acid base salt

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Definitions of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on [H+]

acidic: if [H+] is greaterthan 1 x 10

-7M

basic: if [H+] is less than1 x 10

-7M

neutral: if [H+] ifequal to 1 x 10

-7M

Example 1: What is the [H+] of a sample of lake water with [OH-] of 4.0 x 10-9 M? Is thelake acidic, basic, or neutral?

Solution: [H+] = 1 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-9 = 2.5 x 10-6 M

Therefore the lake is slightly acidic

Remember: the smaller the negative exponent, the larger the number is.

Therefore:

acid solutions should have exponents of [H+] from 0 to -6. basic solutions will have exponents of [H+] from -8 on.

Example 2: What is the [H+] of human saliva if its [OH-] is 4 x 10-8 M? Is human salivaacidic, basic, or neutral?

Solution: [H+] = 1.0 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-8 = 2.5 x 10-7 M

The saliva is pretty neutral.

4. pH

relationship between [H+] and pH

pH = -log10[H+]

Definition of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on pH

acidic: if pH is less than 7basic: if pH is greaterthan 7

neutral: if pH is equal to 7

The [H+] can be calculated from the pH by taking the antilog of the negative pH

Example 3: calculate the [OH-] of a solution of baking soda with a pH of 8.5.

Solution: First calculate the [H+]


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if pH is 8.5, then the antilog of -8.5 is 3.2 x 10-9. Thus the [H+] is 3.2 x 10-9 M

Next calculate the [OH-]

1.0 x 10-14 / 3.2 x 10-9 = 3.1 x 10-6 M

Example 4: Calculate the pH of a solution of household ammonia whose [OH-] is 7.93 x10-3 M.

Solution: This time you first calculate the [H+] from the [OH-]

7.93 x 10-3 M OH- = 1.26 x 10-12 M H+

Then find the pH

-log[1.26 x 10-12] = 11.9

Now you try a few by yourself. You can then check your answers using the Java applet that

follows, but remember, you won't learn how to do them if you don't try by yourself first.

Practice #1. What is the pH of a solution of NaOH that has a [OH-] of 3.5 x 10-3 M?

Practice #2. The H+ of vinegar that has a pH of 3.2 is what?

Practice #3. What is the pH of a 0.001 M HCl solution?

How can pH be determined experimentally?

By using pH paper or a pH meter

5. Strength of Acids andBases:Acids

1. Strong Acids:

completely dissociate in water, forming H+ and an anion.

example: HN03 dissociates completely in water to form H+ and N03

1-.

The reaction is

HNO3(aq) H+

(aq) + N031-

(aq)


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A 0.01 M solution of nitric acid contains 0.01 M of H+ and 0.01 M N03- ions

and almost no HN03 molecules. The pH of the solution would be 2.0.

There are only 6 strong acids: You must learn them. Theremainder of the acids therefore are considered weak acids.

1. HCl 2. H2SO4

3. HNO34. HClO4

5. HBr6. HI

Note: when a strong acid dissociates only one H+ ion is removed.H2S04 dissociates giving H

+ and HS04- ions.

H2SO4 H+ + HSO4

1-

A 0.01 M solution of sulfuric acid would contain 0.01 M H+ and 0.01 M HSO41-

(bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate ion).

2. Weak acids:

a weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H+ and the anion

for example, HF dissociates in water to give H+ and F-. It is a weakacid. with a dissociation equation that is

HF(aq) H+

(aq) + F-(aq)

Note the use of the double arrow with the weak acid. That is because an

equilibrium exists between the dissociated ions and the undissociatedmolecule. In the case of a strong acid dissociating, only one arrow ( ) is

required since the reaction goes virtually to completion. An equilibrium expression can be written for this system:

Ka = [ H+][F-] / [HF]

Which are the weak acids? Anything that dissociates in water to produce H+

andis not one of the 6 strong acids.

1. Molecules containing an ionizable proton. (If the formula starts with H then it is aprime candidate for being an acid.) Also: organic acids have at least one carboxyl group, -COOH, with the H being ionizable.

2. Anions that contain an ionizable proton. ( HSO4

1- H+ + SO4

2- )3. Cations: (transition metal cations and heavy metal cations with high charge)

also NH4+ dissociates into NH3 + H

+

Bases1. Strong Bases:


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They dissociate 100% into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion).

example: NaOH(aq) Na+

(aq) + OH-(aq)

a. 0.010 M NaOH solution will contain 0.010 M OH- ions (as well as 0.010 MNa+ ions) and have a pH of 12.

Which are the strong bases?

The hydroxides of Groups I and II.

Note: the hydroxides of Group II metals produce 2 mol of OH- ions for every mole of

base that dissociates. These hydroxides are not very soluble, but what amount thatdoes dissolve completely dissociates into ions.

exampIe: Ba(OH)2(aq) Ba2+

(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

a. 0.000100 M Ba(OH)2 solution will be 0.000200 M in OH- ions (as well as 0.00100M in Ba2+ ions) and will have a pH of 10.3.

2. Weak Bases:

What compounds are considered to be weak bases?

1. Most weak bases are anions of weak acids.2. Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. They react with water to

furnish the OH- ions.

Note that like weak acids, this reaction is shown to be at equilibrium, unlike

the dissociation of a strong base which is shown to go to completion.

3. When a weak base reacts with water the OH- comes from the water and the

remaining H+ attaches itsef to the weak base, giving a weak acid as one of theproducts. You may think of it as a two-step reaction similar to the hydrolysis of waterby cations to give acid solutions.

examples:

NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) NH4+

(aq) + OH-(aq)

methylamine: CH3NH2(aq) + H20(l) CH3NH3+

(aq) + OH-(aq)

acetate ion: C2H3O2-(aq) + H2O(aq) HC2H302(aq) + OH

-(aq)

General reaction: weak base(aq) + H2O(aq) weak acid(aq) + OH-(aq)

Since the reaction does not go to completion relatively few OH- ions areformed.


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Acid-BaseProperties of Salt Solutions:definition of a salt:

an ionic compound made of a cation and an anion, other than hydroxide. the product besides water of a neutralization reaction

determining acidity or basicity of a salt solution:

1. split the salt into cation and anion2. add OH- to the cation

a. if you obtain a strong base. the cation is neutral

b. if you get a weak base, the cation is acidic

3. Add H+ to the anion

a. if you obtain a strong acid, the anion is neutral

b. if you obtain a weak acid. the anion is basic

4. Salt solutions are neutral if both ions are neutral

5. Salt solutions are acidic if one ion is neutral and the other is acidic6. Salt solutions are basic is one of the ions is basic and the other is neutral.

7. The acidity or basicity of a salt made of one acidic ion and one basic ion cannot bedetermined without further information.

Examples: determine if the following solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral Click oneach one to find out the answer.

KC2H3O2

NaHPO4

Cu(NO3)2 LiHS

KClO4 NH4Cl

6. Acid-BaseReactions:

Strong acid + strong base: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2Onet ionic reaction: H+ + OH- H2O

Strong acid + weak base:

example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl, and

aqueous ammonia, NH3. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

Strong base + weak acid:
http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NaHPO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NaHPO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NaHPO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/LiHS.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/LiHS.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KClO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KClO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NH4Cl.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NH4Cl.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NH4Cl.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NH4Cl.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NH4Cl.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KClO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/LiHS.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/Cu(NO3)2.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/NaHPO4.htmlhttp://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/KC2H3O2.html


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example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between citric acid (H3C6H507) and

sodium hydroxide. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

7. Titrations

1. Nomenclature: these are terms that are used when talking about titratingone substance with another. You need to learn these definitions well enoughto explain them to someone else.

titration

titrant indicator

equivalence point

end point

titration cuve

2. Strong acid-strong base titration

example:

titration curve

pH at equivalence pointspecies present

appropriate indicators

3. Strong acid-weak base titration

example

titration curve

pH at end pointspecies present

appropriate indicators

4. Weak acid-strong base titrations


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example: titratio

n curve for thetitration of

vinegar with

NaOH

pH at end point-approximately 8.5

species present-H2O and NaC2H3O2

appropiateindicator-

phenolphthalein

Note: no matterwhat type of titration you do, at the equivalence (end) pointthe number of moles of H

+is equivalent to the number of moles of OH

-. This

applies whether you have weak or strong acids and/or bases.

Problems: l. Citric acid (C6H807) contains a mole of ionizable H+/mole of citric acid. A

sample containing citric acid has a mass of 1.286 g. The sample is dissolved in 100.0 mL ofwater. The solution is titrated with 0.0150 M of NaOH. If 14.93 mL of the base are requiredto neutralize the acid. then what is the mass percent of citric acid in the sample?

2. A sample of solid calcium hydroxide is mixed with water at 30 oC and allowed to stand. A

100.0 mL sample of the solution is titrated with 59.4 mL of a 0.400 M solution of

hydrobromic acid.a. What is the concentration of the calcium hydroxide solution?

b. What is the solubility of the calcium hydroxide in water at 30 oC? Express your answer ingrams of Ca(OH)2 / 100 mL water?

8. Three models of acids:

l. Arrhenius Model

Basis for the model--action in water


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acid definition: produces H in water solution


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Reflection (physics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The reflection ofMount HoodinMirror Lake.

Reflection is the change in direction of awavefrontat aninterfacebetween two differentmediaso that the

wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection

oflight,soundandwater waves. The law of reflection says that forspecular reflectionthe angle at which the

wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected.Mirrorsexhibit specular reflection.

Inacoustics, reflection causesechoesand is used insonar. In geology, it is important in the study ofseismic

waves. Reflection is observed withsurface wavesin bodies of water. Reflection is observed with many types

ofelectromagnetic wave, besidesvisible light. Reflection ofVHFand higher frequencies is important

forradiotransmission and forradar. Evenhard X-raysandgamma rayscan be reflected at shallow angles withspecial "grazing" mirrors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hoodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hoodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hoodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_Lake_(Mount_Hood,_Oregon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_Lake_(Mount_Hood,_Oregon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_Lake_(Mount_Hood,_Oregon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefronthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefronthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefronthttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interfacehttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interfacehttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interfacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(optics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(optics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(optics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_(phenomenon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_(phenomenon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_(phenomenon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_X-rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_X-rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_X-rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Hood_reflected_in_Mirror_Lake,_Oregon.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Hood_reflected_in_Mirror_Lake,_Oregon.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Hood_reflected_in_Mirror_Lake,_Oregon.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Hood_reflected_in_Mirror_Lake,_Oregon.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_X-rayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_(phenomenon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_(optics)https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interfacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefronthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_Lake_(Mount_Hood,_Oregon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hood


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Refraction of light at the interface between two media.

Home

PhysicsPhysics IIReflection of Light

Top

Reflection of Light by a Plane Surface

The figure shows how a ray of light is reflected by a plane surface. Let MM' represent a reflecting surface.

When a ray of light is incident on MM' in the direction IO it gets reflected along the direction OR. IO is the

incident ray; O is the point of incidence and OR is the reflected ray.

Reflection of a Ray Light by a Plane Mirror
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Let ON be the normal drawn perpendicular to the surface MM' at the point of incidence. The angle

which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence is called the angle of

incidence and is denoted by the letter 'i'. The angle that the reflected ray makes with the normal at

the point of incidence is called the angle of reflection 'r'. Mirror is an example of a reflecting

surface.

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point

of incidence all lie in the same plane.

(ii) The ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence (i) and of the angle of refraction (r) is a

constant quantity for two given media, which is called the refractive index of the second

medium with respect to the first.

(sin i / sin r) = constant =

When light propagates through a series of layers of different medium as shown in the figure,

then the Snells law may be written as

1sin 1 = 2sin 2 = 3 sin 3 = 4 sin 4 = constant

In general, sin = constant

Fig a (series of transparent layers of different refractive indices), Fig b (A light ray passing

from air to water bends toward the normal)

When light passes from rarer to denser medium it bends toward the normal as shown in the

fig.

According to Snells law

1sin 1 = 2sin 2

When a light ray passes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal as

shown in the fig. b above


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For a given point object, the image formed by refraction at plane surface is illustrated by

the following diagrams.

The same result is obtained for the other case also. The image distance from the refracting

surface is also known as Apparent depth or height.

Apparent Shift

Apparent shift = Object distance from refracting surface image distance from refracting

surface.

y (apparent shift) t = 1 - -1 where t is the object distance and = 1/ 2

If there are a number of slabs with different refractive indices placed between the

observer and the object.

Total apparent shift = yi


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Illustration 3: A person looking through a telescope T just sees the point A on the rim at

the bottom of a cylindrical vessel when the vessel is empty. When the vessel is completely

filled with a liquid (? = 1.5), he observes a mark at the centre, B, of the vessel. What is the

height of the vessel if the diameter of its cross-section is 10cm?

Solution: It is mentioned in the problem that on filling the vessel with the liquid, point B

is observed for the same setting; this means that the images of point B, is observed at A,

because of refraction of the ray at C.

For refraction at C : sin r / sin i = 1 = 1.5

sin r = AD / AC = 10/ ( 102 + h2), where h is height of vessel


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Laws of reflection[edit]

An example of the law of reflection

Main article:Specular reflection

If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection.

The laws of reflection are as follows:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence

lie in the same plane.

2. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray

makes to the same normal.

3. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.

These three laws can all be derived from thereflection equation.

Mechanism[edit]

In theclassical electrodynamics, light is considered as electromagnetic wave, which is governed by

theMaxwell Equations. Light waves incident on a material induce small oscillations ofpolarisationin the

individual atoms (or oscillation of electrons, in metals), causing each particle to radiate a small secondary wave

(in all directions, like a dipole antenna). All these waves add up to give specular reflection and refraction,

according to theHuygens-Fresnel principle.

In case of dielectric (glass), the electric field of the light acts on the electrons in the glass, the moving electrons

generate a field and become a new radiator. The refraction light in the glass is the combined of the forward

radiation of the electrons and the incident light and; the backward radiation is the one we see reflected from the
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_equationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_equationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_equationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Equationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Equationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Equationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_polarizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_polarizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_polarizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens-Fresnel_principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens-Fresnel_principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens-Fresnel_principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A9nyvisszaver%C5%91d%C3%A9s.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A9nyvisszaver%C5%91d%C3%A9s.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A9nyvisszaver%C5%91d%C3%A9s.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A9nyvisszaver%C5%91d%C3%A9s.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens-Fresnel_principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_polarizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Equationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_equationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=2


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surface of transparent materials, this radiation comes from everywhere in the glass, but it turns out that the total

effect is equivalent to a reflection from the surface.

In metals, the electrons with no binding energy are called free electrons. The density number of the free

electrons is very large. When these electrons oscillate with the incident light, the phase differences between the

radiation field of these electrons and the incident field are , so the forward radiation will compensate theincident light at askin depth, and backward radiation is just the reflected light.

Lightmatter interaction in terms of photons is a topic ofquantum electrodynamics, and is described in detail

byRichard Feynmanin his popular bookQED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter.

Diffuse reflection[edit]

General scattering mechanism which givesdiffuse reflectionby a solid surface

Main article:Diffuse reflection

When light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic) material it bounces off in all directions due to multiple

reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material (e.g. thegrain boundariesof

apolycrystallinematerial, or thecellorfiberboundaries of an organic material) and by its surface, if it is rough.

Thus, an 'image' is not formed. This is calleddiffuse reflection. The exact form of the reflection depends on the

structure of the material. One common model for diffuse reflection isLambertian reflectance, in which the light

is reflected with equalluminance(in photometry) orradiance(in radiometry) in all directions, as defined

byLambert's cosine law.

The light sent to our eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that

this is our primary mechanism of physical observation.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_depthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_depthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_depthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED_(book)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED_(book)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED_(book)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystallinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystallinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystallinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_cosine_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_cosine_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_cosine_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(physics)#cite_note-y-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(physics)#cite_note-y-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(physics)#cite_note-y-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffuse_refl.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(physics)#cite_note-y-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_cosine_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystallinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflection_(physics)&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED_(book)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_depth

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