time.Itisacommonviewamongstexpertsintheindustrythatmanagementofknownpotentiallyacidgeneratingmaterialiscosteffective,butthattherehabilitationofAMDattheendofminelifeisexpensive.5Thecostsofreducingthereleaseofcontaminateddrainagetoacceptable levelscanbehigh ifthemanagementofanypotentiallyacidgeneratingwastesisnotincorporatedintomineplanning.

On the Witwatersrand Goldfields, the Western Basin has been decanting into theCrocodileRivercatchmentsince2002,intheCentralBasin,wherepumpingceasedin2008,theleveloftheacidwaterisrising,withtheriskofbreachingtheEnvironmentalCriticalLevel(ECL)6(andalsothetouristleveloftheGoldReefCityshaft)by

5 ‘Baseline environmental guidelines for new and existingmines’, Australian and New ZealandMineralsandEnergyCouncil(ANZMEC)Report95.02,ANZMEC,March1995,Canberra,p.56.

6 Theenvironmentalcriticallevelisdefinedasthehighestwaterlevelwithintheminevoidwhereno AMDflows out of themineworkings into the surrounding groundwater or surfacewatersystems.

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June2012.IntheEasternBasin,wherepumpingstoppedinJanuary2011,itisestimatedthattheECLwillbebreachedinJune2013.

Figure 7: An image of the formed AMD dam at the Robinson dump, West Rand, Gauteng GiventheurgencyoftheAMDchallengeintheWitwatersrand,aDirectivefromthe

DepartmentofWaterAffairs(DWA)wasissuedtotheTrans-CaledonTunnelAuthority(TCTA) to investigate and implement short-term measures to address the AMDchallengesinthesaidarea.TheAMDdecantfromtheWesternbasinwasidentifiedasahighpriorityfollowedbythecontinuousrisingwatertable,specificallyintheCentralBasin.Existing informationat thetimewasutilisedto formulatethe immediateandshort-termsolutions.TheDWAsaidthattheurgencyoftheproblemdidnotallowforfurtherstudiesbeforeasolutioncouldbeimplemented.However,specialiststudiesarebeingundertakenaspartofthelong-termEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA).The

existingwaterqualitymanagementprogrammeisdesignedtopreventexcessivesalinitiesintheVaalRiversystem.Themaintenanceofthewatertreatmenteffortstomaintainthewaterqualityistobeusedtolimittheimpactonthewaterqualityespeciallyfordownstreamusers.

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TheDWAfurthersaysthatthetimerequiredforthecompletionofafullEIAprocessis likelytoresult indelays inconstructionofessential infrastructurethat isrequiredto prevent the breaching of specific underground water levels i.e. the ECL. If theECL is breached, there are potential adverse socio-economic and environmentalramifications.TheDWAaddedthatthedecisiontopumpandneutralise isbasedonadetailedassessmentthatwasconductedbytheexpertpanelreportingtotheInter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) on AMD. Subsequent investigations conducted by theTCTAconfirmedthisdecision.

The short-term (4 years) action that was recommended by the AMD IMC is theneutralisationoftheacidity,andtheremovalofheavymetals,butnottheremovalofsalts(desalination).Althoughthetreatmentwouldneutralisetheacidityandremoveasignificantpercentageoftheheavymetals,thewaterwouldstillhaveahighsulphatecontentwhich,unlessusedasmake-upwaterinaclosedindustrialprocess,wouldhavenovalueandwouldbedischargedintotheenvironment.Thiswillthenrequiredilutionfromexpensiveandscarcefreshwatersourcestomitigatetheimpact.

Neutralisationwill reducethesulphate loadstobetween3,000and3,700mg/l (theproposed aeration and gypsum crystallisation in addition to the lime dosing andlimestonemay,atbest,reducethesulphatelevelsto2000mg/-thewaterremains,however,unfitforanyusage)andnottheregulatory(DWA) limitof600mg/l.Fundswouldbeneededforboththecapitalandoperatingcosts(estimatedatZAR210million–accordingtotheTCTA’sestimationtheshorttermandimmediatetreatmentofAMDwillbeZAR924millionforthecapitalexpenditure[CAPEX],andZAR385millionperyearfor4yearsfortheoperationandmaintenance)andthetreatedAMDwouldhaveadetrimentalimpactonthereceivingwatercoursesduetothehighsulphatecontent.

Howevertodate:

1) OnlyZAR433millionhasbeenmadeavailablefortheshort-termsolution(capitalrequirementZAR924million);

2) Thelong-termsolutionisstillsubjecttoafeasibilitystudyeventhoughDWA’sownplanningdirectorateshowsthattreatmentofAMDtoremovethesaltloadmustbeimplemented;and

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3) The Government still talks of making the “polluter pay” even though it wouldinvolveinvokingretroactivelegislation(legally,itisdoubtfulthiswouldbepossible)andthealternativeisanenvironmentallevyonalloperatingminesinSouthAfrica.Thecurrenttaxpayer-fundedapproachwasunlikelytobesustainable,particularlyinlightofthefactthatyetmoreinterventionsareneeded,whiletheoperationalcostsappearedtobeamaterialfactor.However,thesuggestionoftheimpositionof an environmental levy on the mines to pay for the AMD is not convincing.Furthermore,thecentralconcernishowthiswillbeenforcedespeciallyforminesthatnolongeroperate.

Meanwhile, the projected costs for dealing with AMD are escalating. In August2012,theMinisterofWaterandEnvironmentalAffairsinformedParliamentthattheprojected cost of short-term interventions alone had increased to ZAR 2.2 billion.Likewise,standardformsofAMDmanagementarealsobecomingmorechallenging.Forexample,by2015theVaalriversystemmaynotbeabletosufficientlydiluteincreasingvolumesofdecantingAMDtoensureitisrenderedfitforhumanconsumption.

TheGovernment expects companies to dealwithAMDat their existingmines. TheGovernmentwouldalsolikethecountry’sminingcompaniestocontributefinanciallytowiderindustrysolutions–inadditiontothosefortheirownproperties.Nonetheless,theyhavesofaronlyaskedanumberoffirms,wherecontinuousownershipcanbetraced,todealwithhistoricaldamages.

5.1DelayedGovernmentresponse ThecriticalnatureoftheAMDsituationacrosstheWitwatersrandGoldfieldshasled

civilsocietyandlocalcommunitystakeholderstoaskpressingquestions:

◊ Whyhadthegovernmentwaitedsolongtorespondtotheproblem?◊ Whichcompanieswereresponsibleandhowshouldtheybeheldtoaccount?◊ Whoisgoingtopaytofixtheproblemandwhatstepsshouldbetakentoensure

costsoffutureAMDarenotimposedonsubsequentgenerations?

TheSouthAfricanGovernmenthasbeenstrongly criticised fornot respondingto the AMD threat early enough, despite civil society organisations, non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs),andresearch institutions releasing reports

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andstatementscallingontheGovernmenttotakeaction.Thesepublicreportsfromresearch institutions, CSOs, NGOs, and other interested and affected parties drewattentiontotheproblemofAMDintheWitwatersrandGoldfieldsandhighlightedthefactthatitwouldonlyworsenwithtime,shoulditnotbedealtwith.Arguably,itwasonlyonceAMDstartedtothreatentheinterestsofrelativelyempowered,politicallyinfluentialandwealthypopulationsinandaroundJohannesburgthattheGovernmentstartedtoseriouslyreviewitsoptionsforaddressingtheissue.

Thatwasin2010-almostawholedecadeafterthefirstcallforactionwasmade.Thedrainagephenomenonwashighlighted inSeptember2002,whenacidicminewaterstartedflowingfromanabandonedshaftintheMogaleCity/RandfonteinareaoftheWesternBasinasaresultofthefloodingofthemines inthisbasintoa levelwherewatercouldflowoutontothesurface,andassuchtheurgencyofthesituationcannotbearguedindefence.

Despite the important and valuable role played by CSOs, NGOs, and other bodiesaroundenvironmentalrightsandspecificallyAMDissues,theGovernmentagainfailedtomeaningfully engagewith these bodies, and othermembers of the publicwhenit cametimetomakeadecisionon thepreferred treatmentoption forAMD in theGautengprovince.

Thepublichasa role toplay indecisions thataffect their lifecircumstances;and inthematterunderconsideration,endwateruserscarrytheimpactsandcostsofAMD.DecisionsregardingthepumpingandtreatmentofAMDweretakenwithoutanypublicinvolvementorparticipation.

IntermsofSection4oftheNationalEnvironmentalManagementAct(107of1998):

f. Theparticipationofallinterestedandaffectedpartiesinenvironmentalgovernancemust be promoted, and all people must have the opportunity to develop theunderstanding,skillsandcapacitynecessaryforachievingequitableandeffectedparticipation,andparticipationbyvulnerableanddisadvantagedpersonsmustbeensured.

g. Decisionsmust take into account the interests, needs and values of allinterestedandaffectedparties,andthisincludesrecognisingallformsofknowledge,includingtraditionalandordinaryknowledge.

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6. What are the responsibilities of mines in relation to Acid Mine Drainage and human rights?

TheresponsibilityfortreatingAMDisthecrucialissue.Asitwasnotforeseen,whenthepumpingofminesbegan,thattherewouldbeaproblemofAMD,therewasnothingsetasidetodealwiththefinancialimplications.Therewasalsolittleconcernmanydecadesagoaboutpotentialenvironmentalproblemswhichmightresultfromindustrialactivity.Oftenthecompaniesresponsibleforthesinkingofshaftsintothegroundarenolongerinoperationandtheproblemhasnotmaterialisedbecauseofthecontinuedpumpingbyothermineoperatorsinthenearvicinity.Thequestioniswhetherthelastoperatortostopminingandswitchoffthepumpsshouldbeheldresponsibleforthedrainage.Itisonlythenthattheproblemisnoticedthoughtheactivityresponsibleforthedrainagewillhavebeencarriedoutbyallofthemineoperatorswithinthesamecatchmentarea.

In theGauteng context, currentmining companies have a legal,moral, and ethicalobligationtoensurenorun-offsfromtheirminesimpactoncommunities.Assuch,theyrelyheavilyonlegislativeinstrumentstoensurecompliance.Therefore,theStateoughttoensureenforcementwhileabodyliketheChamberofMines–withamembershipof60outof200mines–ensuresthefulfilmentofitsownmandate.IfthecapacityoftheStateisinadequate,itcreatesopportunitiesformininghousestotakeadvantage.Theauthorisation-holdershavecertainresponsibilitiesandtheirobligationsgohand-in-handwiththeState’sabilitytocomply.Thelegacyissueisaproblemthatmustberecognisedandgivenattention.Thereisnolegislationtoensurethelegacyproblemwillnotbeinherited.TheStateshouldacceptthatthelegacyproblemisnotamine’saloneandshouldsuggestthatbothparties(theStateandtheprivatesector)shouldinvestinwatertreatmentprocessesasasustainablesolution.Itshouldbeacollectivesolution(oftheshareholdersandoftheStateetc.)tothelegacyproblem.TheStateisgrantinglicencesonthebasisofnegligence,thereforeitisnecessarytoadvisetheStatethatthis isunacceptable.BoththeStateandtheprivatesectoroughttocollaboratemeaningfullyotherwiseactionswillnotbesustainable.

Withregardtotheapportionmentofliabilities,theDWAhasmadeitclearthatastheregulatortheymaydirectrelevantminestoundertakeremediation,subjecttotherecommendationsofthelegalcomponentofthefeasibilitystudythatiscurrentlyunderway.TheDWAwillalso,inthenearfuture,dealwiththesmallerminesthatarepotentiallyAMDproducingmines.

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Apportionmentstudies,performedbytheCouncilforGeoScience(CGS)onbehalfoftheDepartmentofMineralResources(DMR),havefoundthatwhileanumberofthemines in theareaarederelictandabandoned, theycannotnecessarilybeclassifiedas‘ownerless’.Liabilityfortheimpactsofthesemines,intermsofSection46oftheMineral andPetroleumResourcesAct (MPRDA), can thereforenotbeautomaticallyassignedtotheState.Theapportionmentprocedureforallbasinsneedstobeverified.Further,anapproachtodealingwithmininglegaciesneedstobeformulatedthatwillnotresultinongoinglegalwranglingwhichcouldseriouslydelaytheimplementationofsolutions.

MiningcompaniesmayalsofacecivillegalactiononaccountofAMD.ThismayariseaspartiesseektoholdcompaniesthatarestilloperatingtoaccounteitherforhistoricalAMD damage or via liabilities they have inherited through the purchase of AMD-affectedland.

Asmentioned,apportioningliabilityhashithertoprovenverydifficultduetothelonghistoryofmining and the related complexity of establishing closedmines’ previousownership (and with it proving a clear chain of liability for AMD). Previous legalchallengesagainstmining companieshave largelybeenunsuccessful,but this trendmaynotcontinueasthelegallyentrenchedPolluterPaysPrincipleisfastbecomingareality.

InJuly2012,theNorthGautengHighCourtruledthatHarmonyGoldmustcontinuepayingforwatertobepumpedoutofaWestRandmineitsoldin2008.Thecompanyistoappealthedecision.Nonetheless,iftheverdictisupheld,animportantprecedentwill be set in terms of landowner obligations. Likewise, a legal assessment of theminingindustry’sliabilityisbeingundertakenaspartoftheDWA’sfeasibilitystudyintopotentiallong-termsolutionstoAMD.

Althoughdifficulttomeasure,AMDmayharmthereputationofindividualcompaniesoperating within the jurisdiction as well as that of the industry as a whole. Suchreputational harmmay have the potential to inhibit the ability of companies withAMD-affectedoperationsinSouthAfricatoenternewgeographiesandconstructivelyengagewithlocalcommunities,ortoaccessandraisefinance.

Indirectly, reputational harmmay feed intowiderdebatesover the roleofminingcompaniesinSouthAfrica,ultimatelyprovidingammunitiontothose

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arguing for significant sector restructuring, including an expanded state role in theminingsector–althoughthiscouldalsoseethestatehavingtoassumemoreoftheseliabilities.

7. What is the SAHRC doing about AMD?

EstablishedunderChapter9oftheConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfricaAct,108of1996,(theConstitution)theSouthAfricanHumanRightsCommission(SAHRC)isanationalinstitutionestablishedtoentrenchconstitutionaldemocracythroughthepromotionandprotectionofhumanrights.AssuchtheSAHRCismandatedto:

◊ Promoterespectforhumanrightsandacultureofhumanrights;◊ Promotetheprotection,developmentandattainmentofhumanrights;and◊ MonitorandassesstheobservanceofhumanrightsinSouthAfrica.

TheConstitutionalsosetsoutthepowersattributedtotheSAHRCnecessaryforitto

undertakeitsfunctionincludingthepowersto:

◊ Investigateandtoreportontheobservanceofhumanrights;◊ Takestepstosecureappropriateredresswherehumanrightshavebeenviolated;◊ Carryoutresearch;and◊ Educate.

TheHumanRightsCommissionAct, 54of 1994, confers furtherpowers,dutiesandfunctionsontheSAHRC.Theseincludethepowertoconductaninvestigationintoanyallegedviolationofhumanrights,tocallanypersontoappearbeforeitandproducetoitallarticlesanddocumentsrequiredintermsoftheinvestigation.Chapter2oftheConstitutioncontainstheBillofRightswhich“enshrinestherightsofallpeopleinourcountryandaffirmsthedemocraticvaluesofhumandignity,equalityandfreedom.”7

Over the last couple of years, civil society organisations, non-governmentalorganisations,andotheraffectedstakeholdershaveapproachedtheSAHRCtodrawattentiontotheenvironmentaldegradationbroughtaboutbyAMD,andthe impact

thisminingproblemhashadnotonlyontheenvironment,butalsoonthehumanrightsofhostandsurroundingcommunities.

7 Section7(1).

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Figure 8: An image of AMD crust formation on natural vegetation

Within its legislativemandate, the Commission has the power to establish expert-

advisorycommitteesthathaveaparticularfocalpoint.ThefirstsubsectionofSection5oftheHumanRightsCommissionActNo.54of1994stipulatesthattheCommissionmay establish one ormore committees consisting of one ormoremembers of theCommission, and one or more other persons, if any, whom the Commission mayappointforthatpurposeandfortheperioddeterminedbyit.WiththeCommission’sfocusontherighttoasafeandcleanenvironmentandthedesignationofadedicatedCommissioner to deal specifically with natural resource management and humanrights,theCommissioniswell-placedtocarryoutanumberofactivitiesinpromotingandprotectingtherighttoanenvironmentthatisnotharmfultohealthorwell-being.ThepurposeofsuchaCommitteeistoadvisetheCommissionasaNHRI,establishedintermsoftheParisPrinciples,onpossiblerolesandactivitiesthatcouldbeundertakenin termsof itsconstitutionalmandate topromoteandmonitoraccess to theaboveright.

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SectionFiveCommittee–HumanRightsandAcidMineDrainage:TheCommissionestablished its first expert-advisory Section 5 Committee in 2011. The firstmeetingwasheldon22March2011andthe2ndmeetingwasheldon13September2011.From these meetings three sub-committees emerged, drawn from the committeemembers,namelyeconomicactors;advocacyandawareness,andgovernmentliaison.Each of these sub-committees have held teleconferences; and the economic actorssub-committeealsohadameetingwiththeNationalBusinessInitiative(NBI),miningcompanies,andtheChamberofMinesonhowtobringtheprivatesectoronboardandhowtoengagewiththeGovernmentontheissueofAMD.TheCommissionalsowrotetotheDepartmentofHealth(DoH)in2011torequestthatsignagebeerectedaroundmines, especially those affected by AMD, tomake people aware of the dangers ofoccupyinglandinthatvicinityandtheimpactoftheaffectedenvironmentonchildrenwhoplayinthearea.

TheCommissionwasinvitedtovisittheWestRandgoldfieldson15August2011bytheCEOoftheFederationforaSustainableEnvironment(FSE),MarietteLiefferink.Thepurposeof thevisitwasto investigatetheenvironmental impactsofvariousminingandre-miningactivitiesinthegreaterKrugersdorparea,andthesubsequenteffectsonsurroundingcommunities.

NationalWorkshop:AMDTreatmentOptionsandHumanRights.Attheendof2011,itwasdecided thataworkshopwouldbehostedby theCommission toengage theGovernment on the preferred AMD treatment option for the short-term solutioni.e.neutralisation,aswellastheplansfora long-termtreatmentplanforAMD.ThesuccessfulworkshopwasheldinMarch2012.Followingtheworkshop,itwasdecidedthat the Section 5 Committee would be dissolved as the Commission felt that itswork was complete; nonetheless, the Commission continued to work and engageontheissue.TheCommissionwassubsequentlyinvitedtositonastudystakeholdercommitteeforthelong-termfeasibilitystudy(LTSSSC)onAMDconvenedbyAurecon,DepartmentofWaterAffairs,andSRKConsulting.TheCommissionhassinceattendedthreemeetingsoftheLTSSSConAMD,andhasconvenedahigh-levelmeetingwiththeDirectorGeneralofDWAtobringtherights-basedconcernsofAMDtohisattention,andtogetclarityonanumberofissuesrelatingtothedecisionsmadebytheGovernment

onAMDremediation.

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7.1Challengesgoingforward

AMD has increased scrutiny of the practices of mining companies with operationsin South Africa and could hold significant regulatory, legal, closure liability, andreputationalimplicationsfortheindustry.

Elementsoftheregulatoryframeworkrelatingtominingarelikelytobeamendedatensuring the industrymeets someof thecostsofmanaging theAMD legacyacrossthe country – and to ensure that the environmental impacts of future operationsareminimised. For example, an environmental levymay be introduced on currentoperationalmines,withproceedsusedtofundthewholeoftheindustry’senvironmentallegacy,includingAMD.

AMDmanagement interventions could also be funded through the enforcement ofexisting legislation, such as the NationalWater Act – and its associated raw-watertariffsandfinesforenvironmentalnon-compliance.

In response to the significant financial burden imposed on the South AfricanGovernmentinrelationtopotentialAMD-relatedliabilitiesandderelictandownerless(D&O)mines, an August 2012 report by environmentalNGOWWF-SA called for “areviewofthewayfinancialprovisionsareestimated,theinstrumentsusedforsecuringprovisionsand thefinancial reportingof environmental risks and closure liabilities”.Fiscalremedies,however,arelikelytobehighlyunpopularwiththeindustryatatimewhentheSouthAfricanGovernmentisalso–controversiallyandnotoriously–lookingtoincreaseitsrevenuesfrom,andownershipin,thecountry’sminingindustrymorebroadly.Nonetheless,theneedforalevytobeputinplaceforrehabilitationonmineclosure,attheveryonsetofamine’soperations,isclear.IntheUSAabandonedminesare rehabilitated under the National AbandonedMine Land Programme under theOfficeofSurfaceMiningReclamationandEnforcement(OSMRE)oftheUSDepartmentoftheInterior.FundsareraisedviaalevyonactivecoalminesanddepositedintotheAbandonedMineLands(AML)fund—atrustadministeredbytheU.S.Treasury8topayforreclamationofminesabandonedbeforethepassageoftheSurfaceMiningControlandReclamationActof1977.9

8 OfficeofSurfaceMining(2006)“SurfaceMiningLaw.”Fromhttp://www.osmre.gov.9 Wikipedia (2007) “Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.” From http://

en.wikipedia.org.

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TheAMDsituationmayalsoprovidethesocialimpetusformoreonerouscontrolsforthesectoraswhole.Greaterstateresourcesmayalsobedeployedtowardsenforcementactivities,includingdischargelimitsandwater-uselicences.

Withenvironmentalandregulatorypressuresconverging,thenextyearisacriticalonefortheminingsectorinSouthAfrica.IftheindustryandtheGovernmentareabletodealcollaborativelywiththelegacychallengesofAMDintheWitwatersrand,aswellasestablishhowfutureAMDriskswillbejointlymanaged,thenastrongsignalwillbeprovidedtosocietyandoutsideinvestorsthatthegapbetweensustainabilityrhetoricandrealityisclosing.

Meanwhile,ifindustry-developedAMDtreatmentsolutionsproveeffective,therewillbepotential forthesetechnologiestoberolledout internationally,therebycreatingcommercialopportunityandseeingSouthAfricatakeaninternationalleadershiproleinwhatislikelytoemergeasanincreasinglydivisiveconservationissue.

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ANNEXURE 1

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is a natural consequence of mining activity where theexcavationofmineral deposits (metal bearingor coal), below thenatural groundwaterlevel, exposes sulphur containing compounds to oxygen andwater. The environmentalproblemoccursbecause,whenthepumpingstops,thegroundwaterbeginstofloodthemine,slowlyapproachingtheoriginalgroundwaterlevel.Asthewaterrisesiteventuallyreachesthelevelofthemine/decantvoidandbeginstodrainonceagain,sometimesoveronehundredyearsafteritlastdidso.

Inbrief, themajor cause is theacceleratedoxidationof ironpyriteandother sulphidicminerals resulting from the exposure of these minerals to both oxygen and water,as a consequence of themining and processing ofmetal ores and coals.Manymetalsoccurchieflyassulphideoresandthesetendtobeassociatedwithpyrite,which isthemostabundantsulphidemineralontheplanet.Likewise,coaldepositscontainvariable(generally1–20%)amountsofpyritic-sulphuraswellasorganicsulphur.AMDmayformin underground workings (groundwaters) of deep mines (particularly gold mines, butalsocoalfields),althoughthis isgenerallyofminor importancewhenamineis inactiveproductionandwatertablesarekeptartificially lowbypumping.However,whenminesareclosedandabandoned,andthepumpsturnedoff,thereboundofthewatertablecanleadtocontaminatedgroundwaterbeingdischarged.AMDoriginating fromabandonedminestodatehascarriedno,orextremelylimited,liabilityandsohashadtobefundedfromthepublicpurse.

Duetothemoredisaggregated(andmoreconcentrated,inthecaseoftailings)natureoftheacid-generatingminerals in thesewastematerials,AMDthatflows fromthemmaybemoreaggressivethanthatwhichdischargesfromthemineitself.Another importantconsiderationhere is thepotential long-termpollutionproblem,asproductionofAMDmaycontinueformanyyearsafterminesareclosedandtailingdamsaredecommissioned.Although the generic termAMD (or acid rock drainage) is used frequently to describeminewaterdischarges,thepHofthesewatersmaybeabove6,particularlyatthepointofdischarge(wheredissolvedoxygenconcentrationsarefrequentlyverylow).Ifthewaterisnottreatedthenitwillcauseseveredamagetotheenvironment,bothvisuallyandtowildlife. If thewater is treated then thereareotherproblems thathave tobeaddressed.Moneywill have to be spent, subsequently, either onmaintainingthewaterlevelbelowthedischargelevel,ordisposingofthemetal-richsludgesremainingaftertreatment.

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ANNEXURE 2

Active Treatment Technology Limetreatmentissimpleandrobust,andthebenefitsanddrawbacksofthetreatmentwellknownduetolongusage.Itdoes,however,presentseveralenvironmentalproblems.Thematerialproducedaftertreatmentwiththelime,ahigh-densitysludge(HDS),ismetalrichandusuallycontainsasignificantamountofwater.TheHDSmayalsocontainvariousothermetals,dependingonthechemistryoftheminewatertreated.

Themetalsmeanthatitwilloftenrequirespecialwastedisposalfacilitieswhichaddtothecostsofdisposal.Thewatercontentincreasesthevolumeandweightofthewastewhichmeansthatmoneyisbeingspenttodisposeofwaterwhichmightotherwisebeavoided.Thegeneralmethods to reducethewatercontentareoften labourorenergy intensivewhichalsoincreasecostsandareoftenunabletokeepupwiththeflowofmaterialfromthetreatmentsystem.Therequirementforlimealsohasdirectenvironmentalconsequencesfortheregionswherethelimestoneisquarried.

Passive Treatment Technology

ThenatureofAMDisthatitpersistsforlongperiodsoftime,oftenrequiringconstantlowleveltreatment.Themaintenanceofequipmentisoftenmoreexpensivethanthereagentsusedfortreatment.Themainproblemswiththewetlandssolutionarethetime itmaytakeforanaturalsystemtoreacttothe,sometimesextreme,changesinwaterflowandthefactthatwhilstthewaterflowsallyearroundthebacteriaaremostactivewhentheweatheriswarm.Thereisalsoanengineeringproblem:gettingthewatertocontact,mostefficiently,theanaerobic(oxygen-free)partsofthewetlandwheretheremedialprocessismostefficient.

Therehavebeenseveralmodificationstotheoriginalwetlandsolution,witheachaddingmoreandmoreactiveelementstothepassivesolution.Itisnowrecognisedthatthereisunlikelytobeacompletelypassivesystem,buttherearehopesthatalowmaintenancesolutionmaybefound.

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Recovery of useful minerals from AMD

ItispossibletousesomeofthetechnologiesavailabletoextractandretainvaluablemetalsfromtheAMD.Withtheuseofthesetechnologiesitisalsopossiblethatapotablewatersupplymaybeproduced,thoughthisislikelytobemoreexpensivethantherevenuesuchaproductwouldgenerate.Amorelikelyoptionistheproductionof‘grey’waterwhichmayhaveindustrialuses.

MostoftheionexchangeandmembranebasedtechnologieswillalsorequiresomepHmodification,usuallyintheformofaddinglime.Thisisafarlesseruseoflimehoweverasonlysmallamountsarerequiredtomodifythedrainagetoneutralasopposedtotheamountsrequiredtomakethesolutionalkalineenoughtoprecipitatemetalsasinstandardlimetreatmentscenarios.

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NOTES

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