abstract - aligarh muslim universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/t 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · abstract the...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY ACCOMPANIMENTS OF STRESS AND COPING AMONG DOCTORS
EXPOSED TO HIGH HEALTH RISK CONDITIONS
ABSTRACT
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
Sottor of $ljilo£;opt)j> IN
^gptljolosp ^K
-y-^^f 4
BY
K A RUN A SINGH
Cir*.^. Under the Supervision of
Professor Akbar Husain
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
1998
![Page 2: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
![Page 3: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
ABSTRACT
The present study was designed to investigate the
social and personality accompaniments of stress and coping
among doctors exposed to high health risk conditions.
Doctors not only experience stress within their work
environment, but also they perceive social and family role
stress. Doctors who are exposed to high health risk
conditions (e.g. anaesthetists,, gynecologists, ophthalmo
logists and surgeons) are somewhat more apt to report
situational stressor than, the physicians.
The main objectives of the present study were: (1)
To determine the relationship between perceived stress
effects and hardiness, perceived stress effects and psycho
logical well-being among anaesthetists, gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons. (2) To determine the
relationship between coping and hardiness, coping and
psychological well-being among anaesthetists, gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons.
The bulk of research exists which suggests that
doctors are highly stressed due to the effect of surgical
stress and they suffer from psychological, psychosomatic,
and physical problems. A large number of studies on
personality and social correlates of stress, and of coping
![Page 4: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
have been reviewed in chapter two.
The present study was conducted on a sample of 200
doctors representing to anaesthetists, gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons. Each group consisted of 50
doctors. Perceived stress effects scale, hardiness scale
psychological well-being questionnaire and COPE scale were
used in the present study. After establishing rapport with
the subject, the investigator collected data individually
in two sessions either at their residence or the workplace.
Keeping in view, the nature of the problem the data
were analysed by means of Pearson product moment correla
tion method, Z coefficient of correlation, partial correla
tion, and multiple correlation.
The findings of the study were:
Perceived stress effects scores were positively corre
lated with hardiness among anaesthetists, gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons.
Perceived stress effects scores were negatively related
to psychological well-being scores among gynecologists,
ophthalmologists, and surgeons.
Significant negative correlation coefficients were found
between coping and hardiness scores among gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons.
![Page 5: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
significant positive relationship existed between coping
and psychological well-being scores among anaesthetists,
ophthalmologists, and surgeons.
Significant negative relationships were found to exist
between psychological well-being and hardiness among
anaesthetists, gynecologists, ophthalmologists and
surgeons.
Significant difference existed only in one comparison
i.e., between the ophthalmologists and surgeons in the
relationship scores of perceived stress effects with
hardiness.
Gynecologists, ophthalmologists, and surgeons have
scored significantly higher than the anaesthetists in the
relationship scores of perceived stress effects with
psychological well-being. Surgeons scored significantly
higher than the ophthalmologists in the same relation
ship scores.
Significant differences existed between anaesthetists and
ophthalmologists, anaesthetists and surgeons, gyneco
logists and ophthalmologists, gynecologists and
surgeons, in the relationship scores of coping with
hardiness.
Ophthalmologists and surgeons have scored significantly
higher than the gynecologists in the relationship scores
of coping with psychological well-being.
![Page 6: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
The partial r between perceived stress effects and
hardiness were found to be significant among anaesthe
tists and surgeons, when the variable of psychological
well-being was partialled out. The partial correlation
between perceived stress effects and psychological well-
being was found to be significant among anaesthetists
when the variable of hardiness was partialled out. The
partial correlations between hardiness and psycho
logical well-being were found to be significant among
anaesthetists gynecologists, and surgeons, when the
variable of perceived stress effects was partialled out.
The partial correlations existed between coping and
hardiness among ophthalmologists and surgeons, coping
and psychological well-being among gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons, hardiness and
psychological well-being among anaesthetists gyneco
logists, ophthalmologists, and surgeons, when the
variables of psychological well-being, hardiness and
coping were partialled out.
Multiple R existed significantly positive when the
perceived stress effects scores were correlated with
hardiness, and psychological well-being scores among
anaesthetists gynecologists, ophthalmologists and
surgeons.
![Page 7: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Multiple Coefficient of Correlations indicated that the
coping scores correlated significantly positive with
hardiness and psychological well-being scores among
anaesthetis-hs, gynecologists, ophthalmologists and
surgeons.
![Page 8: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY ACCOMPANIMENTS OF STRESS AND COPING AMONG DOCTORS
EXPOSED TO HIGH HEALTH RISK CONDITIONS
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
Boctor of $ljilo£ioptip IN
^gpcljologp
BY
KA RUN A SINGH
Under the Supervision of
Professor Akbar Husain
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
1998
![Page 9: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
-i , ,^. ^^ r^
' i ^ ,
T5125
![Page 10: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Dedicated to my parents
and parents in-law
![Page 11: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
C O N T E N T S
Page No,
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Chapter One INTRODUCTION
Chapter Two REVIEW OF RELEVANT STUDIES
Chapter Three METHODOLOGY
Chapter Four RESULTS
Chapter Five DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDICES I. Personal Data Sheet
II. Perceived Stress Effects Scale
III. Psychological Weil-Being
Questionnaire.
IV. Cope Scale
V. Hardiness Scale
1 - 3 1
32 - 66
67 - 71
72 - 85
86 - 94
95 -106
I
II - IV
V - VI
VII - IX
X - XIV
![Page 12: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
C E R T I F I C A T E
The present thesis entitled "Social and Personality
accompaniments of Stress and Coping among Doctors exposed
to High Health Risk Conditions" submitted by Mrs. Karuna
Singh for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
A.M.U., Aligarh is a record of bonafide research work done
under my supervision. The thesis is quite fit for
submission to the examiners for evaluation.
( AKBAR HUSAIN )
Research Supervisor
![Page 13: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Prof. Akbar Husain for his
able guidance and suggestions as research supervisor to
this present work. He was very helpful throughout writing
the chapters for this thesis.
A special acknowledgement is due to Late Prof. Afzal
Kureshi, who first introduced me to the area of Stress and
Coping research. As a resarch supervisor and valued
teacher/ he was not only responsible for my involvement in
this area but also has greatly influenced my thinking
regarding issues related to life stress.
I would like to thank Prof. Qamar Hasan and Prof.
(Mrs.) Hamida Ahmad, Chairperson for encouraging my work
and so freely sharing with me their time and ideas.
I would like to express a special note of gratitude
to the doctors who acted as subjects for this study. They
spent more time at the room and at home while preoccupied
with the profession as the caregiver
My husband, Dr. Sushil Kumar Raghav has always
provided me with the support I need. He provided me love
and affection in a way that allows me to meet my own needs
as a wife, and researcher. The hours, minutes and days of
my life are filled with the encouragement, support and love
![Page 14: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
of my parents and family members who have sacrificed for
me.
My friend Syeda Humaira Siddiqa was also very
helpful and provided insightful suggestions to the research
work. Hina Siddiq, Rehana Ahmad* Rizwana Nawab, Seema
Goyel and others are not one time friends of a lifetime
but there is a special place for them.
Mr. Badar Afroz and Mr. Shariq Ahmad should also be
acknowledged for typing the manuscript and providing the
books related to the topic.
( KARUNA SINGH )
![Page 15: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
Many kinds of stressors exists in modern world and
significantly contribute to various harmful experiences and
symptoms among almost every human being. The effects that
seem to be related to stress include feelings of anxiety,
depression, inadequacy, hostility and frustration. People
who react poorly to stressful events and acknowledge that
they cannot cope with such events or function effectively
when they face them, frequently add other harmful effects
may be related to their work, family or society to their
already overburdened lives. This refers that they are not
able to face stressful conditions or their reactions to
stress in poor. Pestonjee (1987) has noted that it is a
natural and healthy thing to maintain optimal level of
stress and opined that success, achievement, higher
productivity and effectiveness call for stress.
The present study examine how the doctors who lives
in a highly stressful set of conditions at home, at work,
or society can accept and successfully cope with stress
that they cannot eliminate. The main premise of this study
is that high health risk conditions (Stressful conditions)
do not exists in their own right but vary significantly in
![Page 16: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
relation to the perceptions and cognitions of those doctors
who react to these conditions.
A surgeon at work in the operation room is under so
much stress that his or her pulse rate goes up by an
average of 50 beats per minute. But this is fortunate,
since none of us wants to be operated by a doctor who is
too relaxed or easy going at such crucial moments.
Successful doctors channelize their stress into construc
tive energy and creative power. Stress shares the symbol
for danger and symbol for opportunity. It means that
stress has a potentiality for both destructive and
constructive use of energy. If stress is perceived and
managed poorly, it can lead to grief, disease, and
premature death, and as a result affect health and well-
being of the organism. On the other hand, the correct use
and management of stress can actually lead to a longer,
healthier and happier life.
Stress; Concepts and Definitions
Over six decades ago, Hans Selye(1936) - the father
of stress wrote his first article on the subject. Since
then, thousands of articles and books related to stress
have been published. Yet, the meaning and definition of
stress is still not clear partly of the confusion is
![Page 17: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
endangered by the wrong adaptation of term drawn from the
discipline of science and engineering. One definition of
stress in physics is "an applied force or system of force
that tends to strain or deform a body". The resultant
deformation of the body (or object) is called "strain".
Selye (1956) was the first person who used the term stress
biologically and he inadvertently applied it to the
reactions of the body. Rees (1976) has pointed out that
Selye admitted himself that he should have called the
reaction "strain", so that it would agree with the physics
use. Selye coined the term stressors for the causative
factors. Hence Selye's "stressor" is the equivalent of the
"Stress" of physics. Currently the term "stress" used to
refer both the cause and the effect by the researcher.
There is a second problem with usual definition of the
stress. Morse and Furst (1979)'defined "Stress is a mental
or emotional disruptive or disquinting influence distress".
This definition and most people's concept is that stress is
a negative or disruptive outcome. Selye has also pointed
out that there are positive as well as negative aspects of
stress.
The physics terms of "pressure" and "tension" have
also been used as synonymous for biological stress. In
physics, pressure has been defined as, "a force applied
over a surface, measured as force per unit of area". One
![Page 18: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
common - place, biological definition of pressure is, "a
burden seem, distressing (Morse & Furst, 1979) or weighty
conditions." This definition of biological pressure is
similar to the negative, external - force concept of
biological stress.
One physics definition of tension is, "a force
tending to produce elongation or extension." In physics,
tension is the external force but in biology it is the
reaction of the body. There are three types of biological
tensions. 1. Mental tension. In the state of "mental",
"nervous", or "emotional" tension, a person is "keyed-up"
and has feelings of uneasiness and anxiety. 2. Muscle
tension. The "tense" individual is also described of being
"tensed-up" or "up-tied" the body's muscle are pressured to
be in an extreme state of contraction and are "called or
bracing for action", but no action takes place to relieve
the stress. The correct meaning of muscle tension refers
to be partial contraction of the supporting muscle of the
body that maintained a state of muscle tone. This partial
contraction is important for body stability and posture.
Under stressful conditions, the entire body's muscle are
not over contracted, but certain muscle groups can show
partial contraction. This often occurs along with strong
condition such as anger, frustration, hate, worry, fear and
anxiety. The partial contraction closes down blood vessels
![Page 19: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
and causes nerves to be over reactive. The end result is
muscular pain most commonly affected areas are the scalp
"tension headache", the jaws (Myofacial pain), the neck and
shoulders ( a pain in the neck or shoulder ache ) and the
lower back (backache). 3. Visceral tension. This term
apparently relates to the reaction of viscers (e.g., the
heart, the lungs, the blood vessels, the kidneys) to
stressful stimuli.
Morse and Furst (1979) opinionated that pressure and
tension are currently used as biological terms. Although
it would be more correct to use the terms stress and
"stressor" as Selye does - for the "stress response" and
the causative factors for the body's reactions.
The term stress has been used to refer to a variety
of phenomena and it relates to individuals. The term
stress has been defined in numerous ways. Stress has been
conceptualised in at least four different ways. Psycholo
gists have defined the term stress as (a) stimulus based
definitions (b) response based definitions (c) intervening
process definitions, and (d) the more comprehensive
combination of all the three.
Stimulus based definitions
The focus here is on stimuli or situations that
typically disturb or disrupt the individual. For example,
![Page 20: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Kahn, Wolfe, Quninn, Snoek and Rosenthal (1964) defined
stress as an event or something that places demands on the
individual. Holmes and Rahe (1967) and Holmes and Masuda
(1974) defines stress as a class of stimuli or situation
that typically require adaptation or ready like marriage,
birth of a child, divorce, death of a loved one etc.
Stimulus based definition of stress have been criticised on
the following ground. That is, people respond differently
to the same potentially stressful situation (Cox, 1978;
McGrath, 1970).
Response based definitions
The focus here is on the state or condition of being
disturbed. Selye (1956) defined stress as the non-specific
response of the body to any demand placed upon it. The
demand ranged from initially physical to psychological and
social demands later. From this point of view, a wide
variety of environmental events, known as stressors can
produce the same stress response syndrome. Lazarus (1966)
maintains that stress occurs when there are demands on the
person which tax or exceed his adjustment resources.
Zimbardo (1988) defined stress as the pattern of specific
and non-specific responses an organism makes to stimuli
events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its
ability to cope" (p.496). Everly (1989) claimed that
![Page 21: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
stress was physiological response. This approach has the
potential for diflecting the problem associated with
stimulus based and intervening process definition of
stress.
A problem with a physiological response based
definition of stress is that the defining physiological
response or response pattern may be associated with various
conditions, for example, passion, excessive fear, etc- that
for other reasons we may not want to regard as comparable.
For instance, the various physiological conditions vary in
their psychologicl significance (see McGrath, 1970). In
general people are motivated to seek and prolong pleasur
able conditions, such as passion, joy, etc. whereas they
are motivated to avoid or terminate unpleasant conditions
like fear, anger etc.
One way of dealing with the problem of defining
stress solely in terms of physiological response of solely
in terms of affective responses is to distinguish between
physiological stress and psychological stress. Physio
logical stress is defined as a physiological condition
from which relief is needed for the organism's physio
logical well-being. Lack of food, oxygen etc.
![Page 22: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Int.erveninq process definitions
This approach focus on some kind of process that
occurs in between the simulus situation that impinges on
the individual and the potential response of the individual
to that situation. Wolff (1968) described stress as an
inherent characteristics of life. He also eluded to the
individualitic nature of stress, giving considerable
importance to the idea that different stressors will have
different meanings for different individuals in line with
his past experiences and his personal characteristics. Cox
(1978) and McGrath (1970) define stress as the imbalance
between the perceived demands placed on an individual and
his or her perceived capability to deal with the demands.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define stress as an encounter
with the environment that is appraised by the individual
as taxing his or her resources and endangering his or her
well-being.
A major criticism of intervening process definition
of stress is that they focus primarily on external
stressors whereas they give short shift to internal
stressors, such as disturbing thoughts, desires, memories
etc. Another problem with these approaches is that they do
not readily accommodate the possibility that a disposition
to respond to some stressors may be hard wirded or built
![Page 23: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
into the organism (Zajonc, 1984). A person's response to
such stressors may be influenced little by the persons
perceived resources or capability to deal with them.
Finally, it is more difficult to measure stress in terms of
the intervening process.
There is also a considerable debate among stress
researcher about how to adequately define stress.
According to Lazarus (1966) stress cannot be objectively
defined. He suggests that the way we perceive or appraise
the environment determine whether stress is present or not.
More specifically, stress is experienced when a situation
is appraised as exceeding the person's adaptive resources.
Appearing in the job interview may create stress for some
people and merely present a challenge for others. Singer
(1980) has also pointed out, there is still only limited
agreement among researchers regarding the definitions of
stress. Stress has been used to cover a number of dimen
sions ranging from stimuli or stressors that lead to
changes in the organism to the outcome of such stimuli and
the emotional state or experience accompanying a changing
social or personal situation (Levine & Scotch, 1973).
McLean (1979) concluded that stress is neither a
stimulus, nor a response, nor an intervening variable, but
rather a collective term which deals with any demands that
tax the system (physiological, psychological or social) and
![Page 24: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
10
the response of that system to the taxing demands.
Coping! Concepts and Definitions
The word coping has two meanings in literature. The
term has been used to denote the way of dealing with stress, or
the effort to master conditions of harm, threat or
challenge when a routine or automatic response is not
readily available (Lazarus, 1974). Coping is also related
to the quality and intensity of emotional reactions
(Lazarus, 1974). According to Lazarus and Launlier (1978),
coping is the "efforts, both action-oriented and intra
psychic, to manage (i.e. to master, tolerate, reduce and
minimize, environmental and internal demands and conflicts
among them which exceeds a person's resources". McGrath
(1976) believed that an array of covert and overt behaviour
patterns, which can help prevent, alleviate or respond to
stressful experiences, is known as coping.
The responses that individuals employ to deal with
psychological stress have been termed defenses or coping
responses. Sometimes both terms have been used, the term
defense been used for responses with certain features and
the term coping for responses with other features (Haan,
1969). The term defense has been used primarily with
regard to a fairly narrow set of cognitive responses and is
tied to psychodynamic theory. The term coping has the
![Page 25: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
11
advantage of being applicable to wider array of responses
and has not been linked to a particular theory.
Investigators have employed two different approaches
to the study of coping. On the one hand some researchers
(e.g., Byrne, 1964; Goldstein, 1973) have emphasized
general coping traits, styles or dispositions, while on the
other some investigators (e.g. Cohen & Lazarus, 1973; Katz
et al., 1970; Wolf & Goodell, 1968) have preferred to study
the active ongoing strategies in a particular stress
situation.
Dewe and Others (1979) define coping as an indivi
dual's attempted response to reduce feeling of discomfort.
To Burke and Wier (1980), coping process refers to "any
attempt to deal with stressful situations when a person
feels he must do something about, but which tax or exceed
his existing adaptation response patterns." Maddi and
Kobasa (1984) discuss two forms of coping: (1) Transforma
tional Coping involves altering the events so they are less
stressful. To do this, one has to interact with the events
and by thinking about them optimistically and acting toward
them decisively, change them in a less stressful direction.
(2) Regressive approach to coping includes a strategy
wherein one thinks about the events pessimistically and act
evasively to avoid contact with them. Kobasa (1979) stated
that when stressful events occur hardy people do experience
![Page 26: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
12
them as stressful - but also a somewhat interesting and
important (commitment) atleast somewhat influential
(control), and of potential value for personal develop
ment (Challenge).
Houston (1986) proposed the more extensive classi
fication system that can be applied to stimulus, process,
or other response based definitions of stress. Houston
defined coping as a response or responses whose purpose is
to reduce or avoid psychological stress (negative
feelings). It is pointed out that such responses may or
may not be successful in reducing psychological stress, for
instance,attempting to distract one's self in the waiting
room of the operation theatre may not succeed in reducing
one's apprehension. Moreover, coping responses may not be
successful in the short run, but may be successful in the
long run. For example, newly learned social skills
training used when interacting with a maladjusted person
may require time and practice to have their intended
effect. Similarly, a coping response may be successful in
the short but not in the long run. The wishf ulf illing
thought on the part of an terminal patient that a cure will
soon be developed may reduce psychological stress for a
time.
There are three criteria by which the adaptiveness
or maladaptiveness of coping behaviour can be judged.
![Page 27: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
13
(A) How realistic the coping behaviour is?
(B) How acceptable is it to others7 ft
(C) What are the short- and long- term consequences of
it other for other areas of functioning^ k
People employ coping responses with or without being
aware of doing so. Some authors state that responses must
be consciously employed in order to qualify as coping
responses (see Stone & Neale, 1984). It seems reasonable
that, like many overlearned behaviours, people may engage
in habitual coping responses without being aware that they
are doing so. Moreover, there is reason to believe that
some cognitive coping behaviours occur without awareness
(See Erdeiyi, 1979) .
Houston (1986) has classified varieties of coping
responses that occurs within-organism coping responses and
overtaction - or><.ented coping responses.
There are three types of covert within-organism coping
responses, focusses on cognitive problem solving, cognitive
control of negative affect, and facilitating other coping
responses. Another classification refers to coping
responses that can be directly observed. Three types of
overt action-oriented responses can be distinguished
those that focus on the aversive situation, on negative
feelings, and on coping. Within each classification,
several types of coping responses are included.
![Page 28: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
14
Coping Styles and Strategies
Psychologists have identified several strategies to
cope with the stress but they may all be classified in two
categories, namely, active approach and passive approach.
Lazarus (1975) suggested two categories of coping. Viz.,
"direct action" and "palliative modes". Direct action
deals the behaviour or actions which are performed by the
organism when it is in the face of stressful situation.
Palliative approach of coping refer to those thoughts or
actions which purport to relieve the organism of any
emotional impact of stress.
Pareek (1977) proposed two types of coping
strategies which people oise as the waysof dealing with stress.
One way is that the person may decide to suffer, accept or
deny the experienced stress or put the blame on somebody
(self or others) for being is that stressful situation.
These are passive or avoidance coping strategies and are
termed as "dysfunctional" styles of coping. Another way is
that the person faces the stress consciously and takes
action to solve the problems themselves or with the help of
other people. These are active approaches of coping and
are termed as "functional" style of dealing with stressful
situations.
![Page 29: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
15
In general, dysfunctional modes of coping may be
damaging when they prevent essential direct action, but may
be extremely useful in helping a person maintain a sense of
well-being, integration or hope under conditions otherwise
likely to encourage psychological disintegration.
Pareek (1983 b) has proposed two types of coping
strategies which people generally use in order to manage
stress. Dysfunctional strategies included role rejection,
self-rejection, role partition, role elimination, role
fixation, role boundness, role prescription, role taking,
role reduction, role visibility, role atrophy, role
shrinkage. Functional strategies included role integra
tion, role negotiation, role transition, role linkage, role
clarification, role making, role slimming, role develop
ment/enrichment, resource generation and role linkage.
Wilder and Plutchik (1982) have proposed eight basic
coping styles to reduce stress: suppression (avoid the
stressor), help seeking, replacement (engage in direct
stress-reducing activities) blame (others and system),
substitution (engage in indirect stress-reducing activi
ties), mapping (collect more information), reversal (act
opposite to the way one feels), and minimization (minimize
the importance of the stressful situation. Individuals
rate their styles on a scale of 0 to 100. Then, they
review functionality and dysfunctionality of these styles
![Page 30: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
16
for different situations. [Maddi and Kobasa , 1984 see
pp.13-14] .
Folkman et al. (1986) have suggested eight coping
strategies based on factor analysis of an instrument:
confrontive coping, distancing, self-control, seeking
social support, accepting responsibility^ escape avoidance,
planful problem solving and positive reappraisal.
Borrowing from Rosenzweig, Pareek has suggested two
contrasting sets of strategies which can be conceived as
avoidance and approach. Avoidance mode is characterized by
any one of the following: (a) aggression and blame, (b)
denying the presence of stress, or finding an explanation
for it. Such a behaviour "helps" a person is not doing
anything in relation to the stress. The expression
"punitive" (borrowed from Rosenzweig) was used to denote
avoidance responses. The approach mode is characterized by
(a) hope that things will improve, (b) effort made by the
subject to solve the situation, (c) expectation from others
that they will help, or asking for help in relation to
stress, and (d) jointly doing something about the problem.
The term "persistive" (borrowed from Rosenzweig) was used to
refer for this mode.
Pareek (1993) has proposed eight coping strategies
and styles: "Impunitive"; "Intropunitive"; "Extrapunitive";
![Page 31: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
17
"Defensive"; "Impersistive", "Intropersistive"; "Extra-
persistive" and "Interpersistive". These strategies and
styles are based on an instrument known as "Role Pics" and
can be categorised into two types: dysfunctional and
functional.
The stress-strain relationship is a function of
coping strategies or mechanisms used by the individual.
Adaptive coping reduces stress and promotes long term
health whereas maladaptive coping reduces stress but
promotes long term ill-health. Positive thinking and
problem focussed responses in the face of stressors are
normally referred to as adaptive coping strategies;
negative thinking and avoidance responses are referred to
as maladaptive coping strategies (See Nowack, 1990).
Hardiness; Concept and Components
The concept of psychological Hardiness was
introduced by Kobasa in 1979. According to him psycholo
gical hardy individuals are less likely than non hardy
individuals to fall ill as a consequence of stressful life
events. Hardy personality style is a combination of three
interrelated factors, namely, cognition, emotion and action
aimed at not only survival but also the improvement of
quality of life through development. Hardiness bears a
resemblance both to "authenticity" (Kobasa and Maddi, 1977)
![Page 32: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
18
and to "sense of coherence" (Antonovsky, 1979). Kobasa
(1979) discussed the concept of hardiness in terms of the
three components viz., commitment/ control and challenge.
Commitment
Hardy individuals are high in commitment: a
"tendency to involve oneself in (rather than experience
alienation from) whatever one is doing or encounters"
(Kobasa, Maddi and Kahn, 1982, p.169). Relevant to
cognitive appraisal, commited persons have a generalized
sense of purpose that allows them to identify with and find
meaningful the events, things and persons of their environ
ment. Relevant to action, commited persons are invested
enough in themselves and their relationship to the social
context that they cannot easily give up under pressure. In
short, commited persons' relationships to themselves and to
the environment involve activeness and approach rather than
passivity and avoidance.
Challenge
Hardy individuals are high in challenge: a "belief
that change rather than stability is normal in life and
that the anticipation of changes are interesting incentives
to growth rather than threats to security", (Kobasa et al.,
1982, pp.169-170). Challenge mitigates the stressfulness
![Page 33: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
19
of events on the perceptual side by colouring events as
stimulating rather than threatening, specifically because
they are changes requiring adjustment. The challenge in
terms of coping behaviour leads to attempts to transform
oneself and thereby grew rather than conserve and protest
what one can of the former existence challenge allows the
integration and effective appraisal of exceedingly
incongruent events (cf. Moos, 1973).
Smith and others (1978) demonstrated the effective
ness of challenge. Subjects low in sensation seeking
showed a significant relationship between negative life
change and discomfort.
Control
Hardy individuals are high in perceived control: "A
tendency to feel and act as if one is influential (rather
than helpless) in the face of the varied contingencies of
life" (Kobasa et al., 1982, p.169). This implies the
perception of oneself as having a definite influence
through the exercise of imagination, knowledge, skill and
choice. Control enhances stress resistance perceptually by
increasing the likelihood that events will be experienced
as a natural outgrowth of one's actions and therefore, not
as foreign, unexpected and overwhelming experiences. In
terms of coping a sense of control leads to actions aimed
![Page 34: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
20
at transforming events into something consistence with an
ongoing life plan and is, thus less jarring. Referring to
Averill's (1973) model of stress resistance, control also
appears responsible for the development of a broad and
varied repertory of responses to stress, which can be drawn
on even in the most threatening of circumstances.
A large number of studies reported that control
emerges as having a significant mitigating influence on the
harmful effects of stressors like shock or aversive noise
(Glass et al., 1969; Lefcourt, 1976; Weiss, 1971). A study
by Johnson and Sarason (1978) reported that the college
students who believed in an internal locus of control had a
significantly lower correlation between stressful life
events and illness than did subjects who believed they were
externally controlled.
Stress, Coping Style and Hardiness
A large number of studies indicate that stressful
life events contribute to the development of physical
illness (cf. Sarason and Sarason, 1998). The correlation
between stressful life events and illness symptoms is found
low (Rabkin and Struening, 1976). Hardiness is a persona
lity characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress
related illness. This is one of the moderator variable
which has been a major aspect of the recent development of
interest in the role of personality factors in physical
![Page 35: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
21
health. Gentry and Kobasa (1984) argued that the disposi
tion of personality characteristics composing hardiness
"Mitigates the potential unhealthy effects of stress and
prevents the organismic strain that often leads to illness"
(p. 99).
Considerable research indicates the positive effects
of hardiness, comparing hardy and non hardy persons'
reports of illness, in response to high levels of stress.
As predicted by Kobasa's (1982) Model, the results have
generally showed that hardy persons report less illness
than do non hardy subjects under conditions of high life
stress (Hull et al, , 1987; Kobasa, Maddi & Courington,
1981; Kobasa, Maddi & Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi & Puccetti,
1982; Kobasa, Maddi, & Zola, 1983; Kobasa & Puccetti,
1983) .
Most of us cope with stress in a characteristic
manner, employing a "Coping Style" that represents our
general tendency to deal with stress in a specific way.
Among those who cope with stress most successfully are
people with a coping style that has come to be called
hardiness. People with hardier personality styles are
better able to cope with stress than those with less hardy
styles (Allred & Smith, 1989).
![Page 36: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
22
Relation of Hardiness to Health
The relationship between hardiness and health is
well illustrated by Kobasa (1979) through the buffering
effects of hardiness. Hardiness was originally conceived
by Kobasa (1979) to improve health by existing as a buffer
of stressful life events. The highly stressful environ
ment, hardy individuals are supposed not to fall ill
because of their feelings of commitment, control and
challenge. The buffering role of hardiness is illustrated
in Figure adapted from Kobasa and Puccetti (1983).
Stressful
Life Events Strain > > illness
Personality Successful
Hardiness " ^ Coping
Use of Social
Resources
Figure 1. The Buffering effects of Hardiness:
Kobasa & Puccetti (1983).
Kobasa has also suggested a model in which the
factors involved in hardiness have direct effects of
reducing psychological strain associated with illness.
This model is illustrated in Figure 2, adopted from Kobasa
(1982 a).
![Page 37: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
23
Stressful
Life Events
+
Regressive
Coping
Commited
Personality
——> Strain
A
——> Illness
Figure 2. Direct Indirect effects of Hardiness:
Kobasa (1982 a).
Comparison of the two figures reveal very different
conceptions of the role of hardiness and its sub component
in the stress-illness relation. The first model reveals,
hardiness reducing the impact of stressful life events by
increasing the use of successful coping strategies. The
second model reveals, hardiness in the form of committed
personality decreases strain directly. It has indirect
effects by decreasing the use of unsuccessful coping
strategies. Kobasa and her colleagues conducted four
studies that tested the question of whether hardiness has
direct effects of improving health or buffering effects
under stressful conditions (Kobasa et al., 1981; Kobasa et
al., 1982; Kobasa et al., 1983; Kobasa and Puccetti, 1983).
![Page 38: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
24
Psychological Well-Beinq
This is another important personality accompaniment
which seems to be related to the stress and coping. The
importance of this variable can be gauged by the main
emphasis being led by various fields of psychology such as
clinical, community, humanistic, health, industrial and
social. These divisions of psychology have focussed their
attentions to the various aspects of human well-being like
improvement in health, confidence, ability, performance,
adjustment, interpersonal relations, home and social lives
satisfaction, pleasure and happiness and quality of life.
Historically, the roots of well-being can be traced
back to the times immemorial men have prayed "Sarve
Sukhinah bhavantu" (let all enjoy well-being). For
centuries the emphasis have been on the negative aspect of
well-being as emancipation from suffering - suffering from
the consequences of events of actions, or suffering from
the tensions of desire. Freedom from three kinds of
sufferings (tapa-traya)- physical sufferings (adhibhau-tika
tapa), psychogenic sufferings (adyatmika tapa) and suffer
ings originating from unknown forces (adhidaivika tapa)
have been emphasized in the Shrimad Bhagvat Gita. The
verses that follow dilate on psychogenic sufferings or
Kleshas, those in which human beings get engulfed by the
development of disordered (Sauri) personalities caught in
![Page 39: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
25
anxiety producing illusory fixations or attachments. The
physical sufferings involved in disease, old age and death
had moved the Buddha to look for resources for emancipation
from them. Murray (1938) has called it the need "harm-
avoidance" .
The sources of well-being are different in
childhood, adolescence, youth, adult and old age. Well-
being is also associated with the historical period in
which one lives, the part of the world to which one
belongs, nation, country, religion, occupational group,
organization and family as well as one's own personality.
People also draw a lot of well-being from those with whom
they come in contact physically, socially, intellectually
or otherwise. well-being may also be induced by qualities
of one's own behaviour or other's behaviour.
The concept of psychological well-being is difficult
to define because it is concerned with an individual's
feelings about his daily life experiences. These feelings
extend from extreme negative state such as worry or
unhappiness to more positive states which are not simply
state of "absence of" worry of unhappiness, but are states
which relate to sound mental health and include favourable
self-esteem and success (Berg, 1975; Herzberg, 1966;
Maslow, 1973).
![Page 40: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
26
We have been more concerned with the negative and
the positive aspects of human values. Whatever, the
emphasis whether on self-fulfilment or on self-negation,
human well-being is essentially a state not a process. The
state is primary, while the process is secondary. In fact,
any process essentially proceeds from one state to another
state, is in Lewin's (1951) words, a locomotion between two
psychic states, and constitutes what Lewin would call a
pathway of behaviour.
Well-being, is essentially an experience, although a
stimulus error often makes it appear as a state of things.
Indeed, any objective state of things, to constitute a
state of one's well-being, must be experienced by one-self
as satisfying. Rogers (1959) has emphasized man's reality
is what he experiences and perceives with a certain degree
of dependable predictability, and one's satisfaction
consists in the satisfaction of one's needs as experienced
in the field as perceived. Well-being, however, is not
merely a self based experience. It is primarily affective
and is largely of the nature of a feeling and essentially a
positive or pleasant feeling, a state of happiness or
satisfaction.
Studies of positive and negative affect in the
context of psychological well-being have been undertaken by
Bradburn (1969) who found that positive affect corresponded
![Page 41: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
27
with greater social relationships and more new experiences,
whereas negative affect was closely related to fears of a
nervous breakdown, ill health and anxiety. Bradburn's
study was replicated by Warr (1978) who used three
measures: positive and negative affect, anxiety levels and
feelings about present life.
The work on subjective well-being or psychological
well-being is carried out under the broad topic of Quality
of life. Studies on psychological well-being have become
proliferated in recent years. When being is viewed as a
harmonious satisfaction of one's desires and goals
(Chekola, 1975). According to Campbell and others (1970)
the quality of life is a composite measure of physical,
mental and social well-being. Happiness and satisfaction
involving many life situations such as health, marriage,
family, work, financial situations, educational opportu
nity, self-esteem, creativity, belongingness and trust in
others. The term like subjective well-being, happiness,
life satisfaction and quality of life are often used inter
changeably. Although the subjective well-being or psycho
logical well-being is a very important aspect of quality of
life. levi (1987) defined well-being as a dynamic state of
mind characterized by a reasonable amount of -harmony
between an individual abilities, needs and expectations and
environmental demands and opportunities. Three features of
![Page 42: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
28
subjective well-being have been identified (a) it is based
on subjective experience instead of the objective
conditions of life, (b) it has positive as well as negative
affect, and (c) it is a global experience as opposed to
experience in particular domains such as work (Okun &
Stock, 1987).
General well-being is defined as "the subjective
feeling of contentment, happiness, satisfaction with life"
experience and of one's role in the world of work, sense of
achievement, utility, belongingness and no distress dis
satisfaction or worry etc. (Verma & Verma, 1989). They put
emphasis on the term "subjective" well-being because they
attribute that the above mentioned aspect cannot be
evaluated objectively. General well-being is a part of the
broad concept of positive mental health which is not a mere
absence of disease or infirmity (Verma, 1988). Verma
(1988) opines that the absence of psychological well-being/
ill health does not necessarily mean presence of psycho
logical well-being. A person can have both conditions
poor, both conditions good or any one of them good, with
all its accompanying results.
Significance of the Present Study
Stress and coping are affected by many situational
and personality characteristics of the individuals. After
![Page 43: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
29
reviewing the available study it is well evident that
sufficient efforts have been made to examine the relation
ship between personality variables and stress, and coping
but in India, there are very few studies which examine the
relationship between psychological well-being and stress
and coping behaviour (Dua, 1990, 1993; Dua and Price, 1992,
1993). The investigator has not come across any Indian
study where the relationship between hardiness and stress,
and coping behaviour have been investigated.
The present study has been planned to find out the
relationship of stress and coping behaviour with hardiness
and psychological well-being among doctors who are exposed
to high health risk conditions. More specifically, the
purposes of the present research were:
1. To examine the relationship between percieved stress
effects and hardiness, perceived stress effects and
psychological well-being, among anaesthetists, gyne
cologists, ophthalmologists, and surgeons.
2. To examine the relationship between coping and
hardiness, coping and psychological well-being among
anaesthetists, gynecologists, ophthalmologists and
surgeons.
3. To examine the difference between anaesthetists and
gynecologists, anaesthetists and ophthalmologists.
![Page 44: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
30
anaesthetists- and surgeons, gynecologists and ophthal
mologists, "^gynecologists and surgeons, and ophthal
mologists and surgeons in the relationship scores of
perceived stress effects with hardiness, and
perceived stress effects with psychological well-
being (i.e. two Z^ Coefficients).
4. To examine the difference between anaesthetists, and
gynecologists, anaesthetists, and ophthalmologists,
anaesthetists ^"^ surgeons, gynecologists and
ophthalmologists, gynecologists surgeons, and
ophthalmologists and surgeons in the relationship
scores of coping with hardiness, and coping and
psychological well-being (i.e. two Z^ Coefficients).
5. To deterirdhe the partial correlations between
perceived stress effects and hardiness (when the
variable of psychological well-being is partialled
out), between perceived stress effects and psycho
logical well-being (when the variable of hardiness
is partialled out), and between hardiness and
psychological well-being (when the variable of
perceived stress effects is partialled out) among
anaesthetists, gynecologists, ophthalmologists and
surgeons.
6. To determine the partial correlations between coping
and hardiness (when the variables of psychological
![Page 45: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
31
well-being is partialled out), between coping and
psychological well-being (when the variable of
hardiness is partialled out) and between hardiness
and psycholgical well-being (when the variable of
coping is partialled out) among anaesthetists,
gynecologists, ophthalmologists and surgeons. r
A ,,, •; ' / . ••• ^ • > r,v....< • ^ •
To determine the multiple coefficient of 'correla
tions between scores actually earned and scores
predicted on the perceived stress effects from the
two variables - hardiness and psychological well-
being - among anaesthetists, gynecologists, ophthal
mologists, and surgeons.
To determine the multiple coefficient of
correlations between scores actually earned and
scores predicted on the coping, from the two
variables - hardiness and psychological well-being -
among anaesthetists, gynecologists, ophthalmologists,
and surgeons.
![Page 46: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Chapter Two
REVIEW OF RELEVANT STUDIES
This chapter presents the abstract of various
studies under different sections viz., personality, stress
and coping behaviour, relationship of hardiness with
stress, personality and coping, subjective/psychological
well-being and stress, situational factors and stress,
social factors and stress.
Personality, Stress and Coping Behaviour
Studies in this area, researchers have tried to
correlate stress with personality factors, group
comparisons with various correlates of stress and anxiety,
and the relationship of coping strategies with psycholo
gical distress.
Pestonjee and Singh (1981) tested the moderating
effect of locus of control on the stress and job satisfac
tion relationship in the case of 101 role incumbants of a
private electricity supply company. The findings revealed
that out of 3 coefficients of correlation between role
stress and job satisfaction variables, 50 were found to be
negatively and significantly correlated. The magnitude of
correlation ranged between + 0.17 to-0.53. Inter-role
distance correlated significantly with respect to the
![Page 47: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
33
moderator hypothesis, the authors reported no significant
difference between the stress-strain relationship for low
and high scoring groups on locus of control. Significant
differences existed in coefficients of correlations of
self-role distance with job area, on-the-job and overall
job satisfaction and of role erosion with personal
adjustment for low and medium scoring groups. Significant
differences were observed in correlations of self distance
with job area and on-the job, of role overload with social
relations, and of role isolation with personal adjustment
for medium and high scoring groups.
Uma (1981) studied psychological symptoms of
stressful life events in the case of 95 middle aged women.
The General Health Questionnaire was used to assess psycho
logical symptoms whereas a specially designed information
schedule was administered to obtain information pertaining
to health status menopausal status, social activities and
family constellation. Life stress and life satisfaction
were measured by the social readjustment scale and life
satisfaction index respectively. The findings of the study
revealed that women with and without psychological symptoms
did not differ significantly in the number of stressful
events.
Srivastava and Jagdish (1983) tested the moderating
effect of mental health on the relationship between
perceived occupational stress and job satisfaction among
![Page 48: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
34
400 first line technical supervisors. Results indicated
that the supervisor's perceived occupational stress was
correlated negatively with job satisfaction and mental
health variables. Further, the supervisor's good mental
health was found to significantly moderate the stress and
job satisfaction relationship.
Shejwal (1984b) studied the personality correlates
of stressfulness of life events. This study examined 150
middle class Hindu Adults of Pune city . who were selected
on the basis of their socio-economic status and experienced
life events. It was intended to compare the high and low
stress groups on locus of control, repression-sensitiza-
tion and anxiety. The main findings of the study were:
(a) The high stress group was found to have internal
control whereas the low stress group was found to have
external control. (b) The high stress group showed higher
sensitization tendency whereas the low stress group showed
repression tendency. (c) The high stress group showed
higher trait anxiety whereas the low stress group reported
low trait anxiety. (d) Different modes of scoring led to
difference in results. However, the results were statis
tically significant only when the total life change units
of negative events were used.
Sehgal (1985) studied the moderating effect of needs
on the relationship between stress and strain in the case
![Page 49: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
35
of supervisors. Three needs, namely, n-personal growth,
n-achievement and n-self-actualization were treated as
moderator variables to test the relationship of two types
of role stresses (role conflict and role ambiguity) with
job anxiety and job satisfaction. The findings of the
study revealed that supervisor's manifest motivation
generated by n-personal growth, n-achievement, and n-self-
actualization was correlated negatively and significantly
with role stresses and job anxiety. Role stresses were
associated positively and significantly with job dissatis
faction and job anxiety. The relationship between job
satisfaction and work motivation was also reported to be
positive and significant. Employee's work motivation
arising from n-personal growth and n-self-actualization
significantly moderated the relationship between role
stress and job anxiety- Similarly, supervisors work
motivation pertaining to n-achievement and n-self-actuali
zation significantly moderated the relationship of role
stresses with job dissatisfaction.
Srivastava (1985) studied the moderating effect of
need for achievement and the relationship between role
stress and job anxiety. The purpose of this study was to
test whether (a) perceived role stress results in high job
anxiety among focal employees, (b) role ambiguity in
comparison to role conflict is more effective in predicting
![Page 50: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
36
job anxiety, and (c) employee's need for achievement
significantly buffers the adverse effect of role stress on
job anxiety. Results revealed that role stress correlates
positively and significantly with job anxiety and
negatively and significantly with need for achievement.
Role stresses as well as the interaction term of role
stress and need for achievement significantly affect the
level of job anxiety. Need for achievement moderated the
relationship of role conflict and role ambiguity with job
anxiety.
Kumari and Prakash (1986) investigated the impact of
life stress on mental health among 255 subjects comprising
126 males and 129 females. The results indicated that the
various age groups significantly differed in terms of the
number of life events experienced. Female subjects
experienced more life stress than male subjects. A
significant negative correlation was found between life
events score and general health score (r = -0.243),
indicating a negative relationship between life stress and
mental health.
Khanna (1986) studied life stress, anxiety and
depression with dogmatism and religiosity as moderators in
working, non-working, married and unmarried, Hindu and Sikh
women. The analysis of the data revealed that (a) working
married Hindu women were significantly high on anxiety.
![Page 51: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
37
depression, religiosity and dogmatism, (b) religiosity and
dogmatism was reported to variously moderate the relation
ship between life stress, depression and anxiety in the
case of non-working, married, unmarried, Hindu and Sikh
women. These were not found to have a moderating effect
for working women.
Pandey and Naidu (1986) studied the effort and
outcome orientation as moderators of the stress-strain
relationship among 190 male and female students. They
noted that the concept of detachment is highly valued in
Indian Culture. The findings revealed that students high
on outcome and effort - I orientation had significantly
higher mean distress scores. Further, as compared to
students low on effort - II, students high on this orienta
tion manifested greater strain. Subgrouping analysis
revealed that out of 36 correlations 15 were statistically
significant, positive and high coefficients of correlation
between stress and strain variables were reported for those
who were high on outcome. Further, there was a negative
correlation between stress strain variables for those high
on Effort - I orientation. For the high scoring group on
Effort - II orientation, overall strain was found to be
positive and statistically significant whereas it was
statistically nonsignificant for the low scoring group on
Effort - II orientation.
![Page 52: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
38
Srivastava (1986 a) tested the moderating effect of
need for self-actualization on the relationship between
role stress and job anxiety. Results indicated that role
stress was associated positively and significantly with job
anxiety. Role stress was also found to be negatively and
significantly correlated with need for self-actualization.
Role stresses as well as the interaction term of role
stress and need for self-actualization had a significant
effect on the level of job anxiety. It was concluded that
the need for self-actualization significantly moderate the
relationship between role stresses and job anxiety.
Tandon (1986) hypothesized that those who cope with
life stresses without impairing their health would be
characterized by a more positive philosophy of life and
perception of mean even while suffering. The findings
revealed that the superior health subjects (reported fewer
symptoms) had a positive self image, thought well of others,
perceived a positive meaning in suffering and believed that
prayers helped. The inferior health group (reported more
symptoms) perceived good as being capricious and unjust,
believed more in external locus of control and were
harassed by negative thoughts.
Tiwari (1986) studied the role of trust as a
moderator of the relationship between stress and health.
She predicted that trust would reduce the impact of
![Page 53: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
39
stressful events and would also diminish their correlation
with symptom scores. The results showed that trust had
some moderating influence even when all varieties of stress
were considered. The correlation between all stresses and
symptoms was lower for high trust subjects. The moderating
role of trust emerges with greater clarity of interpersonal
stresses alone were taken into consideration. An
individual who expressed a little trust was likely to be at
the center of a web of negative relationships.
Shenoy (1987) examined the stressfulness of daily
roles, personality and mental health of 135 women represen
ting married and working, married and non-working and
unmarried but working samples. Results revealed a positive
and significant relationship between role stress and
psychological distress. However, there were no significant
differences in the scores on occupational and household
stress of married and unmarried working women. Neuroticism
scores were reported to be related to household, occupa
tional and marital strain whereas introversion was
associated with household and marital stress only. The
findings suggest that married working women were signifi
cantly less distress than housewives in spite of experienc
ing occupational stress.
Srivastava and Singh(1987) tested the moderating
effect of two coping strategies - approach and avoidance on
![Page 54: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
40
the relationship between organizational role stress and
mental health in the case of supervisor. Findings revealed
correlation between role stress and mental ill health
variables. A comparison of mental ill health scores for
avoidance and approach coping groups revealed that the
avoidance coping group scored higher than the approach
group. Differences in scores were statistically signifi
cant. Avoidance and approach coping strategies were found
to modify the relationship between role stresses and mental
dll-health. The approach coping strategies had a buffering
effect where the avoidance coping strategies extended the
intensive effect on the positive relationship between the
variables.
Pestonjee and Singh (1988) investigated the moderat
ing effect of Type-A behaviour on two types of
relationship between stresses and anger. The findings
revealed that stresses, Type-A behaviour, state and trait
anger were correlated positively and most of the coeffici
ents of correlation were statistically significant. In a
test of moderating hypothesis, the degree of relationship
of state anger with six role stress variables such as
inter-role distance, role erosion, role overload, role
ambiguity, resource inadequacy, and overall role stress was
significantly higher for Type-B managers as compared to
Type-A managers. Significant difference was not found
between role stress and trait anger for Type A and Type B
![Page 55: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
41
managers. The authors reported that Type-A behaviour
disposition moderated the form of relationship of two
stress variables, namely role stagnation and role expecta
tion conflict with state anger on the one hand, and, of
four role erosion, role ambiguity and overall role stress
with trait anger on the other.
Singh (1988) tested the moderating effect of coping
strategies on the relationship between role stress and
mental health among 300 employees of supervisory cadre of
the Lie, India. He tested the following objectives: (a)
the modifying effect of two coping strategies, namely
avoidance and approach on the relatioship between role
stress and mental health; (b) the efficacy of two modes of
coping in modifying the effect of perceived role stress;
(c) the relationship between role stresses and positive/
negative mental health; and the effect of different role
stresses on various dimensions of mental health. The main
results of the study were:
1. Role stresses correlated positively and signifi
cantly with mental health dimensions.
2. Supervisors who scored higher on role stresses
scored significantly high on mental dimensions as
compared to the lower role stress group.
3. All the 10 factors of role stress accounted for 70.4
percent of variance in mental health of supervisors.
![Page 56: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
42
Howevever, two role stress factors, namely, role
expectation conflict and role erosion accounted for
0.6 percent of variance only.
4. The 'avoidance' mode of coping was associated
positively and significantly with role stresses. On
the contrary, the 'approach' mode of coping was
correlated negatively and significantly with role
stress variable.
5. Supervisors who adopted the 'avoidance' coping
strategy scored significantly higher on mental
health dimensions as compared to those who used the
'approach' coping strategy.
6. Various dimensions of approach and avoidance coping
strategies were associated negatively with mental
health dimensions.
7. The avoidance mode of coping was found to markedly
enhance the magnitude of positive correlation
between perceived role stress and mental health.
8. The approach mode of coping markedly moderated the
degree of positive relationship between role
stresses and mental ill health.
Verma (1989) studied life stress, social supports,
and coping in individual with psychological distress. 75
subjects were selected to constitute the case group and the
another group of 75 subjects were selected to constitute
![Page 57: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
43
the non case group. These groups were identified on the
basis of the general health questionnaire for psychological
distress. Subjects in the two group were administered the
Life Stress Inventory (LSI), the Inventory for Social
Supportive Behaviours (ISSB) and the Coping Checklist
(CCL). The results revealed that the case group on an
average had a significantly greater number of symptoms than
the non-case group. Symptoms of distress in the case group
were predominantly somatic in nature, and when seen as a
constellation were indicative of sub clinical depression.
Dimensions of life stress measured were the onset,
expectancy, novelty, and subjective rating of distress. The
areas of stress explored were occupational, marital,
familial, bereavement, health, financial, social, and
miscellaneous. Both chronic ongoing stressors and acute
stressors were included in the LSI. The findings indicated
that the case group reported significantly more stressors
and perceived greater subjective distress than the non case
group. A magnification effect of subjective distress was
also observed in the case group. The case group reported a
significantly greater number of unexpected events which
were rated as negative. The significant stressors were in
the areas of marital and familial stress. No clustering of
events was seen prior to the onset of psychological
distress. Social supports were measured on the dimensions
of expectancy, sources of support duration or quantity of
![Page 58: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
44
support, and subjective rating of the quality of support
provided. The categories of support studied were emotional
support, tangible support, guidance and socialisation. It
was noted that the case group reported fewer supportive
interactions, and sought significantly less support from
the primary group and more from the secondary group than
the non-case group. The case and non-case groups did not
differ in the size of their coping behaviours. The case
group, however, tended to resort to significantly more
avoidance behaviours such as self-blame, running away from
home, returning to family of origin, and attempting
suicide. A significant effect of demographic factors on
these variables was not evident.
Adhami and Kureshi (1993) studied attitude towards
life in relation to stress among 50 Neurocirculaltory
Asthenia Patients (NCA). The results indicated absence of
relationship between stress and attitude towards life
scores on the whole, and also between stress and the
various components of attitude towards life.
Jai Prakash and Bhogle (1994) conducted a study to
identify (a) the factor structure of a measure of coping
behaviour (b) sex differences in coping style of male and
female stidents and (c) the relationship between coping and
psychological distress. Factor analysis of the coping
check-list yielded 13 factors accounting for 62% of the
![Page 59: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
45
variance. Female students used significantly more
emotions-oriented coping techniques. Psychological
distress was significantly related to use of Emotion
Oriented Coping.
Pradhan and Mishra (1995) carried out a study on
spouse support and quality of marital relationship as
correlates of stress among 50 Doctor Couples. Males as
compared to females showed higher tendency on the relation
ship between family stress and spouse support though not at
the significant level. Quality of marital relationship was
found to be related with the stress specifically with work
stress in males, but not in females. Family stress on the
other hand, was found to be related with quality of marital
relationship in both males and females.
Thakar and Misra (1995) examined the pattern of
daily hassles experienced in relation to perceived control,
social support, mental health and life satisfaction. The
dual career women reported significantly greater incidence
of daily hassles. Dual career women displayed greater
degree of life satisfaction as compared to housewives.
Older dual career women from nuclear families perceived
greater degree of control, while social support was shared
similarly across the groups.
![Page 60: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
46
Sahu and Misra (1995) explored the relationship
between life stress and burnout in female college teachers.
The mean scores obtained on the Maslach burnout inventory
and open-ended questionnaire of life stress were found to
be significant by positively related with Emotional
Exhaustion (EE) and Depersonalization (DP) but not with
Personal Accomplishment (PA). In addition results revealed
that stress experienced in family area is significantly and
positively related with EE and DP and negatively with PA,
while society related stress is found to be related with DP
only.
Relationship of Hardiness with
stress/ personality and coping
A large number of studies exist on the relation
ships between personality variables and stress. A major
aspect of personality is that which is concerned with
hardiness. The empirical evidence which relates the
hardiness and stress are rather scanty. Hardiness is a
personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of
stress-related illness and consisting of three components:
commitment, challenge, and control. Among those who cope
with stress most successfully are people with a coping
style that has come to be called hardiness. People with
hardier personality styles are better able to cope with
stress then those with less hardy styles(Allred and Smith, 1989).
![Page 61: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
47
Kobasa (1979) investigated the role of personality
as a conditioner of the effects of stressful life events on
illness onset. The author conducted a study on two groups
of middle and upper level executives. Results supported
the prediction that high stress/low illness executives
shoW/ by comparison with high stress/highillness
executives, more hardiness, that is, have a stronger
commitment to self, an attitude of vigorousness toward the
environment a sense of meaningfulness and an external locus
of control.
Kobasa, Maddi, and Courington (1981) investigated
the mediating effects of personality based hardiness
(commitment, control and challenge and constitutional
predisposition parents illness) on the stressful life
events - illness relationship the subjects were middle and
upper level managers. Results indicated that stressful
life events and constLtutional predisposition increase, but
hardiness decreases, subsequent illness.
Kobasa (1982) studied stress resistance in 157
general practice lawyer. The findings revealed that there
was no simple direct correlation found between lawyer's
stressful life events levels and their reports of diag
nostic illness. Significant relationship was found between
lawyer's stress experience and their complaints of strain
symptomatology increases in strain were significantly
![Page 62: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
48
determined by the personality characteristic of alienation
(versus commitment) and the use of regressive coping
techniques, as well as by stress levels. Social support
and exercise were not found to significantly affect the
degree of strain reported.
Kobasa, Maddi, and Kahn (1982) tested the hypothesis
that hardiness - commitment, control and challenge
functions to decrease the effects of stressful life events
in producing illness symptoms. Subjects were middle and
upper level managers who filled out questionnaires covering
a period of five years. Results support the hypothesis by
showing main effects on illness for both stressful life
events and hardiness and an interaction effect for these
independent variables.
Kobasa, Maddi, and Zola (1983) conducted a study to
examine the relationship between Type A Behaviour pattern
and personality hardiness and predicted an interaction
between them that would be influential for illness onset.
Results indicated a significant interaction effect of
illness and stressful life events. Findings confirmed
previous reports with respect to the buffering effects of
hardiness.
Kobasa and Puccetti (1983) examined personality,
Social assets and perceived social support as moderators of
![Page 63: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
49
the effects of stressful life events on illness onset.
Personality hardiness and stressful life events consis
tently inlfuenced illness scores among 170 middle and upper
level executives. Perceived Social support had its
predicted positive effect. Executives under high stress
who perceived support from their superior had lower illness
scores than those without support. Perceived family support
showed a negative effect on health when reported by those
low in hardiness. Further, social asset made no signifi
cant impact on health status.
Rhodewatt and Agustsdottir (1984) investigated the
relationships of hardiness to Type A Behaviour Pattern. A
psychiatric impairment scale, report life events for the
previous years were administered to 600 undergraduate
students. Results indicated that an accumulation of
perceived undesirable events was associated with distress
for subjects low in hardiness. The likelihood for
experiences any given event was not related to any
personality type. However, hardy individuals differed with
their low hardy counterparts in that, on average they were
more likely to perceive an event as desirable and
controllable.
Kobasa, Maddi, Puccetti, and Zola (1985) investi
gated the effects of the resistance resources of
personality hardiness, exercise, and social support on
![Page 64: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
50
concurent and prospective levels, and probability of
illness. 85 male business executives identified as high in
stressful events were tested for their resistance resources
with regard to resistance resources when there are none,
one, two or three, the level and probability of both
concurrent and prospective illness drop in a regular and
marked fashion. Estimate of relative effectiveness
indicate that hardiness is most important of the
resistance resources studied.
Singh (1985) hypothesized that people who experience
stressful life events without falling ill may possess the
three dispositions of control, commitment and challenge in
greater degree than those vulnerable to stress. In one
study of 260 executives, subjects who remained healthy in
the face of stressful situations of life were found to
possess one of the three dispositions. In another study of
259 executives, who gave information about stress and
illness over a period of two years, low hardiness subjects
reported almost twice as much illness as high hardiness
subjects.
Schemied and Lawler (1986) investigated the relative
importance of hardiness with Type A Behaviour Pattern in
affective illness in women. Although, they found a strong
stress, illness association. However, there were no
hardiness main effects nor interactions between stress.
![Page 65: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
51
Type A behaviour and hardiness was significantly associa
ted with age, educational level, and mental status.
Significant differences were not found between high
stress/ high illness and high stress/ low illness groups in
hardiness compositions.
Funk and Houston (1987) undertook a critical study
of hardiness scale's utility and validity. Besides, other
issues discussed earlier they pointed out that this scale
may assess general malajustment or neuroticism rather
anything resembling conceptual definition of hardiness. In
their opinion indicators used to measure hardiness are
perhaps better construed as tapping something similar to
general maladjustment or psychopathology. They made an
assumption that individuals who obtain high scores on the
five hardiness subscales would seem to be maladjusted,
considering that they feel alienation from self and work;
powerless, with little control over their lives; and in
need of security. The findings proved this hypothesis as
results indicated a statistically significant correlation
(p < .01) between the hardiness measure and two measures of
maladjustment. In addition, the data also indicated that
many of the effects of hardiness were not found when mal
adjustment was statistically controlled.
Hull, Treuran, and Vinneli (1987) failed to find
out the stress buffering effects of hardiness. Their
![Page 66: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
52
findings suggest that lack of commitment and lack of
control have direct effects on health because they are
psychologically stressful, and if there are any buffering
effects of commitment and control, they are in addition to
these direct effects and are situation specific.
Bank and Gannon (1988) examined the influence of
hardiness on the relationship between stressors and psychoso
matic symptomatology. They recorded the impact of
hardiness, life events, and hassels on reports of somatic
symptoms over a period of nine months. Results revealed
that hardiness tended to have additive and opposite effects
to that of stressors in its impact on symptomatology.
Subjects higher in hardiness tended to experience less
frequent stressors and to perceive the minor event they did
experience as less stressful.
Manning, Williams, and Wolfe (1988) have investi
gated the direct and moderating relationship between
hardiness, life and work stressors and a variety of health
related outcomes. Results indicated that hardiness did not
moderate the relationship between stressors and outcomes.
However hardiness was found to have significant direct
effects on emotional and psychological factors thought to
be related to personal well-being and work performance.
Hardy subjects reported high levels of job satisfaction and
fewer tensions at work, experienced a higher quality of
![Page 67: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
53
life and were less negative about life as compared to non
hardy subjects. Hardy subjects also had fewer somatic
complaints and tended to be less depressed. At the same
time hardiness was negatively related to all four measures
of life and work stress, implying that hardiness may not be
independent of life demands.
Contrada (1989) found that high hardy male subjects
displayed reduced diastolic blood pressure while performing
a mirror-tracing task. He conducted the study to explore a
relationship between type A behaviour and hardiness as
predictors of cardiovascular responses to stress. Systolic
and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and heart rate
were monitored while subjects performed a difficult mirror-
tracing task. The results showed an association between
hardiness and significantly reduced DBP responsiveness.
Rhodewalt and Zone (1989) examined whether psycholo
gical hardiness buffers people against stressful life
change through the appraisal and interpretation of life
experience. Hardy and non hardy participants reported life
events for the previous year, physical illness for the
previous six months, and current levels of depression and
rated each reported event in terms of its desirability.
Results indicated that hardiness was not associated with
the likelihood of reporting any specific life event, non
hardy subjects appraise a significantly higher proportion
![Page 68: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
54
of their life experience as undesirable than do hardy
subjects and report that each negative event requires
adjustment.
Roth, Wiebe, Fillingim, and Shay (1989) tested the
effects of exercise, participation self perceived fitness
level, and dispositional hardiness for promoting stress
resistence in a sample of 373 college student. Multiple
regression analysis revealed that neither fitness nor
hardiness provided a stress moderator effect because
neither was found to significantly interact with stress in
the prediction of illness scores. Structural equation
analysis suggested that hardiness may affect health in
directly by first influencive either the occurance or
subjective interpretation of stressful life events.
In a recent convergent discriminant validation study
Wiebe, William, and Smith (1990) used multiple measures of
hardiness and neuroticism and concluded that although these
constructs are highly correlated, they are distinct. They
found higher correlations between measures of hardiness
than their correlations with neuroticism.
Wiebe (1991) studied sixty male and sixty female
undergraduates selected from each hardiness group. They
completed an evaluative threat task that was manipulated to
influence appraisals of the task in a manner consistent
![Page 69: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
55
with hardiness theory. High hardy subjects displayed
higher frustration tolerance appraised the task as less
threatening, and responded to the task with more positive
and less negative affect than did low hardy subjects.
Although hardiness did not exert effects on heart rate (HR)
prior to evaluative threat, high hardy men displayed lower
HR during evaluative threat than did low hardy men. The
interesting finding was that hardiness had no effect among
women. These data indicate that the characteristic of
hardiness do reduce physiological arousal to stress among
men, but no generalizations is to be made to women.
Wiebe (1991) studied high and low hardy male and
female undergraduate completed an evaluative threat task
that was manipulated to influence appraisals of the tasks
in a manner consistent with hardiness theory. High hardy
subjects displayed higher frustration tolerance, appraised
the task as less threatening, and responded to the task
with the more positive and less negative affect than did
low hardy subjects. Although all subjects displayed
increased heart rate in response to the experimental task,
high hardy men displayed lower heart rate during the task
than did low hardy men. Hardiness did not influence heart
rate responses among women. Manipulation of task appraisal
revealed a similar pattern where men in the high hardiness
appraisal condition displayed lower levels of physiolo
gical arousal during the task than did man in the low
![Page 70: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
56
hardiness appraisal conditions. Appraisal manipulations
had either low effect or the opposite effect among women.
Maddi and Khoshaba (1994) examined the relationship
between hardiness and mental health. They used a newly
developed third-generation hardiness measures constituted
of 45 conceptually constructed rating scale items including
both negative and positive indicators. The pattern of
results suggested that hardiness is a general measure of
mental health and this is not an artifact of negative
affectivity, which was controlled.
In a pilot study recently conducted by Sakova and
Sykora (1995), relation between hardiness and strain under
anxiety inducing conditions was explored. Sample consisted
of 18 adults awaiting dental surgery and 32 controls who
had undergone the surgery. Individuals with less anxiety
and high hardiness displayed reduced physiological
response. However, the investigators found a higher heart
rate variability in persons with a high level of control
which they attributed to higher coping efforts.
![Page 71: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
57
Subjective / Psychological Well-being and Stress.
Earlier studies on the relationship between
subjective or psychological well-being and life stress have
focussed that the life events or life changes occured in
every individual's life. The extent of psychological well-
being depends on how much one can bear the level of stress
related to life events.
Cognitive theory explains the interactive relation
ship between cognition, affect, and behaviour. Considering
the interactive relationship between cognition and affect,
Dua argued that negative and positive feelings or affect
caused by thoughts and day-to-day experiences determined
our psychological well-being and psychological ill-health
and problems (Dua, 1990; Dua & Price, 1992).
Pavett (1986) found negative relationship between
multiple source of stress and physical and psychological
well-being of public accountants.
In order to investigate the relationship between
affect and health, Dua developed a scale which measures
negative affect and positive affect caused by thoughts and
day-to-day experiences. Dua and Price (1992) tested 86
subjects who completed the THARL Scale, and anxiety,
depressive cognition, psychological well-being, general
![Page 72: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
58
psychological health and stress scales. Results showed
that the more the stress, the more were the negative affect
due to thoughts, negative affect due to day to day
experiences, anxiety, and depressive cognition. It was
also found that high stress was associated with poor
psychological well-being and general psychological health.
High stress was also associated with low positive affect
caused by thoughts and day-to-day experiences. Stepwise
multiple regression revealed that, of the four affect
variables assessed by THARL Scale, positive affect caused
by day-to-day experiences was the best predictor of stress.
Dua and Price (1993) conducted an another study on
the same subject with a view to reducing their distress.
Subjects, who reported high distress as a result at least
one of the items on the THARL Scale nominated three
specific distress-producing thoughts related to the high
distress producing item on the THARL scale. Subjects were
divided into five groups. Subjects in the first three
groups were trained to reduce their negative thoughts,
replace negative thoughts with positive thoughts and reduce
both the negative thought and replace negative thought with
positive thought. Subjects in the fourth group underwent
placebo exposure treatment. Subjects in the fifth group
received no treatment. Negative-thought-reduction,
positive-thought-increment, and the combined treatments
were effective in reducing distress. Training produced no
![Page 73: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
59
significant reduction in anxiety, depression, and stress,
and training did not increase the overall psychological
well-being of the subjects.
Dua (1993) reported the results of a number of
studies using the THARL Scale. Studies by Dua (1993)
showed that more the stress as assessed through negative
and positive adjectives, and the more the self reported
overall stress, the more the negative feelings experienced
by the subjects. High stress, as measured through the
negative and positive adjectives, was also associated with
low positive affect but the self-reported overall stress was
not associated with positive affect.
Goyel and Sivach (1994) examined the relationship
between subjective well-being and life stress among defence
and civilian personnel of different age groups. There were
negative correlations between subjective well-being and
life stress. There was no significant difference among the
different age groups of personnel in reporting subjective
well-being. This showed that the age did not affect
subjective well-being. Occupation affected the experience
of subjective well-being of defence and civilian personnel.
![Page 74: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
60
Situational (Surgical) factors and stress;
In general, surgery is the cause of stress among
patients and doctors. Studies reported the effect of
surgical stress on belief in God and superstition, ego-
strength, perceived control and one's perception towards
surgeon.
Udupa, Khatri and Chansouria (1977) studied surgical
stress and its influence on certain bodily biochemicals in
the case of human beings. The blood of each subject was
collected one day prior to surgery and daily upto the 10th
post-operative day. Similarly, 24 hour urine samples of
each subject were collected prior to surgery and daily up
to the post-operative day. The blood samples revealed that
the levels of catecholamines on the 4th and 10th post
operative days did not differ much from the pre-operative
values. However, urinary catecholamines and choline
excretions were markedly enhanced following surgery. The
nonadrenalin excretion was more marked than adrenalin.
These observations are suggestive of enhanced sympatho-
adreno-regulatory and adrenocortical activity during the
early post-operative phase.
A series of studies conducted by Shrimali and Broota
have shown that surgery is the cause of stress among
patients and doctors. Shrimali and Broota (1987) assessed
the effects of surgical stress on belief in God and super-
![Page 75: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
61
stition among 30 major surgery patients, 30 minor surgery
patients and a matched group of 30 patients from the normal
population. The findings of the study were: (a) signifi
cant differences were observed between the major surgery
patients compared to other two groups. (b) The major
surgery patients had a higher 'belief in God' and were more
'superstitious' than the minor surgery and control groups,
(c) The major surgery patients descended post-operatively
in their level of 'belief in God' and 'superstition'.
Shrimali and Broota (1988) conducted an experiment
to assess the effect of surgical stress on Ego-strength and
perceived control on varying levels of stress groups.
Results indicated tht the major surgery pre-operative group
was significantly more 'external' than the other two
groups. There was a decrease in this 'externality' from
pre-operative to post-operative sessions. No such shift
was observed in the other two groups. The minor surgery
group was the highest on ego-strength pre-operatively,
also, both minor surgery and the control groups were
significantly higher on ego-strength than the major
surgery group.
Besides these, Shrimali and Broota (1989) also
conducted a field study to explore the effect of surgical
stress on one's perception towards surgeons. The sample
consisted of 30 minor surgery and 30 control groups with an
![Page 76: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
62
equal number of males and females. The major surgery pre
operative group was considerably higher on all the three
measures of anxiety compared to the two groups. The major
surgery patients perceived surgeons more positively than
the subjects in the other two groups.
In major surgery situations, Janis and Leventhal
(1965) have found that severity of stress increased as the
time for the ordial approached. Likewise, recovery from
the stress created by major surgery can be markedly
facilitated when a patient is given realistic expectations
before hand (Mc Donald and Kuiper, 1983).
Social Factors and Stress.
A large number of studies have been conducted to
study the relationship between social factors and stress in
cases of stress disorders. These studies indicate that
various social factors, namely socio-cultural backgrounds,
locale, sex, age, marital status, occupation etc. are
associated with stress.
Venkoba Rao and Nammalvar (1976) conducted a study
on 23 depressive patients to categorise their life events
and crises which have a bearing on psychiatric illness. A
life events scale consisting of 67 statements encompassing
10 areas, namely, health, bereavement, family and social
relationship, friends and relatives, education, occupation.
![Page 77: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
63
change of place of stay, financial and legal, religious and
natural calamities was administered. Of all the events
'bereavement' was ranked as the most important followed by
'family and social relatioship' and 'occupation'. The
clustering of life events within a short period was
significantly associated with the onset of depression.
Singh and Dubey (1977) studied 300 cases of
different stress disorders. Findings revealed that several
psycho-social factors were responsible for stress and
strain which ultimately results in precipitation of
different stress disorders like bronchial asthma,
rheumatoid arthritis and peptic ulcers.
Sharma and Dubey (19 77) examined the socio-cultural
background of hypertensive individuals and found that
several social factors like maritalf tension, economic
crisis and strained relationship were directly associated
with the incidence of hypertension.
Dubey and Sharma (1977) reported that a higher
incidence of ischaemic heart disease in urbanised than in
rural areas. Occupational status also found to be a
significant factor for differences in the relative
frequency of ischaemic heart disease.
Shejwal and Ram (1983) investigated the effect of
sex differences in the perception of stressful life events.
![Page 78: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
64
69 male and 54 female subjects were asked to rate selected
life events. It was found that there is no sex difference
in the perceived stress (readjustment) related to events
threatening personal attachment and the only exception was
the case of 'broken heart'. Males reported significantly
higher readjustment than females for this event.
Differences in the evaluation of stress by married and
unmarried person were not significant. Death of spouse and
the son/daughter leving home was perceived as more
stressful by married subjects.
Shejwal (1984a) asked 113 college students to write
about their own stressful life experiences and the ones
they had observed others experiencing. Results indicated
that 5 2 percent of the students reported stress experiences
related to confict at home and with friends. Death of
close ones was reported to be stressful by 47 percent while
23 percent experienced stress regarding curricular
activities, 18 percent experienced stress in relation to
changes in financial status while 11 percent experienced
stress in relation to plans for the future.
Shejwal (1984b) conducted a study to examine the
relationship and differences in terms of sex, age, marital
status, education, occupation and religion, on life change
unit (LCU) presenting to major life events. The findings
of this study revealed a high consensus in the mean ratings
![Page 79: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
65
and rankings of life events of different subgroups - male,
female, age below 25 years, 25 years and above, students/
non-students, Hindu/non-Hindu. The correlations ranged
from 0.9 3 to 0.97. The average of LCU for each event were
calculated and events were ordered accordingly. For
example, death of spouse required LCUs of 82, the highest
in the list, whereas change in temple activities required
the least LCUs, i.e. 21.
Jahan and Hasan (1987) compared the Indians from
Americans on stressful life events. They assumed that due
to cultural differences, an event which is highly stressful
in one society is not experienced as such in another
society. Similarly, events experienced as least stressful
in one society may be experienced as highly stressful in
another. In this study they focussed their attention on the
degree of association between the systems of weights
determined for Indian and American samples for different
time intervals and the impact of culture on experienced
stressfulness of certain life events. The analysis
revealed that the correlations for two ratings of events by
Indian and American judges were statistically significant
ranging between 0.57 to 0.82 for five time intervals.
Indian judges as compared to Americans were reported to
score significantly higher on stressful events in all the
five time intervals. Comparison of scores pertaining to
the perceived stressfulness of Individual events for
![Page 80: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
66
Indians and Americans also confirmed these findings.
Lone and Ahmad (1991) studied the effect of family
size and rural urban factors in the perception of stress.
It was found that the rural urban factor did not influence
stress scores. Large family size was associated with
stress amongst rural as well as urban background subjects.
Darboo (1993) studied stress in relation to marital
status and Menstrual disturbances among married and
unmarried women belonging to Srinagar and Aligarh. Results
revealed that significant difference was not found between
women from Aligarh and women from Srinagar. Married women
from Srinagar and married women from Aligarh differed
significantly on Stress Response Rating Scale (SRRS)
scores. Significant differences were not found between
unmarried women of Aligarh and Srinagar on SRRS.
After reviewing the available studies, it is well
evident that sufficient efforts have been made to examine
the relationship between personality, stress and coping;
relationship of hardiness with stress, personality and
coping subjective/psychological well-being and stress;
situational factors and stress; and social factors and
stress, but in India, there are very few studies which
investigate the relationship between stress, coping
behaviour and hardiness and psychological well-being.
![Page 81: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Chapter Three
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the present study is to examine the
relationship between stress and psychological well-being,
stress and hardiness, coping and Psychological well-being,
coping and hardiness among doctors.
Sample
A sample of 200 doctors was drawn from Aligarh,
Shimla and Mandi District of U.P. and H.P. states. Doctors
representefi^o four different fields of specialization
namely. Anaesthesia, Gynecology, Ophthalmology and Surgery.
There are 50 subjects in each group. The age of the doctors
varied from 26 years to 56 years. Of the four different
group of doctors the Gynecologist represented to the female
subjects where the three group of doctors represented to
xhe male subjects.
Tools
The Perceived Stress Effecs (PSE) Scale developed by
Singh (1996) was used in the present study. The PSE scale
consisted of 31 items with the 4-point rating format. A
numerical value of 0, 1, 2, and 3 was asigned to 'never',
'seldom', 'sometimes' and 'frequently' response categories
given against each item. The total score thus varies from
![Page 82: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
68
0 to 9 3 showing the lowest to the highest levels of stress
effects in doctors. The scale can also be scored areawise.
Cronbach's Coefficient alpha for the PSE scale was
found to be 0.975. The split-half reliability, correlating
to odd-even items and applying the Spearman - Brown formula
for doubling the test length was found to be 0.863.
The Cope Scale developed by Carver, Scheier and
Weintraub (1989) was used to assess coping styles and
strategies. The Cope scale comprised 30 items which
.measures 15 scales, namely active coping, planning, seeking
"instrumental social support, seeking emotional social
support, suppression of competition activities, religion,
•positive reinterpretation and growth, restraint coping
acceptance focus on and venting of emotions, denial, mental
disengagement, behavioural disengagement, alcohol / drug
abuse, and humour. There were four alternative response
categories where the subject was asked to indicate "what
you usually do when you experience a stressful event".
Psychological Well-being (PWB) Questionnaire developed
by Bhogale and Jai Prakash (1995) was used in the present
study. The PWB questionnaire comprised 28 items with the
two alternative response categories - 'Yes' and 'No'. The
PWB questicnnaire consisted of 13 factor including meaning-
lessness, somatic symptoms, selflessness, positive affects.
![Page 83: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
69
daily activity, life satisfaction, suicidal ideas, personal
control, social support, tension, wellness, general
efficiency and satisfaction. The total score gives the
estimation of the psychological well-being, i.e. higher
score, higher the psychological well-being.
The alpha coefficient and split-half coefficient
were found to be 0.843 and 0.910-respectively. Test-retest
coefficient was found to be 0.717. In terms of validiy it
correlate well, both with subjective well-being scale
(r = 0.622) and with general well-being measure (r= 0.484).
The short version of Hardiness Scale developed by
Kobasa and Maddi (1982) was used to measure the hardiness
level of the subjects. The scale contains'^12,-t 16-tand 8
items' , for measuring commitment, control and challenge
dispositions respectively. Kobasa and Maddi, stated that
the scale has a correlation of 0.89 with full scale shows
reliability coefficient Alpha of 0.86.
The responses of the subjects on the hardiness scale
were collected on a 4-points scale ranging from 'not at all
true' o 'completely true'. The response categories were
assigned codes 1,2,3,4^respectively.
The short form of control scale included in the
questionnaire contains both 4-points and 2-points response
![Page 84: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
70
items. The simple summation of these items would result in
the overweighing of the 4-points items. Therefore, to
avoid the confusion the responses to items of the control
scale were coded to have the same range as items from the
other scales. That is, the subjects either received '1' or
'4' for their responses to this scale. Thereafter, the raw
scores on the sub scales were converted into Z scores.
Since the items on the scales are negatively keyed
for hardiness, subjects falling in upper thirds (+3) were
identified as low hardy and subjects falling in lower
thirds (-3) were put in the category of high hardy indivi
duals. The subjects who got a score equal to zero were
dropped from the sample. In this way the sample size was
reduced to 197 subjects only.
Procedure
To collect relevent data subjects' level of stress
effects, hardiness, psychological well-being, and coping
behaviour were assessed through the scales. Doctors
recruited for the study were administered all the tests in
two sessions either at their residence or the work'^place.
Some of the subjects were hesitant to complete the
questionnaire and the investigator explained the purpose of
the investigation in detail. Subjects generally took one
hour time in completing all the scales.
![Page 85: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
71
Data Analysis
The data were analysed by means of
moment coorelation, Z-test, partial
multiple coefficient of correlation. p
![Page 86: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
Chapter Four
R E S U L T S
The obtained data analyzed by means of the correla
tion techniques have been presented in this chapter. To
fulfil^ the objectives of the present study the data
analyzed by means of (a) Pearson Product Moment Correla
tion method, the results of which are presented in Tables
1 - 5; (b) Z-coefficient of correlation, results are
presented in Tables 6 - 9; (c) partial correlation i and
significance of partial r are presented in Tables 10 - 11;
and multiple R are given in Tables 12 - 13.
Table 1 Pearson Product Moment Correlations: Perceived
Stress effect scores with Hardiness score.
Subjects N r-Values
Anaesthetists 50
Gynecologists 50
Ophthalmologists 50
Surgeons 50
0 . 6 0 7
0 . 5 3 0
0 . 3 8 2
0 . 7 2 7
<
<
<
<
. 0 1
. 0 1
. 0 5
. 0 1
![Page 87: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
73
Table 2 Pearson Product Moment Correlations: Perceived
Stress Effects scores with Psychological Weil-
Being scores.
Subject N
Anaesthetists 50
Gynecologists 50
Ophthalmologists 50
Surgeons 5 0
r-Values
- 0.17
- 0.73
- 0.56
- 0.79
P
> .05
< .01
< .01
< .01
Table 3 Pearson Moment Correlations: Coping scores with
Hardiness scores.
Subjects N
Anaesthetists 50
Gynecologists 50
Ophthalmologists 50
Surgeons 50
il ^
r-Values
- 0.175
- 0.304
- 0.763
- 0.720
P
> .05
< .05
< .01
< .01
![Page 88: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
74
Table 4 Pearson Product Moment Correlations: Coping scores
with Psychological Well-being scores.
Subjects N r-Values
Anaesthetists 50
Gynecologists 50
Ophthalmologists 50
Surgeons 50
0.504
0.185
0.566
0.615
< .01
> .05
< .01
< .01
Table 5 Pearson Product Moment Correlations: Psychological
Well-being scores with Hardiness scores.
Subjects N r-Values
Anaesthetists 50
Gynecologists 50
Ophthalmologists 50
Surgeons 50
^ J^
- 0 . 5 6 0
- 0 . 7 2 3
- 0 . 5 8 2
- 0 . 7 3 1
< . 0 1
< . 0 1
< . 0 1
< . 0 1
![Page 89: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
75
Table 6 Values of Z indicating the comparison between
Anaesthetists and Gynecologists, Anaesthetists ^nd Ophthalmo
logists, Anaestheti'sts and Surgeons, Gynecologists and
Ophthalmologists, Gynecologists and Surgeons, and Ophthal
mologists and Surgeons in the relationship scores of
Perceived Stress Effects with Hardiness.
•^
Comparxson Group N
r*- Anaesthetists
• (u' Gynecologists
Anaesthetists
Ophthalmologists
Anaesthetists
Surgeons
Gynecologists
Ophthalmologists
Gynecologists
Surgeons
Ophthalmologists
50 '0,60 0.69
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
S 0 . 5 3
) 0 . 6 0
0 . 3 8
0 . 6 0
0 . 7 2
0 . 5 3
0 . 3 8
0 . 5 3
0 . 7 2
0 . 3 8
0 . 5 9
0 . 6 9
0 . 4 0
0 . 6 9
0 . 9 1
0 . 5 9
0 . 4 0
0 . 5 9
0 . 9 1
0 . 4 0
0.48 > .05
1.41 > .05
0.14 > .05
0.92 > .05
1.56 > .05
2.48 < .05
Surgeons 50 0.72 0.91
![Page 90: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
76
Table 7 Values of Z indicating the comparison between
Anaesthetists and Gynecologists, Anaesthetists and Ophthalmo
logists, Anaesthetists and Surgeons, Gynecologists and
Ophthalmologists, Gynecologists and Surgeons, and Ophthal
mologists and Suregons in the relationship scores of
Perceived Stress Effects with Psychological Well-being.
Comparison Group
Anaesthetists
Gynecologists
Anaesthetists
Ophthalmologists
Anaesthetists
Surgeons
Gynecologists
Ophthalmologists
Gynecologists
Surgeons
Ophthalmologists
Surgeons
![Page 91: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
77
Table 8 Values of Z indicating the comparison between
Anaesthetists and Gynecologists, Anaesthetists and Ophthalmo
logists, Anaesthetists and Surgeons, Gynecologists and
Ophthalmologists, Gynecologists and Surgeons, and Ophthal
mologists and Surgeons in the relationship scores of Coping
with Hardiness.
Comparison Group N r r Z p
Anaesthetists 50 -0.17 0.17
Gynecologists 50 -0.30 0.31
Anaesthetists 50 -0.17 0.17
Ophthalmologists 50 -0.76 1.00
Anaesthetists 50 -0.17 0.17
Surgeons 50 -0.72 0.91
Gynecologists 50 -0.30 0.31
Ophthalmologists 50 -0.76 1.00
Gynecologists 50 -0.30 0.31
Surgeons 50 -0.72 0.91
Ophthalmologists 50 -0.76 1.00
Surgeons 50 -0.72 0.91
0.68 > .05
4.04 < .01
3.60 < .01
3.36 < .01
2.92 < .01
0.43 > .05
![Page 92: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
78
Table 9 Values of Z indicating the comparison between
Anaesthetists and Gynecologists, Anaesthetists and Ophthalmo
logists, Anaesthetists and Surgeons, Gynecologists and
Ophthalmologists, Gynecologists and Surgeons and Ophthalmo
logists and Surgeons in the relationship scores of coping with
Psychological well-being.
Comparison Group N r r Z
Anaesthetists 50 0.50 0.5 5
Gynecologists 50 0.18 0.18
Anaesthetists 50 0.50 0.5 5
Ophthalmologists
Anaesthetists
50
50
0.66
0.50
0.79
0.55
Surgeons
Gynecologists
Ophthalmologists
Gynecologists
Surgeons
Ophthalmologists
50
50
50
50
50
50
0,61
0.18
0.66
0.18
0.61
0.66
0.71
0.18
0.79
0.18
0.71
0.79
1.80 > .05
1.17 > .05
0.78 > .05
2.97 < .01
2.58 < .05
0.39 > .05
Surgeons 50 0.61 0.71
![Page 93: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
\^
N^^i'O^"^- "79 Table 10 Indicating the values of Partial r for Anaesthe
tists, Gynecologists, Ophthalmologists
Surgeons.
and
Subiects
Anaesthetists
^12.3
^13.2
^23.1
Partial r
/0.62]_
0.497
-0.554
Ophthalmologists
^12.3
^13.2
r^-, T
0.083
0.231
-0.281
^E_
<.01
<.01
<.01
>.05
>.05
>.05
Subjects
Gynecolog
^12.3
^13.2
^23.1
Surgeons
^12.3
^13,2
Too 1
Partial r
ists
-0.003
-0.052
-0.713
0.350
0.187
-0.526
P
>.05
>.05
<.01
<.05
>.05
<.01 23.1 23.1
Table 11 Indicating the values of Partial r for Anaesthe
tists, Gynecologists, Ophthalmologists and
Surgeons.
Subjects Partial r p Subjects Partial r p
Anaesthetists
12.3
Gynecologists
13.2
23.1
OE*itlHlmologi s t s
1 2 . 3
13 .2
2 3 . 1
0.14
0.25
-0.58
-0.64
-0.44
-0.48
>.05
>.05
<.01
<.01
<.01
<.01
^12.3
^13.2
^23.1
Surgeons
^12.3
^13.2
r„_ T
-0.25
-0.59
-0.57
-0.50
-0.56
-0.36
>.05
<.01
<.01
<.01
<.01
<.05 2 3 . 1
![Page 94: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Table 12 Indicating the values of multiple R_ (i.e.
Perceived stress effects scores correlated with
hardiness and Psychological well-being) for
Anaesthetists, Gynecologists, Ophthalmologists and
Surgeons.
Subjects R p
Anaethetists .725 <.01
Gynecologists
Ophthalmologists
Surgeons
0 . 7 2 8
0 . 5 6 6
0 . 8 2 4
<
<
<
. 0 1
. 0 1
. 0 1
Table 13 Indicating the values of multiple R (Coping
scores correlated with hardiness and psycholo
gical well-being) for Anaesthetists,
Gynecologists, Ophthalmologists and Surgeons.
Subjects
Anaesthetists
Gynecologists
Ophthalmologists
Surgeons
0 . 5 2
0 . 5 8
0 . 7 7
0 . 7 3
<
<
<
<
. 0 1
. 0 1
. 0 1
. 0 1
![Page 95: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
'81
The results presented in the preceding Tables may
now be described. Significant positive relationship
existed between perceived stress effect scores with
hardiness scores among anaesthetists (r =-0.607, p <.01),
gynecologists (r =-0.530, p <.01), ophthalmologists {r=
0.382, p <.05) and surgeons (r = 0.727, p <.01).
Perceived stress effects scores were significantly
correlated with psychological well-being scores among
gynecologists (r =,0.73, p <.01), ophthalmologists (r= 0.56
p<.01), and surgeons (r =0.79, p <.01). Nonsignificant
negative relationship existed between perceived stress
effect scores and psychological well-being scores among
anaesthetics (r = -0.17, p >.05).
The correlation coefficients between coping scores
and hardiness scores were found to be significantly
negative among gynecologists (r = 0.304, p <.05), Ophthal
mologists (r = -0.763, p <.01), and surgeons (r =0.720,
p <.01).. Nonsignificant correlation coefficient was found
between coping scores and hardiness scores among anaes
thetics (r = -0.175, p>.05).
Significant positive relationship were found to
exist between coping scores and psychological well-being
scores among anaesthetic'^s (r = 0.504, p<.01), ophthalmo
logists (r= 0.666, p <.01), and surgeons (r=0.615, p<.01).
![Page 96: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
82
Coping scores did not correlate significantly positive with
psychological well-being scores among gynecologists ( r =
0.185, p> .05).
Psychological well-being scores were significantly
negatively correlated with hardiness scores among
anaesthetists( r = 0.660, p < .01), gynecologist (r= 0.723,
p < .01), Ophthalmologists (r = 0.582, p < .01) and
surgeons (r = 0.731, p < .01).
Significant differences were notfound between anaes
thetists and gynecologists (Z = 0.48, p > .05), anaesthetists
and ophthalmologists (Z - 1.41, p > .05), anaesthetists and
surgeons (Z = 0.14, p > .05), gynecologists and ophthal
mologists (Z = 0.92, p > .05), gynecologists and surgeons
( Z = 1.56, p > .05) in the relationship scores of
perceived stress effects with hardiness. Surgeons scored
significantly higher than the ophthalmologists (Z = 2.48,
p < .05) in the relationship scores of perceived stress
effects with hardiness.
Anaesthetists scored significantly lower than the
gynecologists ( Z = 3.70, p < .01), ophthalmologists ( Z =
2.24, p < .05), and surgeons ( Z = 4.39, p< .01) in the
relationship scores of perceived stress effects with
psychological well-being. Surgeons scored significantly
![Page 97: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
83
higher than the ophthalmologists in the same relationship
score ( Z = 2.14, p < .05). Nonsignificant differences
existed between gynecologists and ophthalmologists ( Z =
1.46, p > .05) and gynecologists and surgeons (Z = 0.68, p
> .05) in the relationship scores of perceived stress
effects with the psychological well-being.
Ophthalmologists scored significantly higher than
the anaesthetists ( Z = 4.04, p < .01) and gynecologists
( Z = 3.36, p < .01), surgeons scored significantly higher
than the anaesthetists ( Z = 3.60, p < .01) and gynecolo
gists ( Z = 2.92, p < .01) in the relationship scores of
coping with hardiness. Significant differences were not
found between anaesthetists and gynecologists ( Z = 0.68,
p > .05), ophthalmologists and surgeons ( Z = 0.43, p >.05)
in the relationship scores of coping with hardiness.
Ophthalmologists and surgeons have scored signifi
cantly higher than the gynecologists ( Z = 2.97, p < .01);
Z = 2.58, p < .05) in the relationship scores of coping
with psychological well-being. Significant differences did
not exist between anaesthetists and gynecologists (Z = 1.80,
p < .05), anaesthetists and ophthalmologists ( Z= 1.17,
p<.05), anaesthetists and surgeons ( Z = 0.78, p >.05), and
ophthalmologists and surgeons ( Z = 0.39, p > .05) in the
relationship scores of coping with psychological well-being.
![Page 98: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
84
The partial correlations between perceived stress
effects and hardiness scores, when psychological well-being
variable was partialled out, we get partial r of 12.3 for
anaesthetists = 0.620, gynecologists = -0.003, ophthalmo
logists = 0.083, and surgeons = 0.350 as against r, for
anaesthetists = 0.60, gynecologists = 0.532,ophthalmologists
= 0.382, and surgeons = 0.7 27. The partial correlations
between perceived stress effects and psychological well-
being scores, when hardiness variable was partialled out,
we get partial r, , ^ for anaesthetists = 0.497, gynecolo
gists = -0.052, ophthalmologists = 0.231, and surgeons =
0.187 as against r _ for anaesthetists = -0.17, gynecolo
gists = -0.73, ophthalmologists = -0.56, and surgeons =
-0.079. The partial correlations between hardiness and
psychological well-being (r^^ ) were found to be -0.554,
-0.713, -0.281, -0.526 for anaesthetists, gynecologists,
ophthalmologists and surgeons, respectively, when the
variable of perceived stress effects was partialled out.
The r-o fo^ anaesthetists gynecologists, ophthalmologists
and surgeons are : -0.560, -0.723, -0.582, and -0.731.
The partial correlations between coping and
hardiness (ophthalmologists, r-2 r> - -0.64; surgeons, r,- r>
= -0.50), Coping and psychological well-being (gynecolo
gists, r,- y = -0.59; Ophthalmologists -i-j o = -0.44;
surgeons, r, „ = -0.56), and hardiness and psychological
well-being (anaesthetists r^^ , = -0.58, gynecologists r-^ -i
![Page 99: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
85
= -0.57, ophthalmologists r23^]^ = -0.48, and surgeons r23 j^
= -0.36) were found to be significant when variables of
psychological well-being, hardiness and coping were
partialled out. The partial correlations were not found to
be significant between coping and hardiness, coping and
psychological well-being when variables of psychological
well-being (anaesthetists = 0-14, gynecologists, = -0.25),
and hardiness (anaesthetists = 0.25)f were partialled out.
Multiple coefficient of correlations indicated that
the perceived stress effects scores were correlated with
hardiness and psychological well-being scores among anaes
thetists ( R = 0.725 ), gynecologists (R = 0.728), ophthal
mologists (R = 0.566), and Surgeons (R = 0.824).
Multiple R existed when the coping scores were
correlated with hardiness and psychological well-being
scores among anaesthetists (R = 0.52), gynecologists (R =
0.58), ophthalmologists (R = 0.77) and surgeons (R = 0.73).
![Page 100: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Chapter Five
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The present chapter is devoted to the discussion of
results based on the outcome of data analysis. The results
presented in the preceding chapter may be discussed here.
From table 1, one can see that we have obtained the
positive relationship between the scores of perceived
stress effects and hardiness among anaesthetists,
gynecologists, ophthalmologists and surgeons. This finding
suggests that non-hardy doctors perceived more stress
effects- Subjects scoring high on perceived stress effects
have manifested a lower amount of hardiness disposition in
their source of stress i.e. performing an operation or
administration of anaesthesia. In the case of doctors,
when stressful events occur, non-hardy doctors do
experience and perceive them as stressful. This finding
is in agreement of the previous work which has clearly
demonstrated that a person high on hardiness experiences a
lower level of stress than the one who is low in hardiness
(Kobasa, 1979; Kobasa & Puccetti, 1983).
The significant negative relationship existed
between perceived stress effects and psychological well-
being among gynecologists, ophthalmologist and surgeons.
![Page 101: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
87
The finding implies that doctors with high level of stress
effects are less likely to show psychological well-being in
the face of stressful situation. This result is in confir
mation with the findings of Goyel and Sivach (1994), Dua
and Price (1982) who found that high stress is associated
with poor psychological/subjective well-being and general
psychological health. In the case of doctors, situational
stress, occupational or job stress are of growing concern
because they lead to psychological and physical problems
for themselves and their patients.
Stress sources and effects can have a considerable
impact on a number of aspects of the psychological well-
being. Doctors can help shape the patient's sense of the
nature and seriousness of the problem (e.g. by keeping busy
to take him mind off things" or by going to professional to
"really talk things through").
Results revealed that coping scores were negatively
associated with hardiness among gynecologists, ophthalmo
logists, and surgeons (cf. Table 3). Data analysis
revealed that the more the hardiness score (i.e. nonhardy)
the less was the coping. Generally, the personality
hardiness was found to be the moderator and mediator of
stress and coping. In general, doctors do not employ
active strategies to cope with stress because of their
personality disposition i.e. nonhardy.
![Page 102: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
88
Nonhardy doctors perceived that they could not cope
effectively with stressful events because they found
themselves and the environment meaningless and threatening.
Doctors perceived themselves to be as incapable of coping
with respect to personality characteristic of nonhardy felt
that they could not live up to their own personal values
and aspirations and also felt incompetent in their role
performance; and received negative input from patients as
well as from fellow staff members. These factors when
combined lead to low feelings of self-esteem and mastery.
The significant positive relationship existed
between coping scores and psychological well-being among
anaesthetists, ophthalmologists, and surgeons (cf. Table 4).
This finding suggests that subjects scoring high on coping
have high scores on psychological well-being. Doctors
perceived coping as an opportunity for growth and good for
the psychological well-being. In the present case, it is
justified to conclude that both the variables involve a
sense of mastery for health and have control over events in
doctors lives.
Finding may also be interpreted in Lazarus and De
Longis (1983) terms concerning to coping responses and
psychological well-being. "People are rarely passive in
the face of what happens to them; they seek to change the
things they can/ and when they cannot they use cognitive
![Page 103: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
89
modes or coping by which they may change the meaning or the
situation" (p.248). This also applies on doctors. In
addition to it, doctors also employ problem-focussed coping
strategies to eliminate the stress effects associated
withthe surgical operation viz conducting successful
operation and consequently they achieve the criteria of
psychological well-being. Doctors who used more active
coping responses were likely to be most adaptive in helping
the individual deal with specific stressors (performing an
operation or administration of anaesthesia). Similarly,
institutions have social climates that promote the use of
various types of coping responses.
On observing table 5, we find that the negative
relationship existed between the psychological well-being
scores and hardiness among anaesthetists gynecologists,
ophthalmologists, and surgeons. Results suggest that
hardiness affects the psychological well-being of doctors.
The present finding can be interpreted as indicating that
the doctors do not categorise their behaviour in response
to commitment, control/ and Challenge situations, therefore,
that is why, their psychological well-being is affected.
The nonhardy doctor's psychological well-being may be
affected due to considerable stress and a person environment
misfit. Being a nonhardy personality, doctors position
without commitment, control and challenge may be
![Page 104: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
90
particularly difficult as the caregiver with the low psycho
logical well-being.
Of the Z correlation coefficients indicating the
comparison among the various groups, significant difference
existed only between the ophthalmologists and surgeons
in the relationship scores of perceived stress effects with
hardiness. Significant difference found between the
comparison groups is due to the difference in the
relationship scores of perceived stress effects with
hardiness among ophthalmologists and surgeons. The
nonsignficant differences existed between the comparison
groups indicating that the relationship between perceived
stress effects and hardiness were of equal level among the
group of doctors (cf. Table 6). Results suggest that the
variable of sex and the role performed by doctors do not
play any moderating effect on the relationship between the
perceived stress effects and hardiness scores.
Gynecologists, ophthalmologists and surgeons have
scored significantly higher than the anaesthetics in the
relationship scores of perceived stress effect with psycho
logical well-being. Similarly, surgeons scored signifi
cantly higher than the ophthalmologists in the relationship
between these variables.
Situational stress affects the performance of
doctors during surgery if they have fewer success in
![Page 105: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
91
operations, resulting in the more likelyhood of less
psychological well-being. Thus, how doctors deal with a
operation situation is clearly linked to aspects of their
psychological well-being.
Significant differences existed in the relationship
scores of coping with hardiness. The results suggest that the
pattern of ineffective coping with hardiness of ophthal
mologists and surgeons in operation may not be representa
tive of how they deal with situational stress in their
professional lives. If a more varied coping repertoire and
hardiness dispositions are available to doctors, there is a
need to explore what aspects of their professional,
personal and social context serve to elicit such relation
ship patterns. Ophthalmologists and surgeons either
display a general deficit in problem solving skills or
there is something specific about operation or surgery that
pulls for such stress effects.
Ophthalmologists and surgeons have scored signifi
cantly, higher than the gynecologists in the relationship
scores of coping with psychological well-being. Gyneco
logists' coping responses to the levels of psychological
well-being differed from ophthalmologists and surgeons as a
function of their attitudes toward roles, and exposure to
surgery. Women gynecologists who had been exposed to
cesarian/abortion operation were more likely to use fewer
![Page 106: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
92
coping responses and more concern for their psychological
well-being and also of the patients as the patient become
severe. Whereas the ophthalmologists and surgeons were
likely to use more active coping strategies and concern for
their psychological well-being in response to severity of
the opertion. These results also support the idea that
gynecologists' roles can moderate the degree to which they
may effectively deal with stress, especially in the gyneco
logical operation.
The partial r's ( - 2.3 ^13 2 ^"^ ^23 1^ among
anaesthetists,gynecologists, ophthalmologists, and surgeons
were found to be significant at the 0.95 and 0.99
confidence interval, indicating that there was little
likelihood that the populations r were zero.
Results obtained by means of multiple R indicate
that using perceived stress effects and coping as the
criterion variables, both hardiness and psychological well-
being entered as significant predictors for anaesthetists,
gynecologists, ophthalmologists and surgeons.
![Page 107: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
93
Conclusions and Implications
(1) The main conclusion that may be drawn from these
results is that hardiness and psychological well-
being were found to be the best predictor of
perceived stress effects and coping. The nonhardy
were the doctors, the more stress they experienced,
and the less was their coping and psychological well-
being.
(2) Not only does hardiness and psychological well-being
influence the doctor's response to perceived stress
effects and coping, but also the situational stress
that doctors have experienced at the moment.
(3) The variables employed in this study may be studied
on physicians and nonclinical doctors to confirm the
direction of results obtained in the present study.
The relationship between social family role stress/
organizational role stress, and hardiness and
psychological well-being has not been studied in
this work. Therefore, further research is needed to
know how these variables of stress and personality
variables moderates the stress sources, effects, and
coping behaviour.
![Page 108: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
94
(4) As a result of the concern for the psychological
well-being of the doctors, the organizations should
provide counselling and other supportive therapy in
helping their employees to reduce, control, and
manage their stress.
(5) The practical implications of the results are that
the doctors be trained to develop a sense of control
through their actions, develop commitment to their
work, and accept their work as challenge.
(6) The suggestions here for doctors is that it is
important for them to keep constantly alive to the
problems of situational stress, role stress and
adopt coping strategies, and styles for the healthy
living. This is considered necessary not only for
doctors' psychological well-being but also in
setting commitment, to meet the challenging goals
and to exert control over the things.
![Page 109: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
REFERENCES
Adhami, S., & Kureshi, A. (1993). Attitude towards life as related to stress among neurocirculatory Asthenia
•' patients. Paper abstracted in the proceedings of the XXX lAAP Conference, TSLrupati, pp.9-10.
Adler, A. (1917). A study of organ inferiority and its physical compensation. Washington D.C.: Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Co.
Alexander, F. (1950). Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: Norton.
Allred, K.D., & Smith, T.W. (1989). The hardy personality: /Cognitive and physiological responses to evaluate threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5^, 257-266.
y^.
Antonovsky, A. (1979). A Health, Stress and Coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Averill, J. R. (19 73). Pers-onal control over aversive stimulus its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 186-303.
Bank, G. K. , & Gannon, L. R. (1988). The influence of ^ hardiness in the relationship between stressors and
psychosomatic symptomatology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 25-37.
Basowitz, H., Persky, K., Korchin, S. J., & Grinker, R. R. , (1955), Anxiety and Stress: On Interdisciplinary
Study of a life situation. New York: McGraw Hill.
Berg, O. (1975). Health and the quality of life. Acta Social., 18, 3.
Bhogle, S., & Prakash, I. J. (1995). Development of the ^ Psychological well-being (PWB) Qurestionnaire.
Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 11, 5-9.
^ Bradburn, N.M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine.
^Burke, R. J., & Wier, T. (1980). Coping with the stress of / managerial occupations. In C.L. Cooper & R. Payne
(Eds.) Current concerns in Occupational stress (pp. 299-333). Chichester: Wiley.
![Page 110: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
96
Byrne, D. (1964). Repression-sensitization as a dimension -Nof personality. In B.A. Maher (ed.) Progress in Experimental Personality Research Vol.1. New York: Academic Press, 169-220.
Cambell, A., Converse, R., & Rodgers, W.(1970). The Quality /of American Life. New York: Russel Sage.
Carver, C.S., Scheier, M. F. , & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). / Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based
approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, ^ , 267-283.
Chekola, M. G. (1975). The concept of happiness. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Michigan. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35^i 460, 94.
Cohen, E., & Lazarus, R. S. (1973). 'Active coping proce-y sses, coping dispositions, and recovery from surgery',
Psychosomatic Medicine, 35, 375-89.
Contrada, R. J. (1989). Type A behaviour, personality hardiness and cardiovacular responses to stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, yyb-yuj. —
Cox, T. (1978). Stress. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
Darboo, S. R. (1993). Stress, marital status and menstrual disturbance. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 9_, 1-2.
Dewe, P., Guest, D., & Williams, R.(1979). Methods of coping ^with work-related stress. In C. Mackay and T. Cox (Eds.) Response to stress: occupational aspects, Guilford: IPC Science and Technology Press.
^ Dua, J. (1990). Assessment of positive and negative affect as a result of thoughts and real-life experiences. Behaviour Change, 7_, 62-65.
Dua, J. K.(1993). The role of negative affect and positive affect in stress, depression, self-esteem, asser-tiveness, type-A behaviour. Psychological health, and physical health. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 119, 515-552.
Dua, J., & Price, I. (1992). Psychometric analysis of the subscales of the thoughts and real-life experiences scale. Behaviour Change, 2 , 104-111.
![Page 111: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
y
97
Dua, J./ & Price I. (1993). Effectiveness of training in ^ negative thought reaction and positive thought incre
ment in reducing thought - produced distress. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154, 97-109.
Dubey, G. P., & Sharma, K. (1977). Incidence of ischaemic Heart Disease in urbanised community of U.P. Paper Presented at the International Seminar on Stress in Health and Diseases. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, February.
Erdelyi, M. I. (1979). Let's not sweep repression under >. the rug: Towards a cognitive psychology of repre
ssion. In J. F. Kohlstroom and F. J. Evans (Eds.) Functional disorders of memory, 355-402.
Everly, Jr., G. S. (1989). A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response. New York: Plenum Press.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunket-Schetter, C., Delongis, ' L., & Gruen, R. J. (1986). Dynamics of successful
/ encounter, cognitive appraisal, coping and encounter outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, ^ , 992-1003.
Funk, S. C , & Houston, B. K. (1987). A critical analysis of the hardiness scale's validity and utility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 156-163.
Gentry, W. D., & Kobasa, S. C. (1984). Social and Psychological resources mediating stress-illness relationship in humans. In W. D. Gentry (Ed.), Handbook of behavioural medicine. New York.: Guilford Press.
Glass, D. C , Singer, J., & Friedman, L. N. (1969). Psycho-/logical cost of adaptation to an environmental stressor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2_i' 200-210.
Goldstein, M. J. (1973).'"'Individual Differences in response to stress . American Journal of Community Psychology, 2_, 113-37.
Goyel, S., & Sivach, S. (1994). Subjective well-being and •^ ^ life stress. Journal of Community Guidance and
Research, 11, 123-130.
Haan,H. (1969). A tripartite model of ego functioning: values and clinical research applications. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 148, 14-30.
![Page 112: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
98
Herzberg/ F.(1966). Work and the nature of man. New York: World Publishing Company.
Holmes, T. H., & Masuda, M.(1974). Life changes and illness susceptibility. In B. S. Dohrenwend and B. P. Dohrenwend(Eds.) Stressful life events; Their nature and effects. New York: Wiley.
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readiust-mf nt rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. ]J,, 213-18.
Houston, K. (1986). Stress and coping.
Hull, J.G., Van Treuren, R.R.,&Virnelli, S.(1987) . Hardiness and health: A critique and alternative approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 518-530.
Jahan, M. , & Hasan, Q.(1987). A comparative study of stress-fulness of certain life events for Indians and Americans. Advances in Psychology, 2_, 1-6.
Janis, I. L., & Leventhal, H.(1965). Psychological aspects of physical illness and hospital care. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of Clinical Psychology (pp. 1360-77) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Johnson, J. H., & Sarason, I. G. (1978). Life Stress depression and anxiety: internal-external control as a moderator variable. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 22, 205-208.
Kahn, R. L. , Wolfe, D. M. , Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A.(1964). Role stress; Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. New York: John Wiley.
Katz, J., Weiner, H., Gallagher, T., & Hellman, L. (1970). ^ Stress, Distress and Ego Defenses , Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, 131-142.
Khanna, S. (1986). Life stress, anxiety and depression in working women of India: A study of Moderators. Ph.D. Thesis, H. P. University, Simla.
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.
Kobasa, S. C. (1982). The hardy personality; Toward a social psychology of stress and health. In J. Suls & G. Sanders (Eds.) Social psychology of health and illness, (pp.3-32). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbanm.
![Page 113: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
99
Kobasa/ S. C. (1982 a) Commitment and coping in stress resistance among lawyers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 707-717.
Kobasa,^S. C , & Maddi, S. R. (1977). Existential personality theory. In R. Corsini (Ed.), Current personality theories, Itasca, IL: Peacock.
Kobasa, S. C , & Maddi, S. R. (1982). Hardiness Scale. As - cited by Hull, J. G. , Treuren, R. R. , & Virnelli, S., Personal Communication, November 1, 1982.
Kobasa, S. C , Maddi, S. R., & Courington, S.(1981). Personality and constitution as Mediators in the stress-illness relationship. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 22, 368-378.
Kobasa, S. C , Maddi, S. R., & Kahn, S., (1982). Hardiness _, and Health: A prospective study. Journal of Perso
nality and Social Psychology, 42, 168-177.
Kobasa, S. C , Maddi, S. R., & Puccetti, M.C.(1982). Personality and exercise as buffers in the stress-illness relationship. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 5_, 391-404.
Kobasa, S. C , toddi, S. R., Puccetti, M. C , & Zola, M.A. (1985). Effectiveness of hardiness, exercise and social support as resources against illness. Journal of Personality Research, 29, 515-533.
Kobasa, S. C , Maddi, S. R., & Zola, M. A. (1983). Type A and hardiness. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, §_, 41-51.
Kobasa, S. C. , & Puccetti, M. C. (1983). Personality and Social resources in stress resistance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 839-850.
Kumari, H., & Prakash, I. J. (1986). Life stress and mental ^ health: A study of Age and Sex differences. Journal
of Personality and Clinical Studies, 2_, 103-7.
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the coping Process. New York: McGraw Hill.
Lazarus, R. S. (1974 a). The Psychology of coping: Issues of research and assessment. In G. V. Coelha, D. A. Humburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds.) Coping and adaptation. New York: Basic Books.
![Page 114: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
100
Lazarus, R. S. (1975). How a cognitively oriented psychologists looks at biofeedback? A^merican Psychologist, 20, 553-561.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress appraisal and y^coping. New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S., & launier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In L. A. Pervin and M. Lewis (Eds.) Theories of Emotion, 1, 287-327.
Lefcourt, H. M. (1976). Locus of control; Current trends in theory and research. Hillsdale^ N. J.: Erlbaum.
Levi, L. (1987). Fitting work to human capacities and needs: Improvements in the contents and organisation of work. In Kalino et al., Psychological Factor at works.
Levine^ S., & Scotch, N. A. (1973). Social stress; Chicago IL; Aldine.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper.
Lone, S., & Ahmad, H. (1991). Perception of stress as a function of family size and rural-urban factor. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 7, 73-75.
Maddi, S. R., & Khoshaba, D. M. (1994). Hardiness and mental health. Journal of Personality Assessment, 63, 265-274.
Manning, M. R. , Williams, R. F., & Wolfe, D. M. (1988). Hardiness and the relationship between stressors and outcomes. Work and Stress, 2^, 205-216.
Maslow, A. H. (1973). The farther Reaches of Human nature. Hammondsworth; Penguin.
McDonald, M. R., &Kuiper, N. A.(1983). Cognitive-behavioural ''preparation for surgery: Some theoretical and methodological concerns. Clinical Psychology Review, 1, 27-39.
McGrath,J.E.(1970). A conceptual formulation for research on stress. In J. E. Mcgrath (Ed.) Social and Psychological factors in stress (pp.l0-2i; . Flew York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
![Page 115: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
101
McGrath, J.E. (1976). Stress and behaviour in organization. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Uhiea<^6: Kaftd6itt MAattally.
McLean, A. A.(1979). Work Stress. Addison- Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Moos, G. E. (1973). Illness, immunity and social interaction. New York: Willey.
Moorse, D. R., & Furst, M. L. (1979). Stress for success -/A holistic approach to stress anH its management New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Murray, H.A. (19 38). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nowack, K. M. (1990). Initial development of an inventory to assess stress and health risk. American Journal of Health Promotion. 4_, 173-180.
Okun, M., & Stock, W. A. (1987)v Correlates and components /of subjective well-being. Journal of Applied Gerontology, £, 95-112.
Pandey, N. & Naidu, R. K. (1986). Effort and outcome /orientations as moderators of stress-strain relationship. Psychological Studies, 31, 207-14.
Pareek, U. (1977). Coping with role stress: A framework. Administrative Change, , 213-229.
Pareek, U.(1983 a). Organizational Role Pics Manual. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.
Pareek, U. (1993 b). Making organizational roles effective. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
Pavett, C. M. (1986). High Stress professions: Satisfaction stress and well-being of spouse of professionals. Human Relations, 39, 1141-1154.
Pestonjee, D. M. (1987). Executive stress: Should it always be avoided? Vikalpa," 12, 23-30.
Pestonjee, D.M., & Singh, G.P. (1988). Does Type-A moderate -the stress- anger relationship in case of managers. Working Paper No. 743, Indian Institute of Management , Ahmedabad.
Pestonjee, D. M., & Singh, U. B. (1981). Locus of control as moderator of role stress-satisfaction relationship. Working Paper No.402. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.
![Page 116: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
102
Pradhan, M., & Mishra, N. (1995). Spouse support and quality of marital relationship of correlates of
^ stress. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 21/ 43-50.
V frakasl;j, I. J., & Bhogle, S.(1994). Coping strategies: Factor structure, sex differences and relationship with psychological distress. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 20, 31-38.
Rabkin, J. G., & Struening, E. L.(1976). Life events, stress, /and illness. Science, 194, 1013-1020.
Rao, V ^ & Nammalvar, M.(1976). Life changes and depressive disease. Indian Journal of Psychology, 18, 293-304.
Rees , W. L.(1976). Life stress and bodily disease. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas Publ.
Rhodewalt, F., & Agustsdottir, S. (19 84). On the relation-^ ship of hardiness to the type A behaviour pattern:
Perception of life events versus coping with life events. Journal of Research in Personality, 18, 212-223.
Rhodewalt, F. , & Zone, J. B. (1989). Appraisal of life -<;hange, depression, and illness in hardy and non-hardy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 81-88.
Rogers, C. R.(1959). A theory of therapy personality, and interpersonal relationship as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science, _3, 184-258, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Roth, D. L., Wiebe , D. J., Fillingim, R. B., & Shay, K.A. (1989). Life events, fitness, hardiness and health: A simultaneous analysis of proposed stress-resistance effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 136-142.
Sahu, K ., & Misra, N. (1995). Life stress and burnout in female college teachers. Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 21, 109-113.
Sakova, I., & Sykora, J. (1995). Relation between psychological hardiness and physiological response. Homeostasis in Health and Disease, 36, 30-34.
![Page 117: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
103
Sarason, I.G., & Sarason, B. R.(1998). Abnormal Psychology-The problem of maladaptine behaviour. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Schemied, L. A., & Lawler, K. A. (1986). Hardiness, Type A behaviour, and stress-illness relation in working women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, _5],, 1218-1223.
Sehgal, U. (1985). Study of some needs as moderating variables in role stress and job strain relationship. Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
Selye, H. (1936). A syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature, 138, 32.
Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill Hill Book Co.
Sharma, K., & Dubey, G. P.(1977). Social stress and incidence of hypertension. Paper presented at the International Seminar on Stress in Health and Diseases, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (Personal Communication) .
Shejwal, B. R. (1984 a). Stressors among college students. University of Poona, Pune (Personal Communication).
Shejwal, B.R.(1984 b). A study of life and some of its personality correlates. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Poona, Pune.
Shejwal, B. R., & Ram, U. (1983). Sex differences in the perception of stressful life events threatening personal attachment. Paper presented at the Seminar on Stress, University of Poona, Pune.
Shenoy, J. P. (1987). Stressfulness of daily role, personality and mental health of women. M.Phil, dissertation. Bangalore University, Bangalore.
Shrimali, S., & Broota, K.D. (1987). Effects of surgical 'stress of belief in God and superstition: An situ investigation. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 2' 135-38.
Shrimali, S., & Broota, K.D. (1988). Effects of surgical ,stress on ego strength and perceived control. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 4, 17-21.
![Page 118: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
104
Shrim^li, S., & Broota, K. D. (1989). Perception regarding the surgeon as a function of surgical stress. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 5 , 211-215.
Singer, J.E.(1980). Tradition of stress research: Integrative comments. In I. G. Sarason and C D . Spielberger (Eds.) Stress and Anxiety (Vol.7, pp.3-10),Washington DC: Hemisphere.
Singh, K. (1996). Perception of stress and psychological well-being in doctors exposed to condition of threat. Unpublished M.Phil. dissertation. Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
Singh, R. (1985). Stress-resistant executives: The hardy personality. Vikalpa, 10, 463-465.
Singh, R. , & Dubey, G.P. (1977). Psycho-social stress in certain psychosomatic diseases. Paper presented at the International Seminar on Stress in Health and Diseases, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, February.
Singh, S. (1988). Socio-psychological determinants of productivity: A Research report. Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, New Delhi.
Smith, R. E., Johnson, J.H. , & Sarason, I.G. (1978). Life change, the sensation seeking motive, and psychological distress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 348-349.
Srivastava, A. K. (1985 a) Development of an employee's motivational schedule. In D. M. Pestonjee (Ed.) Second Handbook of Psychological and Social Instruments. Delhi: Indian Council of Social Science Research Project, Concept Publications, 350-354.
Srivastava, A.K. (1985 b) Moderating effect of need for achievement on role stress- job anxiety relationship. Psychological Studies, 30, 102-6.
Srivastava, A.K. (1986a)A study of moderating effect of need for self-actualization on role stress-job anxiety relationship. Paper presented at the 21st International Congress of Applied Psychology, Israel, July,
Srivastava, A. K. , & Jagdish( 1983 ) . Mental health as a modera-•^ tor of perceived occupational stress-job satisfac
tion relationship. Advances in Psychology.
![Page 119: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/119.jpg)
105
^rivastava, A. K., & Singh, H. S. (1987). Modifying effects of coping strategies on organizational role stress-Medical Health Relationship. Psychological Reports,
Stone, A. A., & Neale, J. M. (1984). New measure of daily coping: Development and preliminary result. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 892-906.
Thakar, G., & Misra, G. (1995). Correlates of daily hassles among dual career women. Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 21, 93-101.
Tiwari, G. (1986). Interpersonal trust as a moderator of stress-strain relationship. Paper presented at the UGC national seminar on the Role of Psychology in HRD, University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
•Tondon, S.(1986). Development of measure of stress tolerance. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
Udupa, K.N., Khatri, S., & Chansouria, J.P.N.(19 77). Certain biochemical alterations following surgical stress. Paper presented at the international seminar on stress in health and diseases. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, February.
Uma, H. (1981). Study of some variables influencing psychological symptoms in middle aged women. M.Phil, dissertation, Bangalore University, Bangalore.
/Verma, N. (1989). Life stress, social support and coping in individuals with psychological distress. Ph.D. thesis. Bangalore University, Bangalore.
Verma, S. K. (1988). Measurement of positive mental health: Some theoretical and practical considerations. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 15, 6-11.
Verma, S. K ., & Verma, A. - Well-being measure.
Agency.
(1989). Manual for PGI General Lucknow: Ankur Psychological
Warr, P.(1978). A study of psychological Journal of Psychology, 69, 111.
well-being. British
Weiss, J. M.(1971). Effects of coping behaviour in different warning signal conditions on stress pathology m rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 77, 1-13.
![Page 120: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
106
Wiebe/ D. J. (1991). Hardiness and stress moderation: A test of proposed mechanisms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology/ 60, 89-99.
Wiebe, D.J., Williams, P. G., & Smith, T.W. (1990). Hardiness, neuroticism and life events: Independent or overlapping effects? Unpublished Manuscript.
Wolf, H.G.(1968). Stress and Disease.(Second Ed.).Springfield, III: Charles C. Thomas Publ.
Wolf, S., & Goodell, H. (1968). H.G. Wolff's Stress and disease. Springfield, III: Charles C. Thomas Publications .
Zajonc, R. B. (1984). On the primacy of emotion, American Psychologist, 39, 117-123.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1988). Psychology and Life (12th ed. ) Glenview, II: Scott, Foresman.
![Page 121: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
A P P E N D I
![Page 122: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/122.jpg)
PERSONAL DATA SHEET
Name
Age
Marital Status
Education
Occupation & Designation
Job Experience
Working Hours
Monthly Income/Sala. ry
Address
![Page 123: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/123.jpg)
II
Perceived Stress Effects Scale
INSTRUCTIONS
Although surgery may be a matter of routine for
doctors, yet the cruciality of the situation may result in
varying degree of stress. Visualize a situation if you
are/were going to perform an operation/administer anaes
thesia. Read the items below and indicate how they then
apply to you. Your answers to these items can be based on
recent past or present experience. Check all the items
listed below by putting tick mark ( vy ) on any one of the
four alternative response categories that represents your
feeling truely.
Never Seldom Some- Frequen-times tly
(1) My heart beats faster.
(2) I feel anxious.
(3) I imagine terrifying scenes.
(4) I am bothered by unimportant thoughts.
(5) My stomach gets upset,
(6) I become immobilized.
(7) I perspire.
is) I can't stop thinking worrisome thoughts.
![Page 124: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/124.jpg)
Ill
Never Seldom Some- Frequen-times tly
I find it difficult to concentrate.
I worry too much about
things that don't
really matter.
I feel depressed.
I feel sick.
I get headache.
I don't feel good.
I get muscle pains.
I have troubled breathing.
I have trouble in sleeping
I feel helpless.
I feel angry.
I feel powerless.
I feel frustrated.
I have strange thoughts.
I walk briskly.
I get involve in fidgeting
I feel my blood pounding.
I lose interest in work.
I get irritated.
![Page 125: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/125.jpg)
IV
Never Seldom Some- Frequen-times tly
(28) I become patient.
(29) I feel embarassed
(30) I argue with others
(31) I withdraw.
![Page 126: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/126.jpg)
V
PWB QUESTIONNAIRE
Instructions
Given below are a number of questions regarding
health, well-being, attitudes and interests. We request
you to answer them by encircling Yes if the answer is true
or mostly true of you and No if the answer is false or
mostly false. There are no right or wrong answers. All
the information given by you will be kept confidential.
Please cooperate with us and answer frankly.
THANK YOU.
01. On the whole I would say my health is good YES NO
02. Compared to others of my age and background lam better of. YES NO
03. In the past T have received much support/
when I really needed it. YES NO
04. My life often seems empty. YES NO
05. I have recently been getting a feeling
of tightness or pressure in my head. YES NO
06. I feel worthless at times YES NO
07. I have felt pleased about having accomplished something. YES NO
08. I have recently felt capable of making decisions about things. YES NO
09. Life is better now that I had expected it to be. YES NO
10. I have recently thought of the possibility that I may kill myself. YES NO
11. In my case, getting what I want does not depend on luck. YES NO
![Page 127: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/127.jpg)
VI
12. I have recently been getting edgy and bad tempered. YES NO
13. I have recently felt that on the whole I am doing things well. YES NO
14. I have recently been feeling in need of
a good tonic. YES NO
15. I feel all alone in the world. YES NO
16. I have recently been getting pains in my head. YES NO
17. I feel I am a person of worth, at least equal to others. YES NO
18. I have felt proud because someone complimented me on some achievement. YES NO
19. I have recently been able to enjoy my
normal day to day activities. YES NO
20. These are the best years of my life. YES NO
21. I have recently found that the idea of
taking my own life kept coming to my head. YES NO
22. What happens to me depend on me alone. YES NO
23. I am happy/satisfied with the support I have received. YES NO
24. I have recently felt constantly under strain. YES NO
25. I have recently felt perfectly well and in good health. YES NO
26. I have recently been satisfied with the way, have carried out my task. YES NO
27. (In case married), considering everything I would say, in marriage, I am satisfied. YES NO
28. On the whole, I would say that my life is satisfactory at present. YES NO
![Page 128: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/128.jpg)
VII COPE SCALE
This set of items deal with ways you've been coping
with the stress in your life since you found out you were
going to have this operation. T.here are many ways to try
to deal with problems. These items ask what you've been
doing to cope with this one. Obviously, different people
deal with things in different ways, but I'm interested in
how you've tried to deal with it. Each item says something
about a particular way of coping. I want to know to what
extent you've been doing what the item says. How much or
how frequently. Don't answer on the basis of whether it
seems to be working or not -- just whether or not you're
doing it. Use these response choices- Try to rate each
item separately in your mind from the others. Make your
answers as true FOR YOU as you can.
1 = 1 haven't been doing this at all.
2 = I've been doing this a little bit.
3 = I've been doing this a medium amount.
4 = I've been doing this a lot.
1. I've been turning to work or other activities to
take my mind off things.
2. I've been concentrating my efforts on doing some
thing about the situation I'm in.
3. I've been saying to myself "this isn't real".
4. I've been using alcohol or other drugs to make
myself feel better.
![Page 129: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/129.jpg)
VIII
5. I've been getting emotional support from others.
6. I've been giving up trying to deal with it.
7. I've been taking action to try to make the
situation better.
8. I've been refusing to believe that it has happened.
9. I've been saying things to let my unpleasant
feelings escape.
10. I've been using alcohol or other drugs to help
me get through it.
11. I've been trying to see it in a different light/
to make it seem more positive.
12. I've been trying to come up with a strategy
about what to do.
13. I've been getting comfort and understanding from
someone.
14. I've been giving up the attempt to cope.
15. I've been looking for something good in what is
happening.
16. I've been making jokes about it.
17. I've been doing something to think about it
less, such as going to movies, watching TV,
reading, daydreaming, sleeping, or shopping.
18. I've been accepting the reality of the fact that
it has happened.
![Page 130: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/130.jpg)
IX
19. I've been expressing my negative feelings.
20. I've been trying to find comfort in my religion
or spiritual beliefs.
21. I've been learning to live with it.
22. I've been thinking hard about what steps to
take.
23. I've been praying or meditating.
24. I've been making fun of the situation.
![Page 131: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/131.jpg)
Hardiness Scale
Instructions
The items below consist of attitudes with which you
may agree or you may not agree. As you will see, many of
the items are worded very strongly.
This is so you can decide the DEGREE to which you
agree or disagree. Please indicate your reaction to each
item according to the following schemes:
1 = Not at all true.
2 = A little true.
3 = Quite true
4 = Completely true.
Please read the items carefully and give your
response by putting the number in the box ( ) at the left
hand margin. Be sure to answer all on the basis of the way
you feel now. Don't spend too much time on any one item.
( ) 1. I wonder why I work at all.
( ) 2. Most of life is wasted in meaningless activity.
( ) 3. If you have to work, you might as well choose a
career where you deal with matters of life and
death.
( ) 4. I find it difficult to imagine enthusiasm
concerning work.
( ) 5. I find it hard to believe people who actually
feel that the work they perform is of value to
society.
![Page 132: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/132.jpg)
XI
( ) 6. That human's marvellous ability to think is not
really such an advantage.
( ) 7. The attempt to know yourself is a waste of effort
{ ) 8. I am really interested in the possibility of
expanding my consciousness through drugs.
( ) 9. Life is empty and has no meaning in it for me.
( ) 10.1 desire for a simple life in which body needs
are the most important things and decisions don't
have to be made.
( ) 11. The most exciting thing for me is my own
fantasies.
( ) 12. One who does one's best should expect to receive
complete economic support from one's society.
( ) 13. There are no conditions which justify endangering
the health, food, and shelter of one's family or
of one's self.
( ) 14. Pensions large enough to provide dignified living
are the right of all where age or illness prevents
one from working.
( ) 15. Politicians control our lives.
( ) 16. Most of my activities are determined by what
society demands.
( ) 17. Those who woijc for a living are manipulated by
the bosses.
![Page 133: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/133.jpg)
XII
( ) 18. No matter how hard you work you never seem to
reach your goals.
( ) 19. No matter how hard I try, efforts will get
nothing.
( ) 20. I tend to start right into a new task without
spending much time thinking about the best way to
proceed.
( ) 21. My work is carefully planned and organized before
it is begun.
( ) 22. I like to be with people who are unpredictable.
( ) 23. It upsets me to go into a situation without
knowing what I can expect from it.
( ) 24. Before I ask a question, I figure out exactly
what it is I need to find out.
( ) 25. I very seldom make detailed plans.
Instructionst Please indicate which of the two statements
provided in each item listed below BETTER represents your
attitude.
( )26a. At last people get the respect they deserve in
this world.
( )26b. Unfortunately, an individual's work often possess
unrecognized no matter how hard he tries.
( )27a. The idea that most teachers are unfair to
students is nonsense.
![Page 134: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/134.jpg)
XIII
( )27b. Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings .
( )28a. Without the right opportunity one cannot be an
effective leader.
( )28b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken
advantage of their opportunities.
( )29a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck
has little or nothing to do with it.
( )29b. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the
right place at the right time.
( )30a. In my case getting what I want has little or
nothing to do with luck.
( )30b. Many times we might just as well decide, what to
do by flipping a coin.
( )31a. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was
lucky enough to be in the right place first.
( )31b. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon
ability; luck has little to do with it.
{ )32a. Most people don't realize the extent to which
their lives are controlled by accidental happen
ings .
( )32b. There is really no such thing as "luck".
( )33a. With enough effort we can wipe out political
corruption.
![Page 135: ABSTRACT - Aligarh Muslim Universityir.amu.ac.in/681/1/T 5125.pdf · 2015-07-02 · ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the social and personality accompaniments](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022042008/5e70e6450d9c066769648a58/html5/thumbnails/135.jpg)
XIV
( )33b. It is difficult for people to have control over
things politicians do in office.
( )34a. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happento me.
( )34b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or
luck plays an important role in my life.
( )35a. What happens to me is my own doing.
( )35b. Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control
over the direction my life is taking.
( )36a. Most of the time I can't understand why poli
ticians behave the way they do.
( )36b. Ultimately the people are responsible for bad
government on a national as well as on a local
basis.