achievement, parental support, and gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics

Achievement, Parental Support, and Gender Differences in Attitudes toward MathematicsAuthor(s): Cynthia M. Tocci and George Engelhard, Jr.Source: The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 84, No. 5 (May - Jun., 1991), pp. 280-286Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40539696 .

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Achievement, Parental Support, and Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Mathematics

CYNTHIA M. TOCCI GEORGE ENGELHARD, Jr. Emory University

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships of attitudes toward mathematics with mathematics achievement, parental support, and gender. A secondary analysis was conducted using nationally representative samples of 13-year-old students in the United States (n = 3,846) and Thailand (n = 3,528), which were collected as a part of the Second International Mathematics Study (Garden, 1987). A multivariate general linear model was used to analyze the data within each country. Four attitude scales (Mathematics and My- self, Mathematics and Society, Mathematics as a Male Domain, and Mathematics Anxiety) were used as the criterion variables. Mathematics achievement, parental support, and gender were used as the predictor variables. In both countries, achievement, parental support, and gender were significant predictors of attitudes toward mathematics. The data suggest that there are gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics for 13-year-olds in the United States and Thailand. The largest gender differences were found on the Mathematics as a Male Domain scale. Even after controlling for achievement and parental support, we found that gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics were significant.

addition to mathematics achievement, student attitudes toward mathematics are important outcomes of

education. For example, two of the five goals (valuing mathematics and becoming confident in one's ability) from the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989) focus on student attitudes. Gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics have been reported in several studies (Eccles, Adler, Futterman, Goff, Kaczala, Meece, & Midgley, 1983; Fennema & Sherman, 1977, 1978; Pederson, Bleyer, & Elmore, 1985).

Researchers have hypothesized that attitudes toward mathematics contribute to gender differences in mathematics problem solving (Brush, 1985; Fennema & Sher- man, 1976). Furthermore, educators have consistently re-

ported that affective factors have strong relationships with course and career selections (Armstrong & Price, 1982; Ethington & Wolfe, 1988; Sherman, 1982). Addi- tional research is needed on the cognitive and social factors that are related to attitudes toward mathematics. The major purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in adolescent attitudes toward mathematics. The relationship of mathematics achievement and parental support to gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics were also examined.

Researchers have not fully addressed the question of which factors contribute to gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics. Research is needed regarding the potential determinants of mathematics attitudes (Ha- ladyna, Shaughnessy, & Shaughnessy, 1983). Attitudes are affected by direct experiences with the attitude object and by interactions with relevant others (Triandis, 1971; Zimbardo & Ebbesen, 1970). Because achievement in mathematics represents direct experiences with the attitude object, providing students with information that might affect their belief systems, feelings, and intended behaviors, we used it as a variable in our study. Interac- tions with other persons provide individuals with information, in the form of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of relevant others, that becomes a guide for the development of their own attitudes. Because family members, particularly parents, are among the most influential ref- erence groups in attitude formation, we used student perceptions of parental behaviors toward mathematics, re- ferred to as parental support, in this investigation.

A limited amount of research on gender differences in mathematics has examined attitudes as criterion variables. Even fewer studies have examined mathematics attitudes in different cultures. In this study, mathematics

Address correspondence to Cynthia M. Tocci, 9881 Vicks- burg Drive, Huntington Beach, CA 92646.

280



May/June 1991 [Vol. 84(No. 5)] 281

attitudes were viewed as criterion variables, and the influence of mathematics achievement, parental support, and gender were explored. The specific affective variables examined were Mathematics and Myself, Mathematics and Society, Mathematics as a Male Domain, and Mathemat- ics Anxiety. Previous research has suggested that gender differences exist on similar measures of those four attitudes and that the attitudes may influence gender differences in mathematics achievement related to various courses and career selections (Brush, 1985; Fennema & Sherman, 1977, 1978). The following research questions were examined: 1. Is there a relationship between attitudes toward

mathematics and gender? 2. Is there a relationship between attitudes toward math-

ematics and gender, after controlling for achievement and parental support?

3. Are there any significant interaction effects among gender, achievement, and parental support on attitudes toward mathematics?

4. Do the results replicate over two countries?

Method

Subjects

The sample consisted of 3,846 adolescents from the United States (2,059 girls and 1,787 boys) and 3,528 adolescents from Thailand (1,700 girls and 1,828 boys) who participated in the Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS). The population within each country was defined as all the students in the grade (year level) in which the majority had reached the age of 13.00 to 13.11 years by the middle of the school year. The group corre- sponded to eighth-grade mathematics classrooms in the United States and Thailand. Students who completed information on the achievement test, attitude instrument, and questionnaire were included in that secondary analysis.

Thailand was selected to be compared with the United States because it is the only country in the longitudinal sample that could be classified as less developed and that would therefore provide a stringent test of the generaliza- bility across cultures of the relationships studied here.

Students included in the SIMS were selected on the ba- sis of a two-stage, stratified random sample (schools within regions, classrooms within schools) for each country. The responses were weighted to reflect proportion- ately the actual composition of students within each country. The weights for the U.S. and Thai 13-year-olds were provided on the SIMS data tapes. In this secondary analysis of the SIMS data, we followed the recommenda- tions of Wolfe (1986). Further details regarding the de- sign of the SIMS are reported in Garden (1987). A de- tailed description of the U.S. data is provided in McKnight, Crosswhite, Dossey, Kifer, Swafford, Trav- ers, and Cooney (1987).

Instruments

The four attitude dimensions investigated in this study, with the number of times included in the scale given in parentheses, were Mathematics and Myself (n = 19), Mathematics and Society (n = 8), Mathematics as a Male Domain (n = 4), and Mathematics Anxiety (n = 5). All the items were presented in a Likert format with five response options. The Mathematics and Myself (MYSELF) scale was designed to assess students' personal views of themselves as learners of mathematics. The extent to which students enjoy studying mathematics, feel confident in their ability as learners of mathematics, and want to achieve in mathematics are reflected in the MYSELF scale.

The Mathematics and Society (SOCIETY) scale was designed to measure students' views of the usefulness and importance of mathematics to society. A positive view indicated that mathematics was seen as useful in everyday life and important in preparing for an occupation. The Mathematics as a Male Domain (MALE DOMAIN) scale examined the extent to which mathematics was viewed by students as a male domain. A higher rating indicated the absence of stereotyping mathematics as a domain more appropriate for males than for females. The original title of the MALE DOMAIN scale was Mathematics and Gender in the SIMS study, but it was changed here to re- duce confusion regarding the usage of the word gender. A subset of five items from the MYSELF scale formed a separate dimension, Mathematics Anxiety (ANXIETY), that measured the extent to which the students were anx- ious about mathematics. The higher ratings indicated that a person may feel uneasy, unhappy, or scared when doing mathematics.

The Parental Support for Mathematics (PARENTAL SUPPORT) scale contained nine items designed to measure students' perceptions of parental behaviors, including (a) enjoyment when encountering mathematics, (b) interest and ability to help their child with mathematics home- work, and (c) encouragement to study and do well in mathematics. Three items measured the support from mothers, three items measured the support from fathers, and the last three measured general parental support.

Separate reliabilities for the four attitude scales and the parental support measure were calculated for the samples examined here. Estimates of the internal consistency based on Cronbach's alpha (United States, Thailand) were as follows: MYSELF (.87, .74), SOCIETY (.70, .62), MALE DOMAIN (.78, .58), ANXIETY (.65, .34), and PARENTAL SUPPORT (.75, .74). The reliabilities gen- erally appeared to be adequate for detecting the group differences of interest in this study.

Our information on academic achievement in mathematics was based on scores on a 40-item mathematics test administered at the beginning and end of the academic year (the SIMS). We used the posttest scores on this



282 Journal of Educational Research

40-item test in our study. The content areas covered by the test are algebra, arithmetic, geometry, and measure- ment. We placed all of the items in a multiple-choice format with five options per item.

Procedure

Eighth-grade students completed the attitude instrument and mathematics achievement test at the end of the 1981-82 school year. At the same time, gender and other data not addressed in this study were collected in a student questionnaire. Students with missing data were dropped from the study.

To answer the research questions, we calculated descriptive statistics and used a multivariate general linear model (SAS Institute, Inc., 1985). The predictor variables were achievement, parental support, and gender, with scores on the four attitudes scales used as the criterion variables. All of the analyses were conducted separately for each country. In addition, univariate analyses were performed for each attitude scale.

Results

The descriptive statistics for all variables by gender and total sample are presented in Table 1 for the U.S. data and in Table 2 for the Thai data. The Pearson correlations between the predictor variables and the attitude-toward-mathematics scales are given in Table 3 (United States) and Table 4 (Thailand).

Results for adolescents in the United States. The results of the analyses based on multivariate and univariate general linear models for the United States are summarized in Table 5. As indicated by the multivariate F value, based on Wilks's lamba, gender had a significant main effect on attitudes toward mathematics when we controlled for achievement and parental support, F{49 3,835) = 365.72, ρ < .01. The univariate analyses for each attitude indicated that the significant effect apparently appeared primarily for MALE DOMAIN and SOCIETY and, to a lesser extent, for ANXIETY. For each of those attitudes, the girls reported higher ratings than the boys did.

Table 1.- Means and Standard Deviations for AD Variables, by Gender, for the United States

Girls Boys Total (n = 2,059) (/ι = 1,787) (N = 3,846)

Variable M SD M SD M SD

Dependent MYSELF 66.95 10.97 66.86 10.91 66.90 10.94 SOCIETY 30.67 4.52 30.02 4.90 30.37 4.71 MALE DOMAIN 17.52 2.55 13.95 3.40 15.85 3.47 ANXIETY 14.17 3.48 13.92 3.41 14.05 3.45

Independent Achievement 20.75 8.73 20.66 9.39 20.71 9.05 Parent support 17.72 5.15 17.70 5.26 17.71 5.20

Note. Maximum ratings/score possible: MYSELF = 95, SOCIETY = 40, MALE DOMAIN = 20, ANXIETY = 25, Achieve- ment = 40, Parent support = 45.

Table 2.- Means and Standard Deviations for AU Variables, by Gender, for Thailand

Girls Boys Total (n = 1,700) (/i = 1,828) (N = 3,528)

Variable M SD M SD M SD

Dependent MYSELF 64.82 6.98 64.35 6.72 64.58 6.85 SOCIETY 30.88 3.70 30.39 3.83 30.63 3.78 MALE DOMAIN 14.85 2.28 12.87 2.26 13.83 2.47 ANXIETY 14.77 2.38 14.40 2.23 14.58 2.31

Independent Achievement 18.90 7.68 17.54 7.42 18.19 7.57 Parent support 21.83 7.68 23.50 6.12 22.69 6.06

Note. Maximum ratings/score possible: MYSELF = 95, SOCIETY = 40, MALE DOMAIN = 20, ANXIETY = 25, Achieve- ment = 40, Parent support = 45.



May/June 1991 [Vol. 84(No. 5)] 283

Table 3.- Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Variables for the United States

Attitudes toward mathematics Variable MYSELF SOCIETY MALE DOMAIN ANXIETY

Gender -.00 -.07** -.52** -.03*

Achievement .35** .35** .12** -.24*·

Parent support .28** .22** .07·· -.19*·

Note, η = 3,846 for gender, achievement, and parent support. *p < .05; **p < .01.

Table 4.- Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Variables for Thailand

Attitudes toward mathematics Variable MYSELF SOCIETY MALE DOMAIN ANXIETY

Gender -.03 -.07** -.40** -.08**

Achievement .34** .27** .16** -.14**

Parent support .23** .12** .06* -.10**

Note, η = 3,528 for gender, achievement, and parent support. *p < .05; **p < .01.

Table 5.- Summary of Multivariate and Univariate Analyses for the United States

Multivariate Univariate F value Source F value MYSELF SOCIETY MALE DOMAIN ANXIETY

Achievement (A) 207.39** 582.39** 555.47** 72.88** 249.37** Parents (B) 103.46** 331.93** 194.43** 23.50** 129.88** Gender (C) 365.72** 0.04 21.66** 1,436.07** 4.79* Α χ Β 3.15* 3.60 0.71 0.43 8.01* A x C 11.11** .63 5.90* 29.67** 0.12 Β χ C 2.32 4.16* .45 .51 1.40 Α χ Β x C .93 1.87 .32 .07 1.51

Mean square error 96.62 18.51 8.58 10.80 R2 .19 .17 .29 .09

Note. Analyses are based on sequential sums of squares- Type I SS (SAS Institute Inc., 1985). *p < .05; **p < .01.

As expected, achievement had a significant main effect on attitudes toward mathematics. The univariate analyses suggested that the significant effect appears for all the attitude scales, but with various strengths. To aid in inter- preting the effects, we calculated the Pearson correlations between achievement and each attitude. Achievement had a positive relationship with MYSELF, r(3,844) =

.35, ρ < .01, SOCIETY, r(3,844) = .35, ρ < .01, and MALE DOMAIN, ^3,844) = .12, ρ < .01. Additionally, achievement had an inverse relationship with ANXIETY, r(3,844) = -.24,/? < .01.

After we controlled for achievement, parental support had a significant main effect on all of the attitudes. The Pearson correlations indicated that the relationships between parental support and MYSELF, r(3,844) = .28, ρ

< .01, SOCIETY, r(3,844) = .22, ρ < .01, and MALE DOMAIN, /<3,844) = .07, ρ < .01, were positive, whereas the relationship with ANXIETY, r(3,844) = - .19, ρ < .01, was negative.

The results of the multivariate analysis indicated that there were significant interaction effects between achievement and gender, F{4, 3,835) = 11.11, ρ < .01, and between achievement and parental support, F{Ay 3,835) = 3.15, ρ < .05. The interaction effect for achievement and gender appeared for the MALE DOMAIN and SOCIETY scales. To interpret the interactions, we calculated the correlations between achievement and scores on the appropriate attitude scale separately for the boys and the girls. For MALE DOMAIN, correlations indicated a positive, significant relationship between achievement




and the attitude dimension for the girls, r(2,057) = .25, ρ < .01. The relationship for the boys, however, was not statistically significant, r(l,1785) = .04. For SOCIETY, the positive relationship between achievement and the perceived usefulness of mathematics in society was stronger for the boys, r(l,785) = .38, /? < .01, than for the girls, r(2,057) = .31, /? < .01. The interaction effect between achievement and parental support appear primarily for the ANXIETY scale.

Results for adolescents in Thailand. The results of the analyses based on multivariate and univariate general linear models are summarized in Table 6 for Thailand. As hypothesized, when we controlled for achievement and parental support, gender had a significant main effect on attitudes toward mathematics, F{49 3,517) = 166.63, ρ < .01. The univariate analyses for each attitude revealed that the significant effect appeared primarily for the MALE DOMAIN and ANXIETY scales. As we found with the U.S. students, the Thai girls had higher ratings than the boys did on the two attitude scales.

The data suggest that achievement had a significant main effect on attitudes toward mathematics. As with the U.S. results, the effect apparently was significant for each of the four attitude scales. In particular, achievement had a positive relationship with MYSELF, r(3,526) = .34, ρ < .01, SOCIETY, r(3,526) = .27, ρ < .01, and MALE DOMAIN, /<3,526) = .16, ρ < .01, although it had an inverse relationship with ANXIETY, r(3,526) = -.14, ρ < .01.

As with the U.S. students, parental support had a significant main effect on all four attitudes. The Pearson correlations indicated that the relationships between parental support and MYSELF, r(3,526) = .23, ρ < .01, SOCIETY, r(3,526) = .12, ρ < .01, and MALE DO- MAIN, r(3,526) = .06, ρ < .01, were positive, whereas the relationship with ANXIETY, r(3,526) = - .10, ρ < .01 was negative.

The results of the multivariate analysis indicated that the only significant interaction effect was between gender

and parental support, F{49 3517) = 2.84, ρ < .05, which was not significant for the U.S. students. The individual univariate analyses suggest that interaction appeared for the MYSELF and MALE DOMAIN scales. For the MY- SELF scale, the relationship between parental support and that attitude was stronger for the boys, /{1, 826) = .25, ρ < .01, than for the girls, r(l,698) = .19, ρ < .01. The MALE DOMAIN scale yielded less information. For each gender, the relationship was not significant; however, it was positive for the girls and negative for the boys.

Discussion

Overall, we anticipated the results of this study. Small, but significant gender differences occurred in attitudes toward mathematics in two areas- perceived usefulness of mathematics to society and anxiety about mathematics - and large differences on the sex stereotyping of mathematics as a male domain. Gender differences on student perceptions of themselves as learners of mathematics seem to have been minimal. The results of the multivariate analyses suggest that gender differences in mathematics attitudes were significant when we controlled for mathematics achievement and parental support. The general relationships appeared in both countries, although we found significant, but small, interaction effects in the data.

The largest gender difference was found on the sex-role stereotyping of mathematics as reflected on the MALE DOMAIN scale. In each country, the results confirm earlier research indicating that females believe more strongly than males do that studying mathematics is as appropriate for them as it is for their male peers (Fennema & Sher- man, 1977, 1978). Also, exploration of the significant interaction effects between achievement and that attitude with the U.S. adolescents suggest that the relationship between the two variables is stronger for females than it is for males. Therefore, programs attempting to increase the number of girls in mathematics should be targeted on lower achieving females and their male peers.

Table 6.- Summary of Multivariate and Univariate Analyses for Thailand

Multivariate Univariate F value Source F value MYSELF SOCIETY MALE DOMAIN ANXIETY

Achievement (A) 172.47·* 492.71** 289.72** 103.86*· 70.28** Parents (B) 60.62** 209.79** 57.11** 12.05** 38.19** Gender (C) 166.63** 3.22 2.45 629.89*· 43.02** Α χ Β 0.75 0.02 0.75 2.12 0.02 A x C 1.55 0.10 0.35 4.91* 0.07 Β x C 2.84* 5.21* 0.03 3.98* 1.43 Α χ Β x C .96 .59 1.88 .00 .98

Mean square error 39.15 13.00 5.04 5.13 /?* .17 .09 .18 .04

Note. Analyses are based on sequential sums of squares- Type I SS (SAS Institute Inc., 1985). *p < .05; **p < .01.



May/June 1991 [Vol. 84(No. 5)] 285

The results in both countries confirm earlier research indicating a positive relationship between mathematics achievement and three of the attitudes- (a) students who have higher scores on mathematics achievement tests tend to have more positive perceptions of their encoun- ters with and reactions to the subject of mathematics, (b) the usefulness of mathematics in society, and (c) the stereotyping of mathematics as a male domain (Aiken, 1971, 1976; Fennema & Sherman, 1977, 1978). Addition- ally, an inverse relationship between achievement and mathematics anxiety corroborates the findings of Betz (1978) and Wigfield and Meece (1988). We found that mathematics achievement scores were higher for the U.S. students than for the Thai students.

The relationships between achievement and the ANX- IETY and SOCIETY scales appeared to be stronger for the U.S. students than for the Thai students, although the relationships between achievement and the MYSELF and MALE DOMAIN scales were similar in strength for each country. The relationship may be a reciprocal one, with the question of which came first - having a positive attitude toward mathematics or doing well in mathematics-still unanswered. For the U.S. students, the relationships between achievement and the SOCIETY and the MALE DOMAIN scales were not identical for the boys and the girls. That finding reinforces the proposal that researchers should examine subgroups, such as race, gender, and social class, to determine whether the relationships are comparable within relevant social categories.

For students in both countries, the relationships between parental support and each of the attitude scales had the same direction as those for achievement - the higher the perceived parental support, the higher the mathematics attitude for MYSELF, SOCIETY, and MALE DOMAIN, and the lower the attitude for ANX- IETY. Both the boys and the girls in Thailand perceived more parental support than the U.S. students did. How- ever, parental support apparently had a greater influence in the United States because the relationships between that variable and each of the attitudes were stronger than they were for the Thai students. In addition, the Thai data indicated a significant interaction effect between parental support and gender. That finding suggests that the relationship between parental support and the attitudes varied according to gender.

As seen in this study, parental behaviors do appear to be related to student attitudes toward mathematics. Fre- quently, researchers of adolescent behavior underesti- mate the power of the home environment. Instead, the researchers concentrate on the school environment, spe- cifically on teachers and peers. Thirteen-year-olds are go- ing through a stage of development that includes a change in their value system. Some of the more perma- nent and important effects of attitude may occur because of factors in the home environment that are central to their developing value system. Adolescents' perceptions

of their parents' reactions to mathematics and ability to do mathematics, along with the amount of encouragement to study the subject and to do well at it, may affect the students' attitudes toward mathematics. Parents and researchers should be aware that the relationships may not be the same for every subgroup.

To summarize, the data suggest that for 13-year-olds in the United States and in Thailand, there are gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics. Even after controlling for achievement and parental support, we found that the gender differences remained significant. Both achievement and parental-support variables had significant inverse relationships with anxiety and positive relationships with the other three attitudes. Significant, but small, interaction effects occurred between gender and achievement and between gender and parental support on some attitudes. The interaction effects indicated that relationships between those variables and attitudes may be operating differently for each gender.

Future research should examine attitudes toward mathematics conceptualized as both independent and dependent variables. More emphasis should be placed on deter- mining how attitudes are developed and the stability of attitudes over time; differences between subgroups, espe- cially those related to gender, race, and social class, also need to be explored. Information from this type of research will be fundamental in the development of interven- tion programs in which the objectives are to increase student mathematics achievement and also to increase the meaningful participation of both genders in mathematics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the Georgia Educational Research Association and the American Educational Research Association. This paper received the Dis- tinguished Paper Award from the Georgia Educational Research As- sociation (Fall, 1989). We acknowledge the helpful comments of Robert Jensen, Dora Helen Skypek, Carole Hahn, and Judith A. Monsaas.

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