abstract · web viewreview: unconscious behavioral guidance systems bargh and morsella’s...

Running Head: INTROSPECTION: UNDERSTANDING THE UNCONSCIOUS 1

INTROSPECTION: Understanding the Unconscious

Behavior and Relationship Personalities

Janine Perez

English 202, Section 3

Dr. Bunts-Anderson

INTROSPECTION: UNDERSTADING THE UNCONSCIOUS 2

ContentsAbstract............................................................................................................................................3

Introduction......................................................................................................................................4

Background......................................................................................................................................4

Literature Review............................................................................................................................5

Review: Psychology: Themes and Variations.............................................................................6

Different Perspectives of Personality.......................................................................................6

Attraction................................................................................................................................10

Review: Cognitive Neuroscience...............................................................................................11

Review: Our Unconscious Mind................................................................................................12

Review: Using Phenomenal Concepts to Explain Away the Intuition of Contingency.............13

Review: Unconscious Behavioral Guidance Systems...............................................................14

Primary and Secondary Questions.................................................................................................17

Methodology..................................................................................................................................17

Findings, Analysis, and Critique...................................................................................................19

Loyalty.......................................................................................................................................19

Discussion......................................................................................................................................20

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................20

References......................................................................................................................................22

APPENDIX....................................................................................................................................23


Abstract

How well does an individual control his or her conscious trail of thought? Perhaps the

only thing that makes humans any less superior to other organisms is that, they too do not have

full access to their cognition’s full potential. If this were not the case, would this deem every

individual gifted with sharp perception or prophesy? The purpose of this research report

therefore, is to venture on the inner workings of the human psyche, to determine whether there is

a possible link between unconscious behavior and relationship personalities, and whether

observation or “introspection” is enough to explain inclined behavior. For her experiment, the

student researcher surveyed a population that consisted of 39 people, each divided evenly by

gender, relationship status, and age. Given the results regarding her theory, there may be a

possible implication that the unconscious behavior and relationship tendencies are linked by the

concept known as “phenomenal” or representative concepts that will be further discussed in the

Literature Review section of this research report.


Introspection: Understanding Unconscious Behavior and Relationship Personalities

Introduction

It is innate to the human nature to judge, especially develop a “stereotype” by the beliefs,

morals, and social norm they are exposed and accustomed to. Humans create a standard; they

create biases, and are often found to be picky when it comes to mingling with others. They create

labels, fabricating reasoning’s behind another person’s actions in order to serve their own self-

serving biases. They create a stereotype that all Asian’s are good at math, and that all high school

student’s wearing black outfits are punks and suicidal maniacs, but this is not the case for

everyone, in fact, these are all just mere prejudice judgements sometimes accepted socially as

“stereotypes” without sound and logical arguments to support their claims. Throughout this

research report, the student researcher will guide the reader into a deeper introspection of the

human unconscious, present enlightening information about the human personality and laws of

attraction. The student researcher will also provide examples of evidence linking to the

relationship between the unconscious behavior and relationship personalities with others and

finally, explain the importance of introspection of an individual’s self as well as others to

promote better understanding, sympathy, and empathy rather than prejudice judgement.

Background

As the student researcher was walking one day, she lapsed into her usual self-

introspection and random thinking. Her mind began to wonder, and the student researcher was

suddenly thinking about phones. Why would people change their phone models as soon as Apple

release a newer version every year when it only has a few differences from the previous models?

Was it because they wanted to follow the norm, or is there another underlying reason behind why


they do what they do? The student researcher also started thinking about her former crushes, one

that went on for 5 years and the other, for roughly 2 years. She also wondered why she was

thinking of the two when they did not even seem like they had any probable link to one another,

and then it all seemed to make sense: commitment.

As the student researcher went through a deeper reflection of her personality, she

realized, just as she would stick to her 2-year-old phone, the student researcher would also tend

to like a person for quite some time. Similarly, as fast as she would fall in love with a song she

hears in the radio, she would easily find another person(s) she would cross paths with attractive.

This deeper thinking allowed her to question why humans act a certain way. She wondered why

people chose a certain brand of phone, or favored a certain sports team over the other. She was

also interested in whether these habits had a link with a person’s relationship to others.

The student researcher believes introspection is important because she is in the

Rehabilitation and Human Services major, and this allows her to use her passion in her research,

as well as develop skills on how to understand not only herself but also others as well.

Introspection is very important to everyone because before one could offer to help others, one

must look deep inside of oneself. In this manner, once we know what affects us, and we are able

to put ourselves in another person’s shoes, we are able to understand the actions of others

without passing them judgement.

Literature Review

Studying the complexity of the human conscious would take many years to fully

understand, and even then, psychologists have yet to discover the depth of human superiority

compared to other organisms. For instance, what factors influence personality, sociability, and


laws of attraction is still uncertain. By observing an individual’s unconscious behavior and

preferences, is it enough to foretell their future behavior to similar situations? With a process

called introspection, the student researcher will, introduce the various perspectives that will help

the reader understand how the human psyche works and whether there is a link between

unconscious behavior and affiliated situational personality traits.

Review: Psychology: Themes and Variations

According to Wayne Weiten, (2014), in the revised edition of his book, Psychology:

Themes and Variations, personality is the unique set of behavioral traits that are consistent to

each individual (p 362). Each person has traits similar to others, but overall, each person has

their own perks to distinguish their independence from the ever-growing population of human

race. Although quite informative, Wayne successfully includes various perspectives of

personality to rule out bias and maintain an objective point of view. This section will therefore

review these concepts explained his book.

Different Perspectives of PersonalityPsychoanalyticWeiten introduces the father of the psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud, who gives the

reader a psychodynamic perspective in the structure of personality. He believes that the

conscious is governed by three basic components: the primitive or instinctive component, the

decision-making, and the morale component that incorporates social standards in any given

situation. This means that, personality is governed by an individual’s biological needs and urges

based on the pleasure and survival principle as well as the awareness of what is socially right and

wrong. Freud also argues that by focusing on childhood experiences, unconscious motives,


conflicts, and other methods of coping, a person may better understand personality, motivation

and other psychological disorders.

Weiten also introduces Freud’s theory of the three levels of conscious awareness,

whereas the unconscious being “below the surface of awareness” may also explain why the

unconscious influence behavior because it contains thoughts, memories and other desires that we

are not aware of or easily repressed or forgotten (pp. 364-365).

In contrast to Freud’s views, another psychoanalyst, Weiten introduces is, Carl Jung, who

shared the same views in terms of the unconscious playing a big role in personality; however,

Jung did not believe that memories are repressed or forgotten. His new approach believed that

latent memory is stored in the collective unconscious, which is present in the entire human race,

just as the need to survive is biological or innate to any living organism.

Behavioristic

Aside from Freud and Jung’s psychodynamic perspective, Weiten then introduces the

behaviorist’s share of how personality is shaped. Like psychoanalysts, behaviorists study

personality and behavior based on observational behavior alone. B.F. Skinner, for example,

believed that behavior is shaped by an organism’s external environment as seen in his operant

chamber box experiment where a lab rat finds its way out of a maze by going through a trial and

error process that molds experience. His theory is quite similar to psychoanalysts Freud, that by

the pleasure principle, biological needs govern how an organism reacts to its environment.

Weiten further explains that Skinner’s view of personality is that personality is a collection of

“response tendencies” that are tied to various stimulus situations (pp. 372-373).


Psychologist Albert Bandura also agrees with the behaviorist’s perspective, however, he

believed that personality is shaped by learning. Like Skinner, he believed that behavior is

influenced by the external environment and stimuli; however, consciousness is still playing a

vital role in the personality and behavior center. For every favorable outcome in a trial and error

basis, an organism will continue to follow this pattern because they associate rewards with the

desired outcome. (p. 373)

Humanistic

Humanistic perspectives believe that humans are superior than other organisms because

they have the freedom to think, grow, and express themselves which set them off as not only

unique from other organisms, but also to themselves as well. Each individual is similar to some

extent, but how they respond to similar situations vary from person to person. Personality is

shaped by the completion of oneself. This is attained when all needs are met which includes:

survival, security, sense of belonging, achievement, understanding, and the discovery of one’s

true self (pp. 376-377).

Biological

Psychologist, Hans Eysenck, provides a biological perspective of personality as well. He

believed that personality is inherited and some behavior traits are genetic. Eysenck believed that

personality is structured by a “hierarchy of traits”, where other “superficial traits are derived

from smaller number of more basic traits which are derived from a handful of fundamental

higher order traits” (p. 379) which means that like Jung’s theory, some personality traits are

founded by a collection of other traits. Interestingly, in a twin study, researchers found that twins

who are separated from birth share the same personality to some extent, but not as much as when


they are raised in the same shared familiar environment, which increases the influence of similar

personality (p. 381).

Evolutionary

Evolutionary perspectives believe that some personality traits are determined by

biological basis of needs. In Charles Darwin’s survival theory, only the fittest will survive, thus,

it is innate for people to judge others according to how they perceive them in their likelihood to

survive in the long run. For instance, confidence and strength may imply a person who is likely

to survive longer as opposed to others. One who shows sympathy to others may be associated to

someone who would not stab an acquaintance in the back in the fight for survival (p. 381).

An evolutionary perspective on how people perceive others is also determined by

attractiveness and likeability (p.400). Sociability also plays a vital role in human adaptation to

others. People are more likely to associate with others with whom they identify with. This is

because; it is innate for organism to unconsciously think of security by distinguishing a friend

from a foe.

Likewise, according to Fritz Heider, humans tend to attribute their observations to

explain why other individuals behave a certain way. This can range from attaching their own

personal experience as well as other external and internal factors they believe may have cause a

certain behavior or personality trait. However, this is not often the case; in fact, this is called

fundamental attribution error. Fundamental attribution error refers to an observer’s bias in favor

of internal attributions in explaining others behaviors, this does not mean than internal behavior

is always wrong or always right, it means that you cannot generalize all actions. Observers may

have the tendency to overestimate the behavior and personal qualities rather than situational


factors; they may be right but not always especially because not everyone reacts the same way as

others (pp. 401-402).

Attraction

In terms of attraction one of the key factors the influence attraction is physical

attractiveness (p. 404). In evolutionary perspectives, physical attractiveness may be associated to

greater survival, given that some cultures believe that physical attractiveness is associated with a

good gene that can be passed to future offspring’s. Biological factors such as those who have

bigger breasts and other bodily symmetries may hint reproductive success, thus heightening

attraction amongst the opposite sex.

Similarity

Similarity also plays a vital role in attraction. People tend to associate with those similar

to them be it social class, race, age, religion, intelligence, education, attitude, and views because

people tend to align their attitude with those they associate with. Aside from similarity, there is

another phenomena known as the reciprocity effect, where as a person tend to like a person more

if they share the same mutual affection, or if they are told that they are liked is found to have

similar effects in attraction. This is to say that like yields like and hate yields hate (p. 405).

Cultural Perspectives

Cultural views show a variation on their ideals and perception of attraction and love as

well. For some cultures, attraction is conceived by mutual love, while others believe in a kind of

love that is learned. This is especially shown in contrast between western cultures and Asian

cultures following fixed marriage. For example, Ana and Richard, both born in California, found

out that their parents arranged a fixed marriage. Although this may be beneficial to both parties


because it results to a marriage between their parent’s companies, they are not happy to hear the

good news because it seems “forced”. This is because western cultures believe in a matrimony

with someone that they love. This is not to say that Ana and Richard will not fall in love

eventually, because other cultures accept this tradition willingly. Xue Li and Kim Ah for

example come from a prestigious family in North Korea. Both parties accept a matrimonial

bondage not only because of the benefits upon the merging of their familiar companies, but also

because their parents are more concerned of genes and prestige as well, thus fishing out specific

candidates for their children with the belief that love comes after marriage.

Attitude and Social Judgement

Besides the different perspectives mentioned above, social judgment as well as attitude

may also determine personality and behavioral traits. Attitude is governed by three components:

the Cognitive component or the attitude made up of beliefs of an object of attitude. The Affective

component consist of emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought, and the Behavioral

component consist of predisposition to act in certain ways towards an attitude of object (p. 409).

Attitudes, according to Wallace Ajzen, are “mediocre predictors of people’s behavior”.

When he and his colleagues studied attitude and behavior, they found that the average correlation

between attitudes and behaviors was 41 percent which indicated that the correlation was high

enough to conclude that attitudes truly predicts actual behavior; however, that doesn’t mean it

will always predict that behavior, only to some extent (Weiten, 2014, p. 409).

Review: Cognitive Neuroscience

Gazzaniga provides many illustrations as to how the human mind works, this is especially

evident in his book Cognitive Neuroscience: the biology of the mind, which gives a cognitive


perspective on behavior, personality, social and situational perception. Perception, as Gazzaniga

emphasizes, depends on internal representations, for example, if a person sees a ball or a dish,

this individual will perceive it as something that is circular in shape. Aside from internal

representations, these representations undergo transformations just as learning is shaped. This

means that in order for learning to persist or “stick” in memory, it must be reproduced or put to

use, for example utilizing sensory or associating the object with an action. Uniquely in learning,

in an experiment made by Posner, physical or visual representations are more likely easier to

categorize compared to phonetic cues. Association and representation vary from different levels,

but overall prove that the human cognition is capable of producing multiple representations.

Likewise, in a study done by Sternberg, parallel linear functions proved that similar mental

actions show increased reaction times because of the familiarity with similar situations or tasks.

This may also explain why people would unconsciously react the same way in situations with

similar concepts because the concept is already premade by previously created concepts (p. 97-

101). This is especially true with connectionists who create models and rely on concepts that are

inter connected but have the ability to change patterns.

Review: Our Unconscious Mind

John Bargh’s, Our unconscious mind, methodically describes the unconscious, providing

various sections to organize his work as well as providing a response to any critic regarding his

findings. According to Bargh, how we unconsciously view people is a “reflective reaction”, this

is to say that it is innate for humans to judge others and put labels or stereotypes based on biased

perceived judgement, just as Weiten explains in the previous section concerning fundamental

attribution error. Bargh also adds that environmental factors such as subliminal messages given

by advertisement and propaganda to influence perception (Boone, 2012). Bargh further adds


humans have an innate need to mimic others as well as follow responses that leads to

unconscious rewards (ex. The hype of smoking weed or eating chocolate) thus acting and

behaving the same way in the same situation. Certain knowledge or priming cues as Bargh

suggests a trigger to certain actions, which makes sense for survival in times of danger. Bargh

ends with a message to the critics to conclude that although past research regarding social

psychology may not be reliable, he adds the notion for consideration that people and the mindset

of everyone changes, therefore, not all previous studies may be false. As the race of humans

evolve, the minds perception and how they behave in other social events changes, therefore

although studies that were once accurate can be replicated, the results may also change or prove

the previous valid research invalid.

Review: Using Phenomenal Concepts to Explain Away the Intuition of Contingency

Nicholas Shea’s, Using phenomenal concepts to explain away the intuition of

contingency thoughtfully inserts insight as to how contingent intuition is controlled based on a

phenomena known as “phenomenal concepts”. In his work, he provides a well outlined essay to

explain the phenomena followed by evidence to debunk opposing claims regarding “intuition of

contingency” that is said to cannot be “explained away”. The highlights of his paper features

similar concepts in Gazzaniga’s work (see Gazzaniga above) regarding the unconscious’s

preinstalled knowledge of “concepts” and how it operates in decision making and unconscious

behavior. Shea also provides empirical data in his research as well as citing them properly both

in text and in his reference page. Shea makes a striking impression to his audience by

emphasizing his claim that “The intuition runs deeper: that no putative scientific characterization

could do the job” (Shea, 544). Which means observation is not enough to not only claim the


reason behind behavior, but also the human psyche is very much superior to outsmart or truly

explain its inner workings because it is ever changing.

Review: Unconscious Behavioral Guidance Systems

Bargh and Morsella’s collaborative work provides more introspective feedback on the

unconscious behavior. With the background previously presented by Bargh’s research, this

collaborative work provides more insight as to how behavior is controlled by the unconscious.

Bargh and Morsella also includes a figure following the steps of the unconscious guidance

system which is said to be automatic and greatly influences various aspects of behavior. To

conclude the credibility of this source, this source has been updated frequently as new empirical

research is done. This is evidently shown in the Authors note as well as in text citations that

features the researcher, Bargh, has done with respective collaborators in other studies. Below is

Bargh and Morsella’s figure as stated above regarding the steps the unconscious guidance

system:


Review: The Flexible Nature of Unconscious Cognition

This study designed by Wokke and respective collaborators in The Flexible Nature of the

Unconscious is to illustrate the flexibility of the human conscious. This is evidently shown in

their research where the unconscious is said to be adaptive in a process of trial and error basis.

Researchers provided a detailed explanation of the experiment that can be used to prove its

possible validity in their research as well as its possibility to be replicated. Below is a snapshot of

the experimental design and behavioral results taken from the study:

There are many perspectives on how personality, behavior, social attitudes, and

perception are influenced. Psychoanalysts argue that personality and behavior is shaped by

unconscious forces such as hidden and maybe long forgotten memories, desires, and motives,


thus, personality and behavior should be studied by looking into the psychoanalytical perspective

of the conscious. Behaviorists, contend that behavior and personality should be studied not from

the inside but the outside, as such in order to understand personality and perceived behavior,

observations must be made by how an organism behave in an external environment. Humanistic

perspectives point out that humans are superior organisms by possessing the ability of free will

and individualism. Cognitive psychologists assert that aside from the external environment

shaping personality, learning plays a vital role into shaping behavior and personality. Biological

and evolutionary perspectives strongly agree that genetics and evolution shape personality and

behavior by having the programmed or innate need to survive and adapt.

Behavior and personality, cognitive psychologists insist, is shaped by learning and

perception, each connected by a common representation that is transforming and expanding over

time. It seems that there is enough evidence to conclude that organisms tend to associate similar

situational concepts and react the same way, however this does not mean that they will continue

to react the same way every time. What Wokke and many of the psychologists previously

mentioned clarifies, is the uniqueness of humans. They believe that everyone has a free will and

the ability to make decisions, therefore they can choose to follow what they think is right without

others passing wrongful judgment to explain their behavior because not all observation is as

accurate, only to some extent. Each source provided above brought many enlightening insight

regarding the human psyche, leading her closer to finding a true link between unconscious

behavior and relationship personality by the principle that the unconscious respond in a similar

way through “cognitive” or “phenomenal” concepts.

In light of the student researcher’s study of the unconscious behavior and relationship

personalities, she designed a survey by which she administered online. This survey consisted of


questions that were similar in “concept” such as a person’s loyalty to a favorite band or fandom

and their belief of their loyalty to loved ones. She also analyzed the results of her survey to

examine Wokke and Bargh’s theory that because the human mind is ever changing, previous

research may not always be invalid as new research is proposed. In terms of individuality, as

proposed by humanists, she especially payed careful attention to the unique responses of her

examinee’s personality.

Primary and Secondary Questions

Primary: Is there a link between unconscious behavior and relationship personalities?

Secondary: Is mere observation sufficient to explain the reason behind a person’s behavior?

Methodology

How often a person change phones may just determine how loyal a person will be to a

future spouse. Intrigued by the possible relationship, the student researcher decided to conduct a

research on the human psyche to determine whether there is correlation between a person’s

unconscious preferences as opposed to their projected behavior in similar every day scenarios.

As such, her research will lead not only the student researcher and reader to a better

understanding of the human conscience, but also introduce the importance of introspection. This

process essay will therefore, discuss steps she will undertake prior to conducting her research

through the distribution of surveys.

Upon the preparation of her research, the student researcher decided to begin her research

by conducting a survey. She first formulated a series of questions and created a questionnaire on

an online platform called “google forms”. The questions she had included are as listed: the


surveyor’s age, gender, relationship status and a series of introspective questions that are

interrelated (e.g. the question “Are you loyal to your special someone” corresponds to the

question “Are you loyal to your favorite band”). The structure of her survey includes a few open-

ended questions and variety of multiple-choice questions varying from yes or no answers and

rating scales (see Figure 1.1 and 1.2 in the appendix section). To accommodate future surveyors,

she also included options such as I do not know, prefer not to answer, and not in a relationship

for questions inapplicable to the survey taker. She also established her purpose in her survey to

clarify her intent and her hopes upon the succession of her research (see figure 2.1 and 2.2). She

then had her friends test her survey before posting it up in her English Composition class’s

shared pilot survey. The student researcher then waited for a week or two to gather feedback

from her peers, revised a few questions that needed clarity (questions such as the years married

for the surveyor with the response “Yes, I am married”) as well as included more questions for

optimum results. The student researcher then uploaded the final revision of her survey link on

her class’s shared document for more feedback and convenience of her first test subjects.

The next step the student researcher will undertake is the distribution of her survey. She

will administer her survey online, sending the link on her class’s shared document even utilizing

the social media by randomly sending the survey link to her Facebook friends as well as her

twitter followers. Because of the uneven population the genders as well as the age ranges, she

decided to pull out 10 random responses from both genders while keeping in mind the variety in

the age gaps. Prior to selecting random responses on both genders, she will evenly divide the

responses to those who responded being “in a relationship” as well as those who are “not in a

relationship” respectively. To prove the validity of the student researcher’s findings, the steps

mentioned above may be followed to reproduce the same results.


Findings, Analysis, and Critique

Loyalty

Although 97 percent of the participants who responded “yes” to the question: “Do you

consider yourself loyal to your special someone”, only 62 percent of the same participants

responded they were loyal to their favorite band or fandom (see Figure 3.1 and 3.2 in appendix).

Sixty percent is large enough to conclude a strong correlation between relationship personalities

and displayed behavior however, this does not mean everyone will act the same way in the same

situation.

Commitment

Likewise, when asked to rate the frequency of how often the participants changed their

phones and how often they changed crushes, 92 percent those who responded “Never” or

“Rarely” when asked how often they changed their phones, only 64 percent responded the same

responses when asked how often they changed their crushes. However, while only 3 percent of

the same population responded they sometimes change their phones, 26 percent responded

“sometimes” when asked how often they change crushes (see Figure 4.1 and 4.2).

Personality and Behavior

Uniquely, when asked from the beginning of the survey to answer honestly, 30 percent of

those who responded they were a sloppy eater, only 20 percent honestly responded they were

also sloppy kissers. Although a survey may not guarantee accurate results these responses

indicate the presence of honest participants at heart (see 5.1 and 5.2).


Credibility and Critique

To challenge the validity of the student researchers report, this experiment may be

replicated to strengthen or disregard the student researcher’s findings. The student researcher

admits there may be an inaccuracy in her findings as some of the responses in her survey were

left blank (see Figure 3.1 to 5.2) where as some responses were short of the original population

consisting of 39 participants.

Discussion

The student researcher will continue to build onto this research as she explores

deeper in the human psyche and into the field of psychology. She will continue to apply

“introspection” in her daily life as well as in her future career as a counselor and encourages

everyone to make self-reflective thinking part of their lifestyles to promote not only healthy

relationships, but also complete understanding of the self as a whole. This research report as well

as many of the sources and material she used in this study will also be available in her class’s

online website as well as compiled in a condensed E-Portfolio presentation format.

Conclusion

Association and representation, Posner writes, vary from different levels, but overall

prove that the human cognition is capable of producing multiple representations. In this study the

student researcher ventured through the inner workings of the human conscious, gathering

multiple perspectives as to how behavior and personality is shaped, conducted a survey to

examine the personality and unconscious behavior to test the validity of her literature. Behavior,

as many of the previously mentioned psychologists report, is displayed according to similar


situational perceptions. Although Bargh agrees to this contention as well, he adds that because

the human conscious is constantly evolving, previous claims should not be ruled as invalid.

Although the presentation of her findings revealed striking results to strengthen her

theory, like Bargh, she also reminds those who stumble upon her research that because the

human psyche is ever changing, this also hints that everyone may not always behave the same

way in similar situations. However as Bargh concludes in his study, she closes her research with

this: As many new research prove the previous claims invalid, this is not to say they are

inaccurate, in contrast, they are strong evidence that the unconscious is constantly changing. In

addition, observation is not enough to capture the inner workings of the human psyche; therefore,

observation may not always be accurate to explain the perceived behavior of others.


References

Bargh, J. A. (2014). Our Unconscious Mind. Scientific American, 310(1), 30-37.

Bargh, J. A., & Morsella, E. (2009). Unconscious Behavioral Guidance Systems. Then A

Miracle

Occurs, 89-118. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377798.003.0006

Boone, L. M. (2012). Subliminal: How Your Unconscious Mind Rules Your Behavior. Library

Journal, 137(9), 91.

Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (2002). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of

the mind. New York: W.W. Norton.

Shea, N. (2014). Philosophical Psychology. Using phenomenal concepts to explain away the

intuition of contingency.Vol. 27, No. 4, 553–570,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2012.730039

Weiten, W. (2014). Psychology: Themes and Variations, 9th Ed. Belmount, CA: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning

Wokke, M. E., Gaal, S. V., Scholte, H. S., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Lamme, V. A. (2011). The

Flexible Nature of Unconscious Cognition. PLoS ONE, 6(9).

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025729


APPENDIX


Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2


Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1


Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2


Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2


Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

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