AUSTRALIAN FOOD INDUSTRY – TERM 1

Sectors of the AFI- The Agri-Food Chain

The Agri-Food chain refers to the production and supply of food for a customer, with all links on the chain affecting either, therefore an issue in one sector affects other sectors due to the flow on affect. E.g. Sour and small strawberries > manufacturers must modify to accommodate > caterers may have to substitute for a better tasting ingredient > retailers may drop prices due to low sales, therefore affecting the income of all parties involved in production.

The sectors of the agri-food chain include:- Agriculture and Fisheries – beginning of chain

o Involves the cultivation of land to produce crops, of animals or of cold-blooded aquatic species.

o Plays a large role in Australia’s economy and export market o E.g. wheat, fruit, meat, fish, oysters

- Food processing and manufacture – altering raw materials o Value adding – processing of goods to increase selling price > enhances

economic value of Australia’s food industry o Value added foods increase employment opportunities and increase

revenueo Processes have become mechanised to ensure no error and that

processes are economically viable o E.g. Bread, cakes, muesli bars, yogurt

- Food retail – sale of foods o One-stop shop supermarkets, stocking a large, diverse range, according to

consumer trends, are the most popular. o Technological advancements such as online shopping, self-serve and

delivery assist in meeting consumer needs.o Ready-to-eat meals meet the needs of the busy consumer lifestyleo E.g. Uber eats (delivery), Woolworths (supermarket store), Lite n Easy

(ready-to-eat) - Food service and catering – commercial food production and service

o Trends reveal Australians are eating 1 in 4 meals away from home o Foods available in institutions such as hospitals, prisons and boarding

schools are non-commercial meals.o Commercial enterprises such as restaurants, clubs and take-away shops

make a profit from the sales of their food items. o Catering is often used in a variety of social situations such as functions

and parties where food is prepared for them.

Emerging Technologies in the AFIDevelopments in the AFI are driven by technological advancements, company growth, local and global events (e.g. war) and the everchanging consumer demand.

- Genetically modified foods o The process of modifying the genetic material of plants or animals in order

to improve the characteristics. o Genetically engineering food is an ethical and controversial issue, as

concern has been expressed about its interference with nature and animal rights.

o E.g. genetically engineered grapes used in winemaking are able to be picked without drying and discolouration.

o Genomics is the science of gene mapping, which allows for more specific and controlled breeding as gene maps can be used to select partners.

o Transgenic meats are being developed, for example growth hormones are inserted into pigs to make them leaner, which reaches their market rate faster.

- Emerging technologies in packaging o Technological advancements have meant packaging is becoming more

environmentally friendly and cost efficient. o E.g. biodegradable packaging, compostable packaging

- Ecologically sustainable production methods o Organic farming is agriculture that does not deplete natural resources and

does not use harmful, artificial substances that cumulate in the environment.

Organically farmed foods are free from pesticides, herbicides, growth hormones and fertilizers.

During the processing foods are not treated with synthetic chemicals and cannot be genetically modified.

This often results in a lower yield, due to lack of pest control, and a more expensive product, due to lower productivity.

There are strict standards in place to classify a product as organic. - Emerging technologies in food production

o Sensors Crop sensors – help distribute correct amounts of fertilizer to

areas of crop Optical crop sensors/drones – able to view crop health (often

using infrared light)o Technological food

Genetically designed foods – the formation of new strains of food in order to better address biological and physical needs

In-Virto meat – A flesh product that genetically engineered and has never been a part of a complete, living animal. Made in a lab.

o Automation Agricultural robots – Automate processes like picking, harvesting,

ploughing, weeding etc. Precision Agriculture – Satellite imagery and advanced sensors

allow farmers to optimise returns and preserve resources

o Engineering Vertical Farming – allows growth in suburban settings, space

conscious. Uses natural light and is energy efficient, all year-round crop.

Emerging Technology Risks BenefitsSustainable packaging

Food retail and Food Service and Catering

- May not offer the same level of protection as plastic

- More expensive to use, will drive up retail prices

- Risk of food spoilage and disease due to level of protection

- Disposable in a sustainable manner

- Biodegradable packaging returns nutrients to the soil

- Domestic or industry use- Can help reduce waste

management cost, carbon footprint and greenhouse emissions

Genetically Modified Foods

Agriculture and fisheries

- Controversial > unethical - Little is known about long

term affects and safety as it is relatively new

- Can trigger allergic reactions - Some researchers link GMO

foods to cancer - Can cause a resistance to

some antibiotics in humans - Issues with outcrossing

- Better taste, look or feel - Crops have better resistance to

disease and damage = larger yield

- Enhanced nutrition

Operation of organisations within the AFI - Levels of operation

Level Description Example Household Home produced or manufactured

products Home grown fruit sold

Small Business Often family business or partnership, often 20 staff members or less

Local Bakery

Large Business Operates across the state or country Coles Multinational Worldwide company McDonalds

- Research and Development The process used to create new products, driven by the need to create to meet consumer demands and win market share. CSIRO is involved in undertaking significant food research in cooperation with the government. Large or multinational companies have teams devoted to R&D.

- Quality assurance Quality assurance is the responsibility of every person involved with the production of a food product. All foods are checked against a standard during production to ensure safety.

Quality control is measuring characteristics, comparing to standards, and acting on any differences that occur. Quality assurance (whole company) is the ultimate aim of quality control (individual/part of company) – all parts of company working together to maintain consistency of quality products.

HACCAP is Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points which is an international approach to quality assurance.

- Consumer influences The AFI is responding the everchanging needs of consumers with the production of food which can be:

o Varied in cost, from generic to gourmet > Caters to people of all socioeconomic status

o Single serve products > caters to single people or those living alone o Microwave meals > caters to those who are looking for a premade meal or

quick meal o Ready to eat meals > Caters to busy lifestyles and those wanting to eat on

the goo Nutritionally enhanced (functional foods) > Caters to consumer health

issues The demand for increased convenience has led to more flexible shopping hours and self-serve options.

- Impact on environment The AFI has played a largely negative role in impacting the environment, causing waterway pollution from chemical runoff, which can cause poisoning of animals and other plants. Erosion, land exhaustion, food and water wastage, packaging waste and salinity are all issues stemming from the AFI, along with issues in the transport of food such as emissions and heavy use of fossil fuels.

- Impact on economy The AFI is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia, as well as the largest employer in the country. Australia has a large presence in exporting, which is beneficial to our economy in the money it brings into the country and the large international presence it holds. Food accounts for nearly 50% of all retailing turn over in Australia.

While the AFI employs a large percentage of Australians, the new and ever improving presence of technology is slowly reducing jobs in the physically demanding all sectors of the AFI. While also being a negative, technology is opening up new doorways for new jobs in new areas, such as R&D, which can be beneficial to the company’s and Australia’s economy.

- Impact on society Food and food production influence the way we live, and vice versa. The changing lifestyles of Aussies and societal behaviours affect food production and food choices. Multiculturalism in Australia is growing, therefore enhancing a more multicultural diet for all ethnicities and races. Lifestyle changes play a major role in the foods we choose, a more active and faster paced lifestyle that more Aussies choose convenience foods, like Up ‘n’ Go’s.

- Career opportunities and working conditionsAn increase in technology, such as mechanisation, automation and computerisation has led to less physical labour, creating safer jobs. Careers in the AFI vary in a level from unskilled, like a fruit picker, to highly skilled, like a food technologist. Equal employment opportunities are part of any employment contract, which covers maternity/paternity leave, discrimination etc.

Working conditions vary due to the nature of the job, the level of employment and level of operation. In a physical sense, you may be required to wear coats and glasses in a lab, be exposed to cold working in a butcher shop or the elements, like wind, sun or rain if working outdoors, such as a fruit picker.

Policy and legislation Policy the strategies put in place by governments to improve all aspects of living, for example, Trade policy. Legislation is a law passed by government that describes what can and cannot be done in specific situations. In the food industry, food legislation is on 3 government levels – local, state and federal. An example is the federal Trade practices act 1974.

- Advisory groups Governments are advised by independent organisations on the development of policies and legislation. This can be in the form of business groups (Australian Dairy Corporation), groups that advise specific issues (National Heart Foundation), an independent body that is able to make and change laws relating to food (FSANZ) and a group that protects local food supply against contamination (AQIS)

- FSANZ An independent legislative body established by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand Act 1991, standardizes food laws.

o FSANZ: Develops standards for what is in our food Develop food labelling laws Set standards on food safety issues Develops risk assessment policies for imported food

o Australian food standard code A tool used to publish approved standards, which outlines a general list of standards food producers must follow. This includes:

Labelling and advertising Use by dates Nutritional info, including food additives, allergens and foreign objects

o Product recall FSANZ has responsibility for product recall, each business within the food industry must have an overall product recall management plan in place. Recalls may happen because of toxic chemicals, foreign bodies or harmful micro-organisms.

o Codes of practice FSANZ develops non-binding agreements that businesses in a certain sector are encouraged to follow. This allows consumers to make informed choices via nutrient claims on labels and ads, etc

- Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)Part of the Agriculture and fishery sector. AQIS is responsible for:

o Protecting Australian primary producers and the community from exotic pests and disease

o Inspects legally imported plants and animals – sea and airports o Negotiates national and international agreements o Checks quarantine status of travellers – sea and airports o Provide export certification so products can compete in global markets.

Government policies and legislation - National health and nutrition policies These policies provide strategic direction and coordinated action on public health and nutrition issues. This includes:

o Prevention of overweight and obesity o Increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables o Improving nutrition of vulnerable groups – ATSI

National Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander Nutrition Strategy and Action Plan

- Trade Policy The policy of free trade aims to remove trade barriers concerning imports and exports. This is done by:

o Reducing tariffs o Raising quotas o Eliminating subsidies o Establishing Free trade agreements with other countries

Imports – allow for greater competition in the marketplace and increased variety for the consumer. An increase in imports often come because of shortfall in local production. E.g. imported bananas after plantations are affected in cyclones. Australia’s multicultural society reflects the demand for ethnic and specialty foods.

Exports – increases the global market share of profits that can come back to Australia, beneficial to Australia’s economy.

- Legislation

FEDERAL

TRADE PRACTICES ACT - Restrictive trade

practiceso Misuse of market

power o Exclusive dealings o Resale price

maintenance o Price

discrimination - Unreasonable conduct- Consumer protection- Compensation of

defective goods

HACCAP IMPORTED FOOD CONTROL ACT 1992Ensures compliance of imports with Australian food standards

EXPORT CONTROL ACT 1982 Protects Australia’s animal, plant and human health status while maintaining market access for exports of food and other products.

FSANZ

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT ACT 1991 Conducts domestic and foreign compliance in order to protect valuable resources. This includes catch limits to avoid overfishing and regulations on fishing method to assure sustainability

GENE TECHNOLOGY ACT 2001 The gene technology act regulates dealings with genetically modified foods, in order to protect the health and safety of individuals, and also aims to protect the environment.

STATE

FERTILISERS ACT 1985 Ensures unsafe levels of heavy metals and other soil contaminants do not contaminate food. IT also covers protection of exported food products to comply with containment levels.

HEALTH ACT Regulated by each state or territory. Covers:

- Personal hygiene - General sanitary

conditions - Pest control - Management of

infectious disease - Storage, slaughter

and sale of meat.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFTEY ACT 2000Protects the health, safety and welfare of people at work. Employers have to follow a code of practice which helps reduce work-related accidents. FOOD ACT 2003

Enforces food standards and hygiene regulations in the food industry. This deals with areas such as false description, unlawful practices and false advertising.

PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT OPERATIONS ACT 1997Applies to the noise produced during food processing and is enforced by the environment protection authority. LOCAL

APPOINTEMNET OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS (EHOs) An environmental health officer can be appointed as food surveillance officer aligned with the Food Act. The officer is responsible for routine inspection of all food premises in the local area.

CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALTERATION OF FOOD PREMISES Formed by individual councils. This covers:

- Building materials used in food premises- Instillation guidelines for fixtures and equipment such as ovens and refrigerators, toilets, ventilation and

windows.

CODES FOR INSPECTION OF FOOD AND FOOD PREMISES Local councils form their own codes for inspection of food and food premises. The code covers the regularity of inspection by officers and exemption of any food premises.

- Legislative requirements for packaging and labelling The Food Standards Code sets labelling standards to ensure consumers are provide with corrects information and safe food through proper packaging. Other acts include:

o The State Trade Measurement Act enforces correct labelling of weight of food

o The Trade Practices Act ensures that imported foods have the correct country of origin on the label and prohibits misleading and deceptive conduct.

- National Packaging Covenant Established in 1999. Designed to:

o Reduce environmental impacts stemming from the disposal of used packaging

o Conserve resources through improved design and production processeso Facilitate the re-use and recycling of used packaging materials.

Producers must sign a covenant that demonstrates their undertaking.

- Food labelling Food labelling focuses on 3 areas:

o Statements or words that must appear on a label o Statements or words that must not appear on a label o Statements or words that may appear on a label under certain

circumstancesLabelling legislation requires that:

o Labels must be of legible, of uniform size and in English o Labels are accurate e.g. strawberry yogurt must actually contain

strawberries o Labels must have manufacturers address o Major allergens are identified o A nutritional panel is required o Food additives are to be listed by its class name followed by specific name o Ingredients must be in descending order

Restrictions on labels:o No misleading trade names o No false nutritional claims or ones that don’t adhere to food code

guidelines o No words, statements or designs which could be interpreted as advice of

medical nature o ‘Health’ cannot be used in the name of any food

FOOD MANUFACTURE – TERM 2

Production and processing of food Quality and quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing

Food manufacture is the process of converting raw materials into a final food product by using physical and chemical processes. Raw materials are broken into 4 areas:

Ingredients e.g. flour and yeast Materials e.g. steam and water Additives e.g. colours and flavours Packaging e.g. plastic and paper

Food manufacturers spend a lot of money on raw materials and strict specifications are put in place to avoid contamination and waste. This includes descriptions of raw materials, sampling method for material, testing specified characteristics and taking action, either accepting or rejecting the material based on whether it meets the specifications.

Role of food additives in the manufacturing process Functions of food additives:

Improve stability, shelf life and sensory characteristics Adapt foods to provide for special dietary needs

Examples: Flavour – restore flavour and odours lost through processing Thickeners – make food thicker Vegetable gums – impart consistency and texture Antioxidants – prolong shelf life by preventing oxidation

FSANZ controls the use of additives, and additives must appear on the product labels and numbers are used as a code if names are too long.

Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production and the factors influencing their selection

Systems are mainly automated, equipment may differ depending on scale, from domesticto industrial.

Separation – can be chemical or physical.o Sieving – shaking a product through mesh to separate larger particles. E.g.

stones from cereal grains, filtration systems and sieveso Sedimentation – passing a liquid through a filter so solid particles are

removed. E.g. cheese curd from water, centrifuge, cheese cloth o Centrifuging – product is separated into different weights using a spinning

bowl. E.g. pulp from orange juice, centrifuge Grinding and milling – used to reduce a product in size by grinding or breaking

up. Used to make raw materials easier to handle, more suitable for the final product or to make a new product. E.g. grinding peanuts to make peanut butter, mortar and pestle, computerised mills

Mixing – used to evenly distribute a raw material throughout a product. E.g. mixing flour using a wooden spoon, high pressure mixer

Heating o Conduction – direct contact with a hot surface e.g. frying o Convection – the movement of hot liquid around the food e.g. boiling o Radiation – a heat source directly above it heats the food without touching it

e.g. baking o HTST – High temp, short time. Food is heated to a high temp quickly in order

to destroy pathogenic bacteria e.g. pasteurisation of milko UHT – Ultra heat treatment. Used to make milk that doesn’t need

refrigerating, milk is heated to 140˚C to kill all heat resistant bacteria. Cooling – reduction of temperature, slows down activity of microorganisms and

enzymes, therefore slows food spoilage. E.g. blast chillers, refrigerator Freezing – used to change water content into ice, making it impossible for

microbial growth or enzyme activity. o Air blast freezers – cold air at high velocities e.g. meats o Plate freezers – food freezes with direct contact to plate e.g. fish o Tunnel freezers – quick freezing, food is moved through a tunnel and

blast frozen. E.g. used on high volume products o Immersion/snap freezing – bringing a product into contact with a low

temp refrigerant, like liquid nitrogen. E.g. berries Evaporation – changing the liquid in a food to a steam or vapour. E.g. tomato

juice into paste, oven, industrial, evaporator Dehydration – reduces the moisture content of a food which limits microbial

growth. Most fruits and vegetables are blanched prior to preserve colour and deactivate surface enzymes.

o Cabinet drying – placing product on wooden trays in a confined space with circulating hot air. Fruits, vegetables, herbs.

o Tunnel drying – product travels on an automated system that dries the product. Fruits, vegetables, meats.

o Sun drying – food is left in the sun to dry, slow, labour intensive process. E.g. tomatoes.

o Spray drying - liquid products are dried through an atomiser, producing a powder or fine product, e.g. instant coffee

Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale, large scale, manual, automated, computerised Large scale – Used in large production operations, utilises a production line which

includes raw material inspections, storage and distribution and the actual process of making the product. This produces large volumes in short times.

Small scale – Used on a domestic level, less complex in operation. Commonly a household or small business level.

Manual – A worker is physically manipulating the product, more common in small scale production as is time consuming and unrealistic for large quantities and high chance of error in production.

Automated - Machines handle and control the processing, from raw materials to the final product. An efficient, controlled process that minimises error.

Computerised – Sensors are used to undergo more complex production systems, allows computers to respond to variations in raw materials and conditions.

Flow Diagrams – A method of visually representing the food production process. This allows the process to be analysed for effectiveness and CCP can be identified.

: Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed, physically or chemically E.g. peeling an apple Inspection – The product is compared to a standard. E.g. recording pasteurization temperature Transportation – Move materials from one place to another. E.g. fork-lifting apple palletsD Delay – conditions don’t allow next step of process to occur, or next production step that doesn’t happen immediately. E.g. shortcomings in process design, wait for yeast react Storage – The product is kept under controlled conditions before selling. E.g. canned beans on shelf

2 symbols are used when 2 operations are carried out at once. E.g. Inspect the product while being baked

Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for public consumption, e.g. hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP); work health and safety and hygiene

Quality management – aims to control all aspects of production and produce a quality food product. Quality control – done individually/in parts in the company; measuring characteristics, comparing them to standard, and act on any differences, to satisfy consumers and their safetyQuality assurance – quality assurance aims to achieve quality control. This is done by all parts of the company working together to maintain the quality of the product.

Food safety is a major quality assurance issue, quality management strategies and OHS techniques are used to ensure safety of food for consumers and work conditions for workers.

HACCAP – a quality management technique that identifies potential hazards 1. Assess hazards – a hazard is any situation in which a food is contaminated and may

harm the consumer. Fresh poultry contains salmonella bacteria so can’t store with vegetables

2. Identify critical control points (CCP) – a CCP is a point in the production process where a hazard can be controlled or reduced. These points are determined by

drawing up a flow chart of every production step, storage, packaging and dispatch, then identifying where potential hazards exist

3. Set standards for each CCP – the aim is to minimize hazard occurrences. I.e. correct storage temperatures, time a product can be cooked at certain temperature

4. Monitor CCP – all trained employees record measurements of the product at the critical point, and compare them to standards to determine any inconsistencies

5. Have clear procedures if standards are not met 6. Keep records to identify variations from a standard – records have to be simple to

complete and easy to access7. Assess system – involves checking the records making any updates or changes

required. Often an outside inspector undertakes this verification.

OH&S – manufacturers need to be aware of potential accidents for workers, which means by law, they must:

Instruct or train about safety issues Provide well maintained equipment Provide a safe environment, in line with the Occupational Health and

Safety act 2000. E.g. washrooms, lighting, ventilation, first aid, etc. Employees must comply with OH&S too:

Take care of the health and safety of themselves and others Wear correct PPE Use equipment as instructed, in a safe manner Provide notification of accidents.

Preservation Reasons for preserving foods, e.g. safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability

and economic viabilityFood preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow spoilage, therefore allowing food to last longer. Reasons for preservations Safety – Ensures food is safe and free from harmful microorganisms that can cause illness Availability – Makes perishable foods available all year round, greater diet variety Acceptability – Keeps food in an acceptable state for the consumer, reducing food wasteNutritional value – retains nutritional value Economic viability – achieves economic viability for producers by reducing seasonal fluctuations in availability. Causes of food deterioration and spoilage (MEE):

— Microbial contamination (mould, yeast and bacteria)Yeasts, viruses, mould and bacteria can all cause food to spoil, may be pathogenic which means they have potential to make consumers ill, therefore need to be controlled. Microorganisms favour warm and moist conditions, when conditions are optimal, theymultiply. E.g. mouldy bread, slimy meat.

— Environmental factors (infestation, oxygen, light and water)Insects and rodents can cause infestations, therefore spoiling food via bacteriatransmission (rats in fresh produce). Contaminated water may also be a cause of food

spoilage (bacteria can transfer when washing produce), as is over exposure to oxygen (can cause enzymatic reactions). Light can also be another factor (light exposure causeschemical build-up on the skin of potatoes, they can begin to sprout)

— Enzymatic activityEnzymes are found in fruits, vegetables and meats, it is a substance produced by a living organism and don’t affect the safety of the food. In fruits and vegetables, it causes over ripening and loss of turgor due to tissue decomposition. E.g. apple turning brown

Principles behind food preservation techniques, including temperature control and restriction of moisture, exclusion of air and pH

Temperature control – Micro-organisms grow or produce toxins in specific temperature ranges; therefore, the appropriate high or low temperatures are used to preserve food. E.g. freeing, chilling, UHT, sterilisation Restriction of moisture – the amount of water in a product will determine whether an organism can grow. E.g. smoking, drying, salting, freeze-drying Exclusion of air – most organisms need the presence of oxygen to grow and not allowing food to come into contact with micro-organisms in aseptic conditions. E.g. vacuum packaging, aseptic packaging. PH – Most pathogenic microbes will not tolerate certain pH levels (commonly below 4.2) e.g. adding acid, fermentation

Preservation processes, including canning, drying, pasteurising, freezing and fermenting

Canning/bottling – aims to heat the food to the point where commercial sterility is achieved but the food is still edible.

o Aseptic canning – foods are heated first then placed in sterile container and closed, allows for more even heating.

o Conventional canning – foods are placed in the container, sealed then heated.

Blanching – immersing vegetables in boiling water to destroy enzyme activity and pathogenic microorganisms.

Pasteurisation - Kills most heat sensitive microorganisms. They heat food to 72 degrees C. for 15 seconds (HTST). Anymore/less will alter the taste. Products include milk, juice, beer, wine.

UHT (ultra-heat treated) - Gives longer life. Food products are heated to 140 degrees C. for a 3-5 seconds to kill ALL heat resistant bacteria. The taste changes but does not require refrigeration. Products include milk, gravy, custard, stock

Fermentation - Uses alcohol or acid to cease microorganism growth. E.g. cheese, soy sauce, yoghurt, wine, beer, spirits

Chilling - The most common form of preservation. Chilling SLOWS the growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity – it does not have an effect on the number of bacteria present. Bacteria will be reactivated when the food is back to room temperature or will slow even more when at lower temperatures.

Freezing - Slow freezing kills up to 80% of microorganisms. Upon thawing, the remaining 20% reactivate. The taste is altered slightly. In a frozen state the microorganisms are in a solid block and do not move. To ensure minimum activity temperature should be at least -18 degrees. Sometimes blanching is used to limit enzymatic activity in vegetables

Chemical Preservatives - These are food additives. Chemicals depend on food type. Results microorganisms not growing or ‘retarding’, or if concentration high enough they will die. Important to use correct amount and type to achieve desired effect

Drying - Is any method that decreases the amount of water in a food product, such as evaporating water. Only 5-6% of water remains. Bacteria need more than 25% to survive and reproduce. Adding salt and sugar draws water away from the flesh of the food product. E.g. pasta, 2-minute noodles, dried fruits

Freeze Drying - Expensive process, but it produces a quality product. The food also changes slightly. Product is quickly frozen, then placed on shallow trays, ice crystals then sublimate in vacuum and gently heated environment, leaving dehydrated particles. E.g. coffee, tea, soup, dried milk

Packaging, storage and distribution Functions of packaging and types of materials available

Functions of Packaging Contains the product – important in distribution and storage Protects the product – consumers unlikely to accept tampered product. Horizontal

and vertical impacts are dangerous. Packaging must protect against all damage (stacking, environmental)

Preserves the product – packaging must decrease risk of contamination of product, i.e. moisture

Informs the consumer and markets product – identifies product, product’s features, etc.

Provides convenience and handling – e.g. microwavable containersTypes of packaging

Cans – are cheap and the most common material in food industry. Good protection and prevents undesirable moisture gains/losses. Easy to handle, stacked easily, long shelf life, impact resistant

o Steel cans for solid and semi-solid foods, aluminium for drinks. o Thin layer of tin acts as a barrier between steel and food in most foods.

Lacquer or plastic sometimes need to prevent reactions between food and tin coating. Dented cans may have microscopic holes therefore air/microbes can enter, or damaged lacquer may cause metal to react with food, causing food deterioration

Glass – has become lightweight and thinner over the years. It’s an inert material and does not chemically react with the food. It’s very strong but fragile, impermeable

and non-porous, transparent therefore can see what’s inside, can be shaped. Easily breakable in the production process and once with the consumer

Paper and Cardboard – E.g. paper bags, moulded cartons, paperboard bricks, composite containers, folding cartons. Can be made into a variety of shapes and thicknesses. Can be placed with additional materials. E.g. plastic and aluminium. Greaseproof papers are barrier to unwanted odours and moisture; waxed papers are non-toxic, inert and tasteless

Rigid Plastic – PVC and PETP. E.g. oil, cordial, soft drink containers. Lightweight and strong containers, high impact resistance, lots of shapes and sizes, relatively cheap, transparent

Flexible Plastic – e.g. snack food containers, cereal bags, meat and vegetable coverings, cling wrap. They are flexible and are lightweight, making it suitable for specific products

Aluminium Foils – foil is less than 0.15mm thick so it’s quite fragile and needs to be joined to another material for strength (lamination). It’s very flexible by itself, light, adds to product value

Current developments in packaging, including active packaging; modified atmosphere packaging; sous vide

Active packaging – the use of sachets or films either to remove or add gasses to the package headspace, reducing microbial reactions and keeping food fresher for longer.

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) - produces a gas mix that maximizes shelf life. First form of packaging is where the headspace is filled with gas/gases required to maintain the product’s shelf life. E.g. nitrogen in chip packets. Second form is where packaging film allows movement of gases and water in and out of package. E.g. ‘breathing’ broccoli to Japan where oxygen is let in and carbon dioxide out

Sous vide (vacuum cooking/packaging) - perishable food cooked, then rapidly chilled, vacuum packed, stored at low temperature. New materials are being used, such as nylon, to further extend shelf life when frozen

Storage conditions and distribution systems at various stages of food manufactureStorage - the action of storing a food item for further use Distribution – the transport, handling and storage of food products from the manufacturing facility to the point of sale During manufacture storage takes place:

After raw materials arrive e.g. controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables

When a product is held while it changes e.g. bread rising Awaiting distribution

Dry storage – below 24˚C with controlled humidity Cold storage – 0˚C to 5˚C – raw materials or manufactured product

Freezer storage – -18˚C to -30˚C

FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT– TERM 2

Factors which impact on food product development External factors (macro-environment) that impact on food product development,

including the: economic environmentEconomy can heavily impact FPD. New products work best when consumers have high income and when the economy is successful. Recession - Occurs when the economy of a country declines, resulting in less

disposable income, lower capacity to pay for goods and services, and decreased employment. Consumers purchase less foods, opt for cheaper fast-food outlets, less willing to try new foods, therefore product development declines, running costs increase and profits decline, which is bad for business.

Expansion - Occurs when the economy grows in terms of production, employment opportunities and introduction of new products. Decrease in unemployment, levels of prosperity increase, consumer spending increase.

Boom - Occurs when consumers spend more money, eat at better restaurants and try more new products. It is when a country’s economy grows too fast. Companies are more confident in their expansion, new businesses appear, low unemployment, interest rates may raise.

Contraction - Occurs in the economic cycle with effects similar to, however, less severe than those during a recession. Disposable income, consumer spending, business, spending and new product development are all affected.

political environmentManufacturers, producers and distributors are all subject to regulations and laws bylocal, state and federal gov, prominently by the federal body FSANZ which controls foodregulation. Pressures from overseas can affect domestic manufacturers, like tariffbarriers, trade restrictions and factors relating to food inspection, food quality. ecological environment

Concerns about pollution, land degradation and waste disposal. This causes consumer concerns about recycling, biodegradability of packaging, atmospheric and waterway pollution and use of pesticides and waste disposal. Companies use ecological concerns as marketing strategies in order to increase marketability.

technological environmentChanges in science and technology affect the development of products. This includes using UHT, MAP, genetic engineering, food additives, fat and sugar replacements and GM foods.

Internal factors (micro-environment) that impact on food product development, including: personnel expertisePersonnel may include:

production staff

financial staff marketing staff management staff product testing and quality assurance testing R&D staff

Staff need to be multi-skilled, which means that staff can work in multiple areas andgreater flexibility within operations. Staff should have more specialised knowledge,experience and training in a specific area but have a wider knowledge in other generalareas. Examples include:

Production workers need to be able to work with technology to manufacture new products

Marketing staff must have versatility to be able to promote different products to different people

Quality assurance staff need to develop specifications for new raw materials and quality standards for new products

production facilitiesProduction facilities vary in size, scale and technologies based on the scale of the business, and large companies usually combine a mix of production technologies, primarily automated. Bigger the production facilities > more produce > more profit.

Mass production – simple procedures, usually the assembly of premade components and uses advanced technology.

Continuous production – 24/7 production. Used by multinational companies Batch production – smaller quantities, small/household scale. Low production

volumes, low efficiency and relatively high costs One-off production – commissioned pieces, usually small/home business.

financial positionAffects the machinery and equipment that can be bought, as well as the company’sability to compete in the marketplace. Financial includes assets, cash flow, market share,interest rates, product range etc. Having a strong financial position is a massive advantage.

company imagePublic perception of the company is important in ensuring consumers engage with products. This can be enhanced through marketing, campaigns, partnerships, labelling, market availability etc. Companies should consider consequences before changing its image, for example a home brand company entering the luxury market is unlikely to do well and have a poor perception.

Reasons for and types of food product development drivers of the development of food products:Trends are a big driver. Current trends include:

Australia’s ageing population Eating outside the home more Multicultural society

More environmental awareness More home delivered meals Awareness of health and health issues increasing

Market segment – a categorisation of Australian consumers into different groups by criteriaincluding age, economic status and cultural tradition.

market concerns such as health, dietary considerations and the environmentHealth and dietary considerations – functional foods are increasing, promote various aspects of consumer health and better cater to allergies and intolerances. E.g. gluten free alternatives, vitamin enriched juice. Environment – manufacturers change packaging in response to environmental concerns about pollution, recyclables, biodegradability etc. E.g. mount franklin water – 100% recycled plastic.

consumer demands such as convenience foods and costConsumers want convenient foods at a low price, therefore opting for on-the-go foods, like Up & Go or Belvita breakfast biscuits instead of a meal at home. This reflects trends in Australia. Other consumer demands include dietary preferences (vegan, vego), organically grown foods and local grown foods.

societal changes including increasing ageing population, single person households and longer working hours

Ageing population > more foods being designed to cater to older people e.g. easy to open packaging, softer, easier to chew foods.

Longer working hours > people are looking for quick and easy meals to prepare at home (microwave meals, meal kits) and foods to eat on the go (snack bars and pre-cut fruit cups)

Single person households > increase in single serve meals, heat and eat options.

technological developments such as processing equipment and packaging materialsAdvancements can be:

Novel ingredients – using fat and sugar replacements or fibre supplements e.g. stevia, and indigenous or bush foods, e.g. emu, crocodile

Processing equipment – UHT, HTST. Extend shelf life, making products more marketable.

Packaging – active packaging, modified atmospheric packaging (MAP). Allows for greater shelf life, more convenience, extended quality of product.

Examples – GMO, organic farming, hydroponics, free range eggs

company profitability such as increasing market share In order for a company to become more profitable and increase market share, they must:

Develop new products Become more automated Use cheaper ingredients Utilise aggressive marketing Find new markets for existing products

types of food product development: line extensions Line Extensions are food products which are changed in some way. For example; new flavour, package size, package features, colour, health and diet-related variations.Why do companies bring in line extensions?

Market share is declining Consumer demands New market segments Increases product lifecycle – keeps company relevant New technology and ingredients

Example – vegemite, vegemite shapes, cheeseymite, vegemite chocolate (not always a positive response)

me toos Copy of an existing product. Type 1 – manufacturer creates a me too in order to compete with the original product. This relies heavily on advertising, e.g. Pepsi and coke Type 2 – manufacturer creates a cheaper or more generic version of a company’s product. E.g. Coles or Woolworths home brand. new to worldCompletely new and different to pre-existing products, hasn’t been on the marketbefore. Often derived from new ingredients (indigenous foods, food additives) and newtechnologies (GM foods, domestic appliances). Example – meat free meat products

Steps in food product development design brief based on project aims and development criteria:Design Brief identifies what consumers want and how much they’re willing to pay, and constraints on the producer when developing the new product (such as financial, processing, product, marketing).

idea generation and screening Brainstorming, even the most ridiculous ones Ideas come from market research or any employee Ideas based on intuition, culinary knowledge, artistic expression. Not technology Screening is selecting the best idea, based on how it fits into company’s constraints Screening check lists include ability to achieve goals, potential for profit, enough

money to cover all expenses, ability to meet specific requirements (e.g. shelf life for military)

market research Asking consumers their needs/wants, asking what they already like. They draw

conclusions from data received Data from research includes collection of internal data, market intelligence, market

research, and assessment of current operations

Market research on a particular market segment provides info on market size, demographics, geographic location, reasons for buying, shopping times, shopping method, product popularity, brand loyalty

Research conducted through face to face or telephone surveys, discussion groups/focus groups, field reports (observing sales, competitor strategies, competitor shares). This is primary research

Research can also be from published research (secondary research), e.g. other organisations, universities

product specifications Accurate, comprehensive description of what manufacture plans to deliver in

product It’s a benchmark/standard for consumers, listing raw materials and ingredients,

quantity of each for specific batch size, source of raw materials, and raw material constraints under Aussie Food Standards

Also describes packaging dimensions, materials, labelling, storage conditions

feasibility study Establishes whether idea is profitable Financial feasibility

o Determines if company will achieve a break-even point (when sales balance expenses)

o Market research reduces chance of being too optimistic/underestimating sales

Technical feasibility o Ability of company to make new product using existing resources: raw

materials, workspace, human resources, equipmento It includes: Availability of ingredients (ingredients at good price, steady

supply, correct quality), any new processes and new machinery, time and money obtaining ingredient approval, processes ensuring microbiological safety

production process development Converting factory to make new product , may be slightly altering or complete

change Factory layout must meet health and safety obligations, while ensuring productivity Companies should always expect problems in any situation and react accordingly

through quality control (checking to detect variations, ensuring everything follows plan)

Refer to production process flow charts and diagrams

development of a prototype

Trial product Extensive experiments carried out for safety, which ensures consistent production,

and to assess variables that may affect finished product. E.g. packaging materials that need to withstand production process

After food technologists’ experiment to produce ‘best’ product, recipe is batch sized

testing product prototype, e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing, packaging tests, storage trials

Few products make it to final testing stage, it’s tested in the labs The new product needs to be tested to determine if it satisfies food standards Packaging tests determine shelf life under various storage conditions, package

strength, and other characteristics specific to the product. E.g. carton boxes should withstand physical stress and temperature effects

Consumer Tests with focus groups often prompt changes to the product. Tests can also be public for a limited time to determine sales

Marketing plans product planning Introduction is the most intense and costly, requiring lots of marketing and promotion, growth is where sales grow rapidly, in maturity the market share becomes stable, growth may slow down and the competition is more intense, and in decline, sales decline and income decreases, causing companies to make radical changes and new developments in order to stay relevant.

Reasons for product failure: Wrong market – e.g. hard candies for old people Bad timing of launch – e.g. global pandemic No point of difference between existing products – e.g. making two of the same

products just with different packaging Poor product positioning – e.g. an unauthentic, copy-cat, pre-existing product that

isn’t useful, marketed as something that is the opposite as all the above.

What to do with a failed product: Sell it to another company Discontinue the product Revise marketing strategies Decrease manufacture and distribution.

Examples of failed products: Vegemite chocolate, Coke life, Heinz e.g. squirt ketchup

price structure The product price depends on what the target market is prepared to pay. Certain characteristics of a target market include; age, gender, socioeconomic level, family size and education.It is assumed the lower the price, the higher the demand. To encourage more people to buy the product, the product price must be lower than the competitors.

Penetration Pricing: The product price is below that of competitors for long enough to obtain a foothold (secure position) in the market.When is it used?When a company enters a new market segment for the first time, when a me-too product is being launched or when it is hoped that the product will be around for long time.

Price Skimming: A product is sold at a relatively high price at first, and the price falls over time.When is it used?

New-to-the world or line extension that has no other competition. The only one on the market and without a substitute. ‘Positioned’ as an exclusive, high-status brand. Consumers assume that a high price

means high quality. Not expected to have a long-life cycle.

Competitive Pricing (aka status quo pricing): The price is set to match that of the competition.When is it used?Used by market leaders (a company selling the largest quantity of a particular product) and at places like Paddy’s Market where all the fruit and vegetable sellers charge much the same price for their goods.

place and distribution systemPlace refers to where the product will be sold geographically and to the kinds of outlet in which it will be sold.Intensive distribution: Products are available at every possible outlet. E.g. chocolate bars – servos, grocery stores, online, vending machines etc. Selective distribution: Wide, but not intensive distribution – E.g. cheeses available at delis, but not Coles and Woolworths Exclusive distribution: Limited supply is sold in specific outlets, usually expensive – E.g. handmade chocolates at a boutique

Distribution refers to the process of moving the product from the producer to theconsumer.

1. Warehousing : Depending on the location of customers, warehouses can be located

at one central place or in different parts of the State and/or country.2. Materials Handling : This refers to the forklifts, conveyor belts and other methods

that move the cartons of product from the storage area to pallets ready for shipping.3. Inventory Control : Relates to checking stock. This is essential because it ensures the

quality of the product and quick filling of orders. Holding too much stock is expensive.4. Order Processing: This involves the handling and filling of orders, processing of

accounts and collection of credit payments. When stock is low, it is automatically re-ordered.

5. Transportation : The type of transportation used - air, water, rail, road - dependson the type of product, the distances to be covered and the nature of the product.

promotional programPromotion includes advertising, personal selling, publicity and public relations, sales promotions (sales, in store tasting, product giveaways)

Advertising can take the form of magazines, newspapers, radio, tv, signage, social media, point of purchase signage and packaging.

Sales promotions and demos include coupons, free samples, contests, cash back offers. Gondola ends are located at the ends of isles in hotspots, often with sale products. Off locations displays are also sales promotion, e.g. meat seasonings and sauces displayed next to cuts of meats.

Promotional activities include a salesperson assisting a person to choose one product over another (personal selling), using media and influencers to promote a product (publicity) and sponsorships of teams, schools, charities as a way to create a positive public image (public relations)

CONTEMPORARY NUTRITION ISSUES – TERM 3

Diet and health in Australia physical effects and economic costs of malnutrition (under and over nutrition)

and diet related disordersMalnutrition – where one or more nutrients are not supplied to the body in correct amountsOver nutrition – Diet contains an excess of one or more nutrients, including fat, carbohydrates and protein. Conditions linked to this include obesity, dental caries, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, CVD.

Condition Causes Physical Effects Economic Effects Obesity - When one’s energy intake is greater than their expenditure.

○ Hormones, which change how the body stores or burns energy○ Genetic factors affecting how the body stores or burns energy

○ Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue (fat)○ Extra workload for the heart ○ Fatigue as the body requires more energy to do simple tasks ○ Joint mobility issues

○ Cost of hospital treatment ○ Surgery ○ Medicine ○ Toll on ability to work ○ Absenteeism

63% of adults are overweight, 25% of children.

○ Individual’s activity level. ○ Psychological factors such as the comfort food brings ○ Environmental factors such as geographical location and financial abilities will also be a factor in obesity.

○ Can increase risk of developing diabetes (2), gall bladder disease, CVD, respiratory disease.

Hypertension – High blood pressure. 32% of adults have this

○ Excess sodium can cause an imbalance of water in body cells, so the body retains water, causing the heart to pump blood under pressure. Blood circulation becomes less efficient.

○ Heart failure ○ Stroke ○ Kidney disease○ Aneurysm○ Brain Haemorrhage

○ Cost of hospital treatment ○ Surgery ○ Medicine ○ Toll on ability to work ○ Absenteeism

Dental Caries – tooth decay.

○ Poor dental practices ○ Diet high in sugar ○ Acids caused by sugar reacting with bacteria cause tooth enamel to dissolve.

○ Bad breath ○ Toothaches ○ Tooth loss ○ Difficulty chewing

○ Cost of dental treatment e.g. filings, crowns ○ Cost of medications

Cardiovascular Disease

○ Hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis) is caused by a collection of fat (cholesterol) along artery walls, restricting blood flow to the heart.

○ Heart attack – caused by restricted oxygen supply to the heart ○ Stroke – can occur if blockage to the brain

○ Most expensive in terms of amount of people suffering x associated costs○ Extensive time off work ○ Expensive surgery and medications

Under nutrition - One or more nutrients are lacking in the diet, e.g. carbohydrates containing fibre, minerals or water. Conditions linked to this include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, diverticulitis, anaemia, osteoporosis. Condition Cause Physical Effects Economic Effects Anorexia Nervosa

Psychological disorder that involves extreme self-induced weight loss through restricted eating and excessive exercise. Can be caused by:○ Peer/media influence○ Low self-esteem ○ Existing mental health issues

○ Muscle wastage ○ Abnormally low body weight ○ Absence of consecutive menstrual cycle ○ Low blood pressure ○ Anaemia ○ Fainting ○ Nutritional deficiency

○ Expensive rehabilitation centres○ Counselling○ Medication○ Hospitalisation

Bulimia Nervosa

Psychological disorder that involves binge eating, commonly followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or excessive

○ Side effects from frequent vomiting:- tooth decay - burns from stomach acid to throat, gums and mouth

○ Expensive rehabilitation centres○ Counselling○ Medication○ Hospitalisation

exercise. Can be caused by:○ Peer/media influence○ Low self-esteem ○ Existing mental health issues

○ Nutritional deficiency

Osteoporosis ○ Long term deficiency of calcium○ Insufficient intake of calcium○ Physical inactivity ○ Menopause ○ Poor bone structure

○ Weakened bones – more susceptible to fractures and breaks ○ Reduction of bone mass○ Poor posture

○ Medical care○ Supplementation ○ Physical therapy/exercise specialist

While there are many individual costs, the costs for society include: Strain on the health system: Increased need for hospital beds, private beds,

psychological services, rehab services and community services Workplaces: Loss of productivity when workers have to take time off sick Educational costs: Increased costs to educate about diseases and disorders Downstream costs: more money is being directed downstream, instead of upstream on

prevention. Government allowances: More people will rely on government allowances and

subsidies.

nutritional considerations for specific groups Specific groups:

- Adolescent girls – protein, iron, calcium, high energy diet- Elderly – calcium, low energy diet, higher water intake, high fibre- Aboriginal and Torres strait islanders – social disadvantage – better education

needed, better health and nutritional outcomes in all areas - Diabetics – low sugar, low GI, - Athletes – high protein, high carb, supplementation - Vegetarians and vegans – protein, supplementation

the role of the individual, community groups, the food industry, government organisations and private agencies in promoting health

Government – Poor food choices not only harm the individual, but the health care system, therefore it is more cost effective to promote healthy eating than deal with the consequences financially. This may look like:

Writing policies and strategic plans outlining priorities – e.g. Australian dietary guidelines, Nutrition strategy and action plan

Implementing health promotion campaigns – e.g. Australian guide to healthy eating

Developing and funding preventative programs, such as addressing high cost of fresh food in remote areas

Liaising with other govt. organisations – FSANZ, the national Health & Medical Research Council, Aust. Institute of Health & Welfare

Health NSW - “We support the executive and statutory roles of the NSW Minister for Health and Medical Research and monitor the performance of the NSW public health system, known as NSW Health. Our vision is for everyone in NSW Health to work together to achieve “Healthy People - now and in the future”.Our goals are to:

keep people healthy provide the health care that people need deliver high quality services and manage health services well.”

Food Industry – There is increasing competition for market share, therefore companies will only manufacture healthy foods if consumers want them. Food regulations assist in the control of labelling, food safety and use of particular processes or ingredients that affect the health of consumers. Food retailers may be involved in marketing to help inform their customers about heathy eating.

Community groups and private agencies – Community group example: The Heart Foundation They are dedicated to reducing the impact of CVD, with key focus areas including helping Australians to achieve a healthy weight, to identify warning signs of heart attack and help Australians to have improved access to prevention and treatments. Their tick of approval on certain foods help guide shoppers to healthier foods. Private agencies and community groups shape consumer perception and guide the food industry. They watch manufacturers’ products and claims then publish the information to the public, e.g. Australian Consumers Association uses Choice Magazine. Public voice is also spread to companies, e.g. genetic engineering, healthy foods.

Individual – Consumers have the ultimate responsibility over their choices, regardless of the advisory from the government and the food industry. Their own education, geography, SES and the availability of products will have significant influence over the foods bought. It is up to the consumer to interpret food labels/advertising etc with care as they may be misleading.

the production/manufacture of nutritionally modified foods to meet consumer demand including a range of functional foods such as fortified foods

Nutritionally modified foods are foods that have been altered in a relatively simple way to improve their nutritional characteristics. This may look like adding fibre, protein or other beneficial nutrients, or removing fat, sodium or sugar. E.g. low-fat yogurt, high protein bread, added fibre cereals. Functional foods are foods that have benefits beyond those provided by the basic nutrients in foods, weather naturally occurring or added during manufacture. E.g. Yakult – a probiotic yogurt containing beneficial bacteria. Categories of NMF and FF:

1. Simple or more basic, where essential nutrients (such as vitamins or minerals) have been added, or something has been removed (fat, sodium)

2. Foods with added active non nutrients e.g. probiotics, fibre3. Foods that naturally contain beneficial substances other than the essential nutrients,

e.g. dietary fibre or antioxidants.

Companies respond to the everchanging consumer demand as ultimately the consumers are the ones buying the product, so if what they want is there, they will buy it, and the company makes money and gains market share. More commonly, NMF and FF are becoming a part of consumer demands because of their positive influence on health. Some examples of consumer demands include:

Low fat milk Vitamin/mineral enriched juices (e.g. calcium added to OJ) Fibre enriched cereals Protein enriched breads Reduced sugar in sweets – e.g. cakes and lollies with lower levels of fat/sugar FF and NMF foods that meet the dietary concerns of consumers – vegan, vego, halal,

kosher etc. Leaner meat cuts

the role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the diet, e.g. phytochemicals, probiotics and fibreActive non-nutrients – not essential for life but can enhance the functioning of the body or contribute to the promotion of good health.

Fibre - Fibre is found only in plant foods and includes a variety of gels, gums and indigestible carbs that swell and absorb moisture in your gut, making for softer faecal matter. Keeps the gut healthy by stimulating the muscle contractions (peristalsis) that keep the gut contents moving effectively. The contents of your body moves through quicker, reducing the time that toxins are in contact with gut cells. May reduce cell damage and protect against some types of cancers. Fibre acts as fuel for beneficial bacteria to multiply, protecting against infection and producing substances that the body can use, such as vitamin K and some B group vitamins.

o Soluble fibre – the type that dissolves in the gut, digested by bacteria in the colon. Helps aid the feelings of satiety, slowing the rate that the stomach empties. Can help to reduce cholesterol levels. Found in peas, oats, apples, citrus fruits, beans, barley.

o Insoluble fibre – remains mostly unchanged in the gut, it is the main promoter of movement through the gut and helps protect cells from damage. Found in beans, whole wheat products, nuts, cauliflower

Antioxidants – Antioxidants are phytochemicals. There are at least 8000 different naturally occurring antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and other plant sources. The most significant are vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene and other carotenoids. Antioxidants are widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements for health purposes, i.e. neutralizing free radical action thus preventing cancers, controlling cholesterol levels, improving cardiovascular health

o Flavonoids and carotenoids – the colour compounds found in fruit and vego Vitamin E – the most involved in controlling blood cholesterol levels. Acts to

stop low density-lipoproteins from breaking apart and depositing cholesterol along blood vessels. e.g. nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, leafy greens.

Phyto-oestrogens – Category of phytochemicals, a substance converted by bacteria in the gut to a hormone-like compound which can mimic oestrogen. Many benefits, especially for women in menopause as it can reduce symptoms. Improved CV health as they can stop the oxidisation of LDL, assist in the reduction of cancer risks stimulated by sex hormones (breast, prostate cancer). The most significant sources are isoflavonoids – found in fruit, nuts, seeds and vegetables, with the most powerful source being soybeans and lignans – found in grains and seeds, the most prominent source is linseeds.

Omega-3 Fatty acids - Omega-3 fatty acids can be converted to hormone-like substances called prostaglandins that are directly involved with the correct functioning of the cardiovascular system. The prostaglandins that are in omega-3 have anti-inflammatory properties, helping to reduce CVD by reducing the formation of clots in the blood stream, protecting against rhythm disorders, helping correct blood vessel function. Important in brain function. Fish and fish oils are the best sources, comprised of DHA and EPA (docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid), while plant sources mostly provide ALA (alpha linolenic acid), such as canola oil, sunflower seed oil and flaxseed oil.

Probiotics – The name for beneficial gut flora that help us maintain good health and contributes to the nutrition of gut cells. Probiotics are added to foods to promote good health, as normal gut flora cannot be used as probiotics as it wouldn’t survive the journey to the colon. Sources of probiotics include yogurt and Yakult.

the role of supplements in the dietCome in a variety of forms – tablets, gels, capsules, powders and in foods such as bars or balls. Supplementation has increased due to busier lifestyles, greater disposable incomes and an increase in health consciousness. The use of supplementation is heavily debated, as often people don’t actually need them.

Vitamin supplements – Vitamin deficiencies are rare in Australia, which calls us to question the use of these supplements. Water soluble vitamins (C and B complex) when consumed in excess are excreted through urine with little effect, whereas fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) can be stored in body fat and build up to toxic levels. Very few people need vitamin supplements, the most prominent being pregnant women, who need to increase their intake of iron to avoid neural tube defects. scientific evidence suggests there is no benefit to taking vitamin E, vitamin C or beta-carotene supplements.

Mineral supplements - There is some evidence of mineral deficiency in Australia, such as iron, iodine and calcium. Mineral supplementation can be dangerous as the body stores most minerals and requires small amounts for day to day processes. Excess consumption may cause constipation/diarrhoea. Iron supplementation may be necessary for those who cannot consume the recommended amount of iron - common in women, athletes and non-meat eaters, who are most at risk of anaemia. Those with a dairy allergy, are lactose intolerant or the elderly, who are at a heightened risk of osteoporosis/fragile bones may need calcium supplementation.

Influence on nutritional status health and the role of diet in the development of conditions, including obesity,

diabetes, cardiovascular disease, food sensitivity/intolerance/allergies Food sensitivity – Some people experience adverse reactions after consuming a

specific food product. This may be either a food allergy or a food intolerance.

Food allergy – When the body responds to a specific protein (allergen) and incorrectly identifies it as a dangerous foreign protein. Antibodies are then produced to fight this ‘dangerous’ protein, causing a reaction that is anything between mild and life threatening. Common allergies include – peanuts, shellfish, tree nuts, gluten, dairy, eggs, wheat and soy. Symptoms may look like wheezing, coughing, swelling of the airways, rash, stomach pain. Skin prick testing is used to confirm an allergy, a controlled amount of a certain substance thought to trigger the reaction is used in a skin prick to test the reaction. If this fails, a food challenge can commence, where the individual consumes the suspected allergen in a controlled environment and the reaction is observed. FSANZ requires all products to outline allergens or possible traces to ensure safety for consumers.

Food intolerance – different to an allergy as the response does not involve the immune system and the body is not reacting to a single protein, but to other chemicals found widely in a variety of foods, sometimes requiring a large amount to trigger a reaction. It occurs when a person has difficulty digesting a particular food. Sometimes a food intolerance may be triggered by food chemicals.

o Salicylates - Group of chemicals found in all plant foods - many fruits and vegetables, spices, herbs, nuts, tea, coffee. Also used as an additive in foods and used in eucalyptus and peppermint flavoured products.

o Amines - Group of chemicals that are found in cheeses, processed meats, beer and wines. Also found in some fruit, vegetables (bananas, tomatoes, avocadoes) and also in chocolate.

o Glutamate - One of the amino acids. Found naturally in plants and animals. It provides part of the savoury flavour in foods such as; mushrooms, tomatoes and tomato products, cheeses, soy sauce and meat extracts. Also used as monosodium glutamate (MSG) and used as a flavour enhancer in many snack foods and in Asian cooking.

Cons of supplementation Pros of supplementation Many supplements aren’t necessary if you

are consuming a balanced diet Self-diagnosis regarding the need for

supplements can be dangerous, e.g. excess fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A can be toxic and prevent calcium absorption

Excessive intake of protein can cause weight gain rather than muscle if consumed in excess or not used in conjunction with exercise

Expensive Lack of research into long term effects

Can bring positive feelings – placebo affect Good for those with a deficiency or

requirement for specific vitamins/minerals – anaemics (iron), dairy allergy (calcium), elderly (calcium), pregnant women (folate)

Assists in meeting nutritional needs regarding lifestyle choices, non-meat eaters (iron) etc.

Monitored by FSANZ to ensure products are safe

Symptoms include hives, rashes, sinus pain, abdominal cramping, nausea, flatulence, constipation, headaches, dizziness, diarrhoea. To manage this, individuals are placed on an elimination diet, where they consume bland foods that do not contain substances likely to create a reaction, then a food challenge is done to identify the cause. Management involves reducing the consumption of the offending product. Lactose intolerance – difficulty digesting lactose, the main carbohydrate in milk. It is a disaccharide that is broken into monosaccharides in the gut.

Diabetes - Type 1 diabetes is an incurable auto-immune disease where the body’s immune system destroys cells within the pancreas, the organ in which insulin is created. There is no known cause for type 1 diabetes nor is it a reflection of lifestyle choices, but there is a strong link to it being hereditary. Type 2 diabetes is reflective of poor lifestyle and food choices, along with being hereditary. This condition develops over a longer period of time, insulin resistance starts, causing an inability manage blood glucose levels. There is no cure for diabetes, but can be effectively managed through lifestyle modifications, such as more frequent exercise, diet changes and stopping smoking, along with medications. If not managed correctly, complications can arise, which is when this condition can become life threatening. Both conditions present with similar symptoms; excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, frequent feelings of lethargy, mood swings, headaches and frequent hunger. The management of diabetes is through insulin monitoring, frequent exercise, diet changes – not consuming foods high in sugar, high-GI foods (cause blood sugar spike), eating fresh foods etc.

lifestyle and the effect of cultural and social practices on nutritional statusLifestyle choices play a critical role in an individual’s health.

Exercise – energy intake must be balanced with energy expenditure. An excessive energy intake/inadequate expenditure will result in the body storing excess energy as fat. Improvements in technology have led to more passive recreation, contributing to Australia’s largely sedentary lifestyle. On the other end of the scale, excessive exercise can be extremely damaging, potentially causing damage to skeletal joints, depletion of iron stores, increased cancer risk and extreme weight loss/nutritional deficiencies.

Alcohol - Alcohol is toxicity to body tissues, damaging the liver, pancreas and brain. Over-consumption of alcohol contributes to weight gain due to its high energy content, and metabolising the alcohol depletes the body of important nutrients. Over-consumption of alcohol can also be associated with aggression, violent crime and relationship problems, proving to be detrimental to more than physical health.

Culture and religion - Australia is a multicultural society, therefore the dietary patterns of individuals may be vastly different depending on cultural background.

Christianity Avoid eating meat on Good Friday Jewish Orthodox Jewish people avoid eating dairy and meat in the same meal, don’t drink alcohol,

adhere to cultural dietary law – kosher. Only eat cow, goat, sheep, chicken, turkey, duck and only will consume if slaughtered as per kosher requirements and the removal of animal blood through salting or roasting.

Muslim Abstain from food and drink during the day during the holy month of Ramadan, then celebrate the end of Ramadan with a feast. Avoid consuming pork and pig, do not drink alcohol.

Many of the social practices of today’s society revolve around food, sharing food is a symbol of harmony and friendliness. The choice of menu will determine the nutritional value of the meal, e.g. at a children’s party there will be lots of lollies, cakes and other ‘junk’ foods, whereas a dinner with work friends may be a specific cuisine, such as Asian, or may involve healthier choices. The type and place of social environment determines the nutritional status of food available.

media and ethical issues related to advertising practices on food consumption such as the promotion of ‘health’ foods and ‘fast’ foods

The food industry uses the media for many reasons:- increase brand awareness- shape consumer perceptions of their needs/wants- guide consumer product choices and buying patterns.

Ethical issues – Continual debate about the impact of junk food advertising on childhood and adult obesity. The greatest concern is the affect it has over children, who are less educated on how to make sound nutritional decisions. Advertisers make use of happy characters, bright and fun colours, etc to appeal kids. Misleading messages may be included, such as advertising ice-cream as ‘high in calcium’, which it is, but it is also high in sugars and saturated fats. McDonald’s promotes their children’s meals with a bag of apples, but purposely doesn’t address the saturated fats, sugars and salt content of their meals.

The Advertising Standards Board (ASB) is an Australian organisation in place to monitor to and respond to inappropriate advertising. On August 1st, 2009, they launched a new initiative that established stricter rules for fast-food advertising.Fast food companies; Can no longer advertise free toy offers and can no longer use their licensed characters unless the meal they are advertising met specific nutritioncriteria.

Cross-Promotion: A company will advertise a product through association with another non-food-related product, such as; TV show, film sporting event.Product Placement: Food advertising can be strategically placed in TV shows and films, promoting the product simply by its presence and association with the show.

Ultimately it is up to the individual - or, in the case of a young child, their parent or guardian to make sensible choices concerning their food and diet. Advertisers have the responsibility to be honest about the product, and to be clear about the nutritional advantages and disadvantages of a product. It is unethical for advertisers to lie, which is why advertisements will often highlight the positive points about a product and avoid addressing the negatives.

Promotion of health foods - Companies used fortified foods as a way of making their products more competitive. Many companies are creating line extensions in the form of functional foods to meet the demands of consumers. Defining ‘health food’ is difficult because there are no legal requirements on the use of the word ‘health’, ‘healthy’ or ‘natural’ in food labelling. Consumers are left to interpret these terms in their own way.FSANZ also permits food companies to include statements about their nutritional value of their products. Companies cannot make any reference to how the product can cure or

prevent disease. For example; a company claim that their bottle of milk contains calcium, however, cannot say it will prevent osteoporosis.

Promotion of fast foods - Australians eat, on average, 4 meals per week that have been prepared outside the home. Many of these meals consist of fast foods. The major multinational fast food companies devote a large part of their huge annual promotional budget to advertising in the mass media. McDonalds Australia spends $55 mil on advertising a year.

Positive impact of media Negative impact of mediaPromotion of health foods and subsequently good health

Heavy advertising on energy-dense fast foods

Promotion of healthy programs – ADG, milo cricket

Misleading or purposefully confusing information

Increased awareness of health issues Promotion of snack foods contributing to a grazing lifestyleUse of slim or photoshopped models contributes to the misrepresentation of health – skinny isn’t healthy, healthy is healthy.