abiotic stresses in maize: some issuues and solutions, dmr

Abiotic Stresses in Maize: Some Issues and SolutionsAbiotic Stresses in Maize:

Some Issues and Solutions

Directorate of Maize Research

(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012 (India)

Abiotic Stressess in Maize:Some Issues and Solutions

Sain DassIshwar Singh

Chikkappa G.K.C.M. Parihar

J. KaulA. Singode

Manivannan A.D.K. Singh

Directorate of Maize Research(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, IndiaWebsite: www.maizeindia.org,

Email: [email protected]: 011-25841805, 25842372

Fax:011-25848195

Abiotic Stressess in Maize: Some Issues and Solutions

Citation: Abiotic Stressess in Maize: Some Issues and SolutionsDirectorate of Maize Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, pp. 16.

Edited by: Sain Dass, Ishwar Singh, Chikkappa G.K., C.M. PariharJ. Kaul, A. Singode, Manivannan A. and D.K. Singh

Published by: Directorate of Maize ResearchPusa Campus, New Delhi-110 012 (India)Ph: 91-11-25841805, 25842372, 25849725 FAX: 91-11-25848195Email: [email protected]

Cover photo: Diffferent Abiotic Stressess in Maize

Printed at: Aplha Printographics (India)Mobile : 9811199620, 9999039940

Content Page No.

Introduction 1

Moisture Stress 2

Temperature stress 8

Salinity stress: 10

Low nitrogen stress: 11

CONTENTS

Abiotic Stresses in Maize: Some Issues and Solutions 1

1. Introduction:Abiotic stresses are integral part of any agro-ecosystem, it affects crop plant in variety ofways. However, the severity and impact variesfrom location to location because several factorsdetermine the severity and impact of abioticstresses like Soil type, temperature, relativehumidity, organic matter in the soil, localvegetation, precipitation etc.

temperate conditions. The crop is also verypopular in the low and mid-hill areas of thewestern and northeastern regions. The totalcultivated area for maize in India is 8.17 millionhectares having production of 19.73 milliontones with average productivity of 2.41 tones/ha (2008-09).

The maize area under irrigation has increasedmarginally from ~11% (1950-51) to only ~20%(2008-09). The average annually increase inirrigated area under maize was 0.15%. So 80%of the maize at present is confined to rainfedcondition that is why the crop often suffersfrom abiotic stresses. This is one of the majorreasons for low productivity of maize in India.There are several biotic and abiotic stressesaffecting the crop. Among the abiotic stressesmoisture stress (Low/Excess soil moisture),temperature (high/low), salinity, sodicity,nutrient etc.

The cultivation of single cross hybrid maizehas helped in mitigating severity of stresses tosome extent because of their inherent abilityto perform well under stress conditionscompared to open pollinated varieties (OPV).The reason for better performance of SCH overOPV’s are viz., better root system, early vigorand quick growth out competes with weeds,

1.1 Major abiotic stresses:1. Moisture stress (a) Water deficit(Drought) (b) Excessive moisture stress (waterlogging or submergence); 2. Temperaturestress (a) High temperature stress (b) Low orchilling temperature stress; 3. Salt stress; 4.Nutrient stress.

Abiotic Stresses in Maize: Some Issues and Solutions

Abiotic stresses like moisture stress, high andlow temperature stress, salinity; nutrientstresses etc. frequently limit growth andproductivity of major crop species such asmaize. Maize (Zea mays L.) is considered asqueen of the cereals. It is one of the mostimportant food crops in the world with highestproduction and productivity. Maize is grownin more than 166 countries for diverse uses, indiverse seasons, in different agro-ecologicalconditions due to its high yield potential. Themajor maize growing countries are USA, China,Brazil, Mexico, India etc. In India, maize isgrown in a wide range of climates, extendingfrom extreme semi-arid to sub-humid to

Factors determining severity of abiotic stresses

Abiotic Stresses in Maize: Some Issues and Solutions2

2. Moisture StressMoisture deficit is the most common limitingabiotic stress among all stresses.

2.1 Water deficit (Drought):

Water plays a vital role in the survival of plantsas it is universal solvent, transport mediumand evaporative coolant as well as providingthe energy to drive photosynthesis, the naturalplant process that synthesize organic food.Under moisture stress condition, the loss ofwater in the plant protoplasm results in theconcentration of ions in the protoplasm to toxiclevels resulting in possible protein degradationand membrane fusion and negativelyimpacting plant metabolism.

Moisture stress is one of the major constraintsin maize productivity. Out of the total area formaize cultivation about 4.0 million hectares areprone to drought in India as 80% of the Indiain Kharif season is rainfed. Moisture stress isvery common in the areas where maize ispredominantly grown under rainfedconditions. Whether in India or elsewhere inthe world generally in rainfed areas rainfall iseither unpredictable or uneven distribution.

2.1.1 Consequences of moisture stress:

• Moisture stress adversely affect the sourcesink relationship in plant

• Reduced plant height, growth, and leaf areaexpansion which further reduces radiationinterception.

• Leaf senescence is accelerated,• Delay in silking and an increased anthesis–

silking interval (ASI).• Stomatal closure leads to declination of

photosynthesis.• Reduced assimilate fluxes to growing

organs.• Low biomass production• Crop becomes more susceptible to pests

and diseases attack.• Ear abortion• Tassel blasting can occur if drought

coincides with high temperature.• Remobilization of stem reserves can occur,

when stress coincides with the phase oflinear grain growth. In extreme cases thiscan result in premature lodging.

Abiotic stresses

Drought prone areas in IndiaMajor abiotic stresses


The crop is particularly sensitive to water stressin the period one week before and two weekafter flowering. Moisture stress during thisperiod results in an increase in the anthesis-silking interval (ASI) and grain abortion.

2.1.2 Drought adaptations:

Soil texture, temperature, rainfall, humidity,oozing, nutrient availability or uptake willdetermine the severity of stress.

a. Soil texture - light soils retain less waterleads to drought even with good rainfall(Raj, UP).

b. The behavior of drought tolerant genotypesvaries from location to location in relationto soil type, humidity and temperature.

c. Screening has to be done in the targeted en-vironment.

d. Low rainfall but soil with good moistureretention shows variation in the droughtsituation.

Traits associated with drought tolerance:• Deeper Root System

• Short ASI/ Longer pollen shedding• Erect leaves• Earliness• Protogyny• Dark Green Leaf /Stay green/ High chlo-

rophyll stability• Low Canopy Temperature• Non-barreness• Osmotic Adjustment• Pubescence, waxy leaves• More Proline, ABA and Glycine-Betaine ac-

cumulation in specific tissue of plants.

Earliness

Erect leaves

Traits associated with drought tolerance

Sensitive stages to moisture stress:

Crop stage Consequences

Seedling Initial establishment, root(primordial growth, Plant vigor, cobstage) length, kernel/row etc.Knee high Plant height, Photosynthetic

rate, LAI, total biomassFlowering* Reduce pollen production,

pollen viability, tasselblasting, prolong ASIUpto 80-90% reduction in yield

Grain Reduced seed size/ testfilling** weight, 20-50% reduction in

yield

*Most sensitive**Second most sensitive stage


2.1.3 Screening techniques for drought stress:

Screening to identify the tolerant source ofgenotype in order to develop drought toleranthybrids for drought prone areas. It can beachieved in field condition by (i) Limiting theirrigation at different crop growth stages, (a)for large number of genotypes, (b) for limitednumber of genotypes; (ii). Evaluatinggenotypes under high plant density; 3. Byusing modern tools-SPAD and Green seekeretc.

2.1.4 Modern Tools for screening genotypesunder abiotic Stresses:· Chlorophyll meter/SPAD meter· Green Seeker Optical Sensor

Control Drought

Deeper root system as an adaptive trait todrought

Field screening of large number of genotypes(limiting irrigation at 3 stages) Crop stages(Knee high, Flowering, Grain filling)

Screening Technique for confirming thetolerance (Screening of promising genotypes)by limiting irrigation at 4 crop stages(Seedling, Knee high, Flowering and Grainfilling) for identification and categorization ofgenotypes and associated traits at variousstages

Rain-out Shelter Technique {The promisinggenotypes identified by screening, are furtherevaluated under Rain-Out Shelter to confirmtheir tolerance to drought}


Because -

• Screen large number of genotypes• Overcome shortage of technical manpower• Quick method• Cost effective• Comprehensive out-put resultsChlorophyll Content Meter/SPAD

• Easier method to determine the chlorophyllcontent

• Screen large number of genotypes• Low cost techniqueGreen Seeker Optical Sensor

• Physically scan the plant• Measures Normalized Difference Vegeta-

tion Index (NDVI)• Used for large scale field screening

2.1.5 Management of drought:Adaptation of single cross hybrids: Singlecross hybrids have better tolerance due to itsinherent genetic capacity to cope better in thedrought than other OPV’s and composites.

Furrow sowing:

• Conserves moisture• Provide microclimate for better plant

growth• Better root development in furrows• Prolong availability of moisture to sustain

plant life

2.2 Excessive soil moisture stress:High water table and poor drainage areresponsible for excessive soil moisture whichis one of the major maize productionconstraints. In India, about 8.5mha of arable soilis prone to this problem. Approximately,2.4mha, or 33% total area planted under maize,is subjected to excessive moisture/waterlogging causing considerable loss of maizeproduction almost every year.

Performances of single cross hybrids underwater stress

Chlorophyll Content Meter/SPAD

Green Seeker Optical Sensor


Major excess moisture stress affected states inIndia:

• Eastern UP• Bihar• Jharkhand• West Bengal• Orissa

cellular metabolism is generated by oxidativephosphorylation) because it requires O2 as aterminal accepter of electrons and checks theATP production. Low ATP availability leadsto cellular damage, owing to a deterioration ofcellular components, such as membranes andmay also lead to cytoplasmic acidosis in sen-sitive genotypes.Toxicities: Reduced soil components such asMn2+, Fe2+, S2- and some volatile lower organicacids like propionic and butyric acid can accu-mulate in water logged soils and damage roots.At re-aeration after a period of O2 deprivation,ethanol remaining in tissues will be convertedto acetaldehyde that can induce post anoxic cellinjuries. The maximum affected is root system,this is due to the anaerobic condition that leadsto loss of ATP molecules which are requiredto drive various metabolic pathways (there isalso a drop in the intracellular pH). In healthymaize cells, the vacuole content are usuallymore acidic (pH 5.8) than the cytoplasm (pH7.4). But under extreme O2 deficiency the pro-tons gradually leak out from vacuoles in thecytoplasm making it more acidic. Thesechanges were associated with the onset of celldeath.Excessive soil moisture leads to the produc-

Excessive Soil Moisture affected states inIndia

Excessive soil moisture causes major changesin physical and chemical properties of therhizosphere. The oxygen diffusion rate inflooded soil is about 100 times lower than thatin air and respiration of plant roots, soil microflora and fauna leads to a rapid exhaustion ofsoil oxygen resulting in hypoxia (deficiency ofoxygen) followed by anoxia (complete absenceof oxygen) occurs when water logging orflooding persists for long duration.

2.2.1 Consequence of excess soil moisturestress on plants:

Energy crisis: ESM stress leads to hypoxic/anoxic condition which ultimately ceases theoxidative phosphorylation (majority of ATP for

Effect of seedling stage water logging ondifferent maize hybrids.


tion of reactive oxygen species (eg. Superox-ide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen per-oxide, singlet oxygen) which causes cellulardamage.Excessive soil moisture stress can cause wilt-ing of shoot organs and this response is medi-ated by a decrease in the hydraulic conductiv-ity of roots and finally results logging of theplants.

2.2.2 Consequence of excess soil moistureon soil:

• Less diffusion of oxygen in root zone• More CO2 accumulation in root zone2.2.3 Consequence of excess soil moistureon nutrients availability:

• Loss of N through denitrification and leach-ing.

• Reduced activity of ammonifiers andnitrifiers leads to lesser availability of N toplants.

• Anaerobic condition causes the deficiencyof zinc and Molybdenum but releases thetoxic elements like Fe2+, Al2+, and Mn2+.

• Excessive soil moisture condition restrictsthe root development leading to logging ofthe plants.

• Decreased total root volume leads to lesstransport of water and mineral nutrientsfrom source to sink.

In general the presence of excess water in therhizosphere negatively affects maize at everygrowth stages. But the extent of susceptibilityvaried remarkably at different growth stages.

Traits associated with water logging:

The most prominent morphological, anatomicaland metabolic changes widely observed inmaize genotypes under low oxygen partialpressure in rhizosphere are as follows- Development of brace root nodes as an

adaptive trait for water logging

(Closer view)

Most critical crop growth stages, duration andtemperature for water logging:

Stages Seedling, knee high,flowering, grain filling stage

Duration Within 48 hours the oxygensupply in a flooded soil isdepleted.Respiration processgets impaired, leads tomortality.

Temperature More than 250C duringflooding even for 24 hours,causes mortality.


• Development of brace root system.• Root growth towards ground surface• Development of arenchyma cells• More root porosity• Low ethanol accumulation

2.2.4 Management of water logging:

Genetic approaches

• Selection for brass root plant type-brass rootanchors the plant and give the mechanicalstrength to withstand flooded conditions.

Cultural management

• Sowing of seeds at the top of the bed.• Avoid heavy clay soils.• Provide proper drainage.

3. Temperature stress3.1 Low temperature stress:

Maize is highly sensitive to frost andmoderately sensitive to chilling. The extremecool temperature affects the maize growth in anumber of ways right from emergence tillflowering and seed setting. Temperature belowthreshold level (10/40C, day/night) causesvarious type of irreversible physiologicaldamage during late vegetative/early floweringstage. The severity of damage depends ontemperature and its duration, developmentalstage and the genotype. Early flowering withlong grain filling duration and extended staygreen character provided the basis for hybridwith high yield potential under lowtemperature stress. Low temperature stressinjuries can be categorized under two heads.

1. Chilling injury - Between the temperaturerange 0 - 150C

2. Freezing injury - occurs only when exter-nal temperature drops below 00C.

Major cold affected states in India:

3.1.1 Consequences of low temperature stress:

• Reduced germination, plant height.• Induces wilting• Yellowing, discoloration of leaves• Leaf tip firing due to death of leaf tissues• Delayed anthesis• Reduced tassel size/branches• Reduced pollen viability• Reduced silk size and proliferation due to

non-fertilization• Crop becomes more sensitive to soil borne

pathogen

Cold affected states in India

Yellowing and discoloration of leaves due tolow temperature stress


Maize is very sensitive to chilling especiallyduring early autotrophic growth. Seemingly,photosynthesis is strongly affected due to theinhibition of certain enzymes of the C4 and theCalvin cycle. The reduced photosyntheticactivity promotes dissipative mechanisms andaffects the antioxidative defense in maizeleaves.

3.1.2 Management of low temperature stress:

Cultural

• Sowing on southern side of the ridge whereit gets maximum sunlight during day time.Planting of tall barrier crops in northern sideof the field protects the crop from coldwinds.

• Potassium application helps to protectroots from cold stress.

• Frequent irrigation is needed to equalizesthe root temperature with surrounding mi-croclimate.

Genetic approaches:

increased cold tolerance.3.2 High temperature stress:

High temperature stress is the 2nd major abi-otic problem after drought that reduces grainyield more than 15 percent. Spring season ismost suitable time for the cultivation of maizein India but transitory or constantly high tem-peratures cause an array of morphological,anatomical, physiological and biochemicalchanges, which affect plant growth and devel-opment. Especially more effects at reproduc-tive stage through pollen abortion, silk desic-cation and reduced grain set, ultimately lead-ing to reduction in economic yield.

3.2.1 Consequences of high temperaturestress:

• Stunted plant growth• Leaf rolling and firing• Reduced net photosynthetic rate• Increased transpiration rate• Tassel blasting• Increase in ASI• Poor receptivity of silk• Pollen abortion and poor seed set

• Single cross hybrids (Late and Medium)• Selection of traits such as dark green,

purple color and erect leaves plants.• Selection of genotypes with high density

lateral roots.• ABA induced somaclonal variants showed

high accumulation of proline resulted in

Management of low temperature stress bysowing the seeds on southern side of the ridge

Northern Southern

Major high temperature stress affected statesin India


Maize growth is affected adversely whentemperature increases beyond 320C. Netphotosynthesis is inhibited at leaf temperatureabove 380C due to thermal inactivation ofenzymes. The activation state of Rubiscodecreases at temperature exceeding 32.50Cwith nearly complete inactivation at 450C. Hightemperature stress and low humidity candesiccate exposed silk and pollen grain due totheir thin outer membrane when these arereleased from anthers. The degree of damagedepends on the intensity and duration of hightemperature spell.

• Selection of early maturing single crosshybrids.

• Planting the seed in furrows.• Creation of congenial microclimatic condi-

tion by application of water, if possiblesprinkler irrigation system helps to reducethe temperature effect on plants.

• Avoid sowing at improper time, whichmight result in coincidence of high tem-perature with flowering time

• Selection of hybrids which have shorter ASI.• Use of organic waste, mulching helps in

conserving soil moisture.• In case of large area sowing, go for stag-

gered sowing, this prolongs the pollenavailability throughout the period.

4. Salinity stress:Soil salinity affects plant production in manypart of the world, particularly on irrigated land.Maize (Zea mays L.) is considered as a moder-

Sowing in furrows to mitigate hightemperature stress

Major consequences of high temperaturestress

Sensitive stages to High temperature stress:

Crop stage Consequences

Seedling Poor seed germination, root(primordial growth and Plant vigor.stage)Knee high Stunted plant height, Leaf

rolling, leaf firing, Reducedphotosynthetic rate, LAI,total biomass and increasedtranspiration rate.

Flowering* Reduce pollen production,duration of pollen shedding,pollen viability, inducetassel blasting and pollenabortion, and delay silkingand poor receptivity of silk.

Grain filling** Poor seed set & reducedseed size/test weight, 25-50% reduction in yield

*Most sensitive**Second most sensitive stageManagement of high temperature stress:


ately salt-sensitive plant. Salt resistance inplants is a complex phenomenon that involvesbiochemical and physiological process as wellas morphological and developmental changes.In addition to general osmotic stress, Na+ istoxic to maize. Salt tolerance is a multigenictrait that allows plant to grow under salt stresscondition by maintaining salt balance throughosmotic adjustment without reduction in eco-nomic yield.

4.1 Consequences of salinity stress:

• Poor germination• Yellowing of leaves• Burning of leaf tips• Rottening of leaves• Plant mortality

4.2 Management of salinity stress:

Sowing of the seeds on the side of the ridges,because salt has the tendency to move in theupward direction due to evapotranspiration.

the area) or medium (32.5% of the area) innitrogen. Further more, nitrogen level in semiarid region where maize is grown are typicallylow in organic matter often containing less than1% organic matter with a total nitrogen notexceeding 0.1%.

5.1 Traits affected by low nitrogen stress:

• Plant Growth – height is reduced• Plant strength - weak• Cob length and girth - affected• Leaf senescence – leaf turn to yellow• Grain filling - patchy• Kernel size – reduced/abortion• ASI - Increased• Susceptible to diseases like Stalk Rot and

pest like Chilo partellus

Upward movement of salts

5. Low nitrogen stress:Indian nitrogen map shows that only 15districts of north eastern hills and Himalayanregions covering about 5% of the totalcultivated area are rich in nitrogen content. Theremaining 95% soils are either low (62.5% of

Effect of different level of salinity on growthand development of maize (Source C. Zörb etal. (2004). Plant Science. 167: 91–100).


5.2 Approaches to overcome the nutrient stress

Genetic ManagementSingle cross hybridsAgronomic ManagementOrganic manure, green manure, organicmulching, N fixing Bio fertilizer and propermethod of sowing.

5.3 Efficient Plant Type for Stress Tolerance:

• Better root system• Shorter ASI• Stay green• Erect leaves• Strong plant• Efficient nutrient utilizer• Ears per plant• Low stress index

References:

Meena Kumari, Sain Dass, Vimala,Y. and Arora,P. (2004). Physiological parametersgoverning drought tolerance in maize.Indian J. Plant Physiol. 9(2): 203-207.

Meena Kumari, Sain Dass, Vimala,Y. and Arora,P. (2004). Physiological parametersgoverning drought tolerance in maize.Ann. Agric. Res. News Series. 25(3): 422-428.

Pollmer, W.G., D. Eberhard, D.Klein, and B.S.Dhillon (1979). Genetic control ofnitrogen uptake and translocation inmaize. Crop Sci. 19: 82-86.

Robson P.R., Donnison, I.S., Wang, K., Frame,B. and Pegg, S.E., (2004).Leaf senescenceis deleyed in maize expressing theagrobacterium IPT gene under thecontrol of a novel maize senescenceenhanced promoter. Plant Biotech J. 2:101-112.

Sain Dass, Pal, D., Kukreja, S., Arora, P.,Dhanuja, K.S., Mahla, J.C, Yadav, G. andArora, V (2004). Identification ofnitrogen efficient genotypes of maize onthe bass of yield efficiency index. Annalsof Agri-Bio Research. 9(1): 21-24.

Sain Dass, Meena Kumari, and Arora, P. (1999).Morphological traits associated withdrought tolerance in maize (Zea maysL.). Annals of Agri-Bio Research. 4(2): 193-196.

Mulching

Zero till with residue

Directorate of Maize Research (Indian Council of Agricultural Research)Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012 (India)

Website : www.maizeindia.orgEmail: [email protected]

Phone: 011-25841805, 25842372, 25849725Fax: 011-25848195

abiotic stresses in maize: some issuues and solutions, dmr

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