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Aalborg Universitet
PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:
Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods
Mogapi, Nomfundo; Lascano, Josephine Acuna; Anasarias, Ernesto; Swaray, Seidu; Masuko,Themba; Jensen, Steffen
Creative Commons LicenseUnspecified
Publication date:2017
Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
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Citation for published version (APA):Mogapi, N., Lascano, J. A., Anasarias, E., Swaray, S., Masuko, T., & Jensen, S. (2017). PSYCHOSOCIALMODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING: Addressing Authority-Based Violence in UrbanNeighbourhoods. Kbh: Dignity, the Danish Institute against Torture. DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture andOrganised Violence, No. 15
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DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture and Organised ViolencePraxis Paper
#15PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods
Nomfundo MogapiJosephine Acuna LascanoErnesto A. AnasariasSeidu SwarayThemba MasukoSteffen Jensen
Psy
cho
soci
al m
od
els
for
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
wel
lbei
ng
:
Ad
dre
ssin
g a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce in
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s
A p
raxi
s p
aper
pre
par
ed in
co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n B
alay
, CSV
R, L
AP
S an
d D
IGN
ITY
for
the
Glo
bal
Alli
ance
DIG
NIT
Y P
ub
licat
ion
Ser
ies
on
To
rtu
re a
nd
Org
anis
ed V
iole
nce
No
. 15
© 2
017
DIG
NIT
Y - D
anis
h In
stitu
te A
gain
st T
ortu
re, t
he a
utho
rs a
nd th
e G
loba
l Allia
nce
org
aniz
atio
ns
Bal
ay R
ehab
ilita
tion
Cen
ter,
the
Ph
ilip
pin
es
ww
w.b
alay
ph
.net
CSV
R, T
he
Cen
tre
for
the
Stu
dy
of
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
ww
w.c
svr.o
rg.z
a
LAP
S Li
ber
ia A
sso
ciat
ion
fo
r P
sych
oso
cial
Ser
vice
s
ww
w.la
psl
iber
ia.c
om
DIG
NIT
Y –
Dan
ish
Inst
itute
Aga
inst
To
rtu
re
ww
w.d
ign
ityin
stitu
te.o
rg
ISB
N o
nlin
e: 9
788
790
878
89
4
2 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 3
PSY
CHO
SOCI
AL
MO
DEL
S FO
R
PR
EVEN
TIO
N A
ND
WEL
LBEI
NG
AD
DR
ESSI
NG
AU
TH
OR
ITY-
BA
SED
VIO
LEN
CE IN
UR
BA
N N
EIG
HB
OU
RH
OO
DS
A p
raxi
s p
aper
pre
par
ed in
co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n B
alay
, CSV
R, L
AP
S an
d D
IGN
ITY
fo
r th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce
By
No
mfu
nd
o M
og
api,
Jose
ph
ine
Acu
na
Lasc
ano
, Ern
esto
A. A
nas
aria
s, S
eid
u S
war
ay,
Th
emb
a M
asu
ko a
nd
Ste
ffen
Jen
sen
Con
ten
ts
Fore
wor
d
7
Exec
uti
ve s
um
mar
y 9
Intr
odu
ctio
n
12
Un
der
stan
din
g c
on
text
s o
f vi
ole
nce
14
Mo
del
s fo
r u
nd
erst
and
ing
vio
len
ce
15
Wh
y in
terv
ene
in r
elat
ion
to
vio
len
ce?
18
Vic
tims,
an
d r
isk
and
tar
get
gro
up
s 20
Th
eory
of
chan
ge
– f
ocu
sin
g o
n r
elat
ion
ship
s 21
Vic
tims/
at r
isk
gro
up
s: F
acili
tate
hea
ling
, so
cial
incl
usi
on
an
d p
sych
olo
gic
al a
war
enes
s 22
Fam
ilies
: Pro
mo
ting
fam
ilies
as
sup
po
rt s
tru
ctu
res
rath
er t
han
as
per
pet
rato
rs o
r ri
sk g
rou
ps
23
Co
mm
un
ity: P
rom
otin
g c
om
mu
niti
es a
s su
pp
ort
str
uct
ure
s
rath
er t
han
as
per
pet
rato
rs
24
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s: P
erp
etra
tors
or
du
ty b
eare
rs
25
Co
ncl
usi
on
an
d r
eco
mm
end
atio
ns
26
Ref
eren
ces
30
4 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 5
Fore
wor
dH
um
an r
igh
ts w
ork
, an
d e
spec
ially
wo
rk to
co
mb
at to
rtu
re a
nd
its
effec
ts, i
s o
ften
ch
arac
teri
zed
b
y u
nh
elp
ful
div
isio
ns
bet
wee
n r
ehab
ilita
tion
an
d p
reve
ntio
n.
Reh
abili
tatio
n i
s th
e m
ain
ly t
he
do
mai
n o
f d
oct
ors
, psy
cho
log
ists
an
d o
ther
hig
hly
sp
ecia
lized
hea
lth
pro
fess
ion
als.
Pre
ven
tion
, o
n t
he
oth
er h
and
, is
do
min
ated
by
soci
al s
cien
tists
an
d e
ven
mo
re b
y la
wye
rs,
wh
o t
end
to
fo
cus
on
inst
itutio
nal
ref
orm
an
d le
gal
fra
mew
ork
s. M
uch
has
bee
n a
chie
ved
ove
r th
e ye
ars
in
bo
th re
hab
ilita
tion
an
d p
reve
ntio
n. H
ow
ever
, th
is c
om
par
tmen
taliz
atio
n a
lso
has
ad
vers
e eff
ects
, es
pec
ially
on
the
gro
un
d w
her
e th
e d
istin
ctio
n m
akes
mu
ch le
ss s
ense
. Her
e, s
tate
vio
len
ce a
nd
its
eff
ects
can
no
t ea
sily
be
div
ided
in
to p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n.
Oft
en,
stat
e vi
ole
nce
is
chro
nic
an
d r
epet
itive
. A c
lear
ch
ron
olo
gy
of
bef
ore
, du
rin
g a
nd
aft
er a
tra
um
atic
eve
nt
is h
ard
to
est
ablis
h. H
ence
, th
ere
is a
nee
d t
o t
hin
k o
ut
of t
hes
e p
rofe
ssio
nal
ized
an
d d
isci
plin
ary
bo
xes
– n
ot
to r
epla
ce o
r p
ut
in d
ou
bt
the
con
trib
utio
ns
of
leg
al a
nd
hea
lth
inte
rven
tion
s b
ut
to m
ap
ou
t a fi
eld
bet
wee
n th
em w
her
e m
uch
an
ti-to
rtu
re w
ork
alr
ead
y h
app
ens.
Ho
wev
er, w
e n
eed
to
find
a b
ette
r la
ng
uag
e –
a n
ew la
ng
uag
e –
to d
iscu
ss a
nd
refle
ct o
n th
is m
idd
le g
rou
nd
bet
wee
n
reh
abili
tatio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tion
. Th
is p
aper
is o
ur
con
trib
utio
n t
o t
his
larg
er a
dvo
cacy
ag
end
a.
Th
e p
aper
is t
he
pro
du
ct o
f th
e co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n f
ou
r lik
e-m
ind
ed o
rgan
izat
ion
s: B
ALA
Y R
ehab
ilita
tion
Cen
tre
in th
e P
hili
pp
ines
, Th
e C
entr
e fo
r th
e St
ud
y o
f Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
in
So
uth
Afr
ica
(CSV
R),
Th
e Li
ber
ia A
sso
ciat
ion
of
Psy
cho
-so
cial
Ser
vice
s (L
AP
S) in
Lib
eria
an
d
DIG
NIT
Y-D
anis
h I
nst
itute
Ag
ain
st T
ort
ure
in
Den
mar
k. T
he
colla
bo
ratio
n h
as b
een
fo
rmal
ised
u
nd
er t
he
hea
din
g ‘T
he
Glo
bal
Alli
ance
Ag
ain
st A
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
Vio
len
ce’,
esta
blis
hed
in 2
014
. T
he
bas
ic p
rem
ise
of t
he
Alli
ance
is th
at a
rou
nd
the
wo
rld
an
d a
cro
ss d
iffer
ent c
on
text
s, g
rou
ps
of
peo
ple
are
dee
med
‘vic
timiz
able
’ by
the
po
wer
s th
at b
e –
eith
er s
tate
or
no
n-s
tate
– a
nd
hen
ce
leg
itim
ate
targ
ets
of
ord
er-m
ain
tain
ing
– o
r au
tho
rity
-bas
ed –
vio
len
ce. T
he
risk
gro
up
s m
igh
t in
clu
de
you
ng
, in
dig
ent a
nd
cri
min
aliz
ed m
en in
slu
m a
reas
, su
spec
ts o
f ter
rori
sm, m
igra
nts
an
d
refu
gee
s, s
exu
al m
ino
ritie
s o
r al
leg
ed c
arri
ers
of
dis
ease
. Th
eir
alle
ged
tra
nsg
ress
ion
s m
igh
t b
e b
ased
in a
leg
al f
ram
ewo
rk (
like
dru
g p
edd
ling
) o
r in
mo
ral n
orm
s (li
ke s
exu
ality
). H
ow
ever
, all
are
likel
y vi
ctim
s o
f st
ate
or
no
n-s
tate
vio
len
ce.
At
the
time
of
wri
ting
, th
e P
hili
pp
ine
‘War
on
D
rug
s’ p
rovi
des
a c
hill
ing
exa
mp
le o
f th
e le
giti
mac
y o
f vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st s
uch
gro
up
s.
As
a ce
ntr
al e
lem
ent
in t
he
colla
bo
ratio
n, w
e p
rod
uce
a n
um
ber
of
cro
ss-c
utt
ing
an
alys
es o
f a
vari
ety
of
diff
eren
t is
sues
wh
ile e
mp
loyi
ng
diff
eren
t m
eth
od
olo
gie
s. A
ll to
pic
s em
erg
e fr
om
ou
r co
mm
on
dis
cuss
ion
s o
n o
ur
diff
eren
t co
nte
xts,
an
d in
clu
de
linki
ng
hu
man
rig
hts
, dev
elo
pm
ent
and
vio
len
ce in
th
e ci
ty; l
egal
fram
ewo
rks
for
po
licin
g p
oo
r u
rban
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
ds;
so
cial
wo
rk
mo
del
s; c
om
mu
nity
org
aniz
ing
str
ateg
ies
and
par
tner
ship
mo
del
s.
6 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 7
Exec
uti
ve s
um
mar
yT
his
pap
er
arg
ue
s fo
r th
e n
ee
d t
o d
eve
lop
psy
ch
oso
cia
l ap
pro
ach
es
that
fo
cu
s o
n
co
mb
inin
g p
reve
nta
tive
an
d h
eal
ing
wo
rk t
hro
ug
h c
om
mu
nit
y-le
d i
nte
rve
nti
on
s w
ith
ri
sk g
rou
ps,
th
eir
fam
ilie
s, t
he
ir n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
wid
er
co
mm
un
itie
s, a
nd
fin
ally
th
e au
tho
riti
es
that
pe
rpe
trat
e v
iole
nc
e t
o m
ain
tain
ord
er.
Wh
ile
hig
hly
sp
ec
iali
zed
(le
gal
) p
reve
nti
on
an
d (
he
alth
-re
late
d)
reh
abil
itat
ion
pra
cti
ce
s h
ave
co
ntr
ibu
ted
to
ad
dre
ssin
g
tort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt,
th
ey
also
le
ave
gap
s, n
ot
leas
t w
he
n w
e b
eg
in a
dd
ress
ing
vi
ole
nc
e e
mp
loye
d t
o p
rese
rve
lo
cal
so
cia
l, l
eg
al a
nd
mo
ral
ord
ers
in
po
or,
urb
an
ne
igh
bo
urh
oo
ds,
wh
at w
e t
erm
sta
te a
nd
no
n-s
tate
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce
. T
his
vi
ole
nc
e i
s m
un
dan
e a
nd
ch
ron
ic r
ath
er
than
su
dd
en
tra
um
atic
eru
pti
on
s o
f vi
ole
nc
e an
d h
as o
fte
n b
ee
n n
orm
aliz
ed
, e
ven
by
its
vic
tim
s. I
nte
rve
nti
on
s in
su
ch
co
nte
xts
de
man
d t
hat
we
re
co
nsi
de
r so
me
of
ou
r b
asic
ass
um
pti
on
s ab
ou
t h
ow
to
go
ab
ou
t w
ork
ing
ag
ain
st t
ort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt.
Th
is p
ape
r at
tem
pts
to
re
co
nc
ep
tual
ise
hu
man
rig
hts
wo
rk i
n w
ays
that
mak
e s
en
se f
or
a fo
cu
s o
n a
uth
ori
ty-b
ase
d v
iole
nc
e i
n
po
or,
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s. T
he
pap
er
do
es
no
t p
rod
uc
e a
se
t o
f b
est
pra
cti
ce
s an
d
mo
de
ls t
o b
e i
mp
lem
en
ted
. R
ath
er
it s
ets
ou
t o
ur
refl
ec
tio
ns
on
ho
w t
o u
nd
ers
tan
d
the
co
nte
xts
of
vio
len
ce
, id
en
tify
th
e t
arg
et
gro
up
s o
f in
terv
en
tio
ns
and
sp
ell
ou
t th
e th
eo
rie
s o
f c
han
ge
re
leva
nt
in t
he
dif
fere
nt
co
nte
xts.
Th
e p
atte
rns
of
vio
len
ce
mu
st b
e u
nd
ers
too
d t
ho
rou
gh
ly.
Au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce
in
c
on
text
tak
es
man
y fo
rms
bu
t it
mu
st a
rgu
ably
co
nfo
rm t
o c
ert
ain
un
de
rlyi
ng
cri
teri
a in
ord
er
for
it t
o b
e l
eg
itim
ate
: it
ne
ed
s to
be
co
nst
rue
d a
s se
lf-d
efe
nc
e a
nd
it
mu
st b
e p
rop
ort
ion
ate
to
th
e t
hre
at t
hat
it
pu
rpo
rts
to c
ou
nte
r. T
his
fo
rm o
f vi
ole
nc
e d
oe
s n
ot
exi
st in
iso
lati
on
an
d t
he
pap
er
ou
tlin
es
the
re
lati
on
be
twe
en
dif
fere
nt
form
s o
f vi
ole
nc
e in
clu
din
g y
ou
th v
iole
nc
e,
inti
mat
e v
iole
nc
e,
co
mm
un
al v
iole
nc
e,
stat
e v
iole
nc
e a
nd
re
volu
tio
nar
y vi
ole
nc
e.
Th
is a
nal
ysis
of
vio
len
ce
en
able
s a
rec
on
sid
era
tio
n o
f ta
rge
t an
d r
isk
gro
up
s. I
n m
uc
h a
nti
-to
rtu
re w
ork
, to
rtu
re is
co
nsi
de
red
to
be
an
ext
rao
rdin
ary
eve
nt.
Fo
cu
sin
g o
n t
he
mu
nd
ane
nat
ure
of
tort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt,
ne
w r
isk
gro
up
s e
me
rge
lik
e y
ou
ng
me
n o
r c
hil
dre
n i
n c
on
flic
t w
ith
th
e l
aw a
nd
th
e c
om
mu
nit
y th
ey
inh
abit
; se
xual
min
ori
tie
s, r
efu
ge
es
and
mig
ran
ts o
r, a
s h
as b
ee
n t
he
cas
e in
bo
th S
ou
th
Afr
ica
and
Lib
eri
a, s
urv
ivo
rs o
r vi
cti
ms
of
dis
eas
es
(HIV
or
Eb
ola
). T
he
se g
rou
ps,
an
d
oth
ers
lik
e t
he
m,
are
se
en
as
affr
on
ts t
o p
ub
lic
mo
rali
ty,
som
eti
me
s b
ec
ause
of
the
ir
acti
on
s an
d s
om
eti
me
s b
ec
ause
of
wh
at d
ang
er
the
y ar
e s
ee
n t
o r
ep
rese
nt
(cri
me
, d
rug
s, t
err
or,
mo
ral
de
cay
, th
reat
s to
liv
eli
ho
od
s, e
co
no
mic
bu
rde
ns
etc
.) a
nd
th
ey
are
vuln
era
ble
to
att
acks
fro
m s
tate
off
icia
ls,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d e
ven
th
eir
ow
n f
amil
ies
wh
o c
on
sid
er
the
m i
n n
ee
d o
f d
isc
ipli
nin
g.
8 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 9
Wh
ile
fo
cu
sin
g o
n l
eg
al r
igh
ts o
f c
hil
dre
n,
wo
me
n,
mig
ran
ts a
nd
th
e r
igh
ts n
ot
to b
e to
rtu
red
or
kill
ed
as
imp
ort
ant
be
nc
hm
arks
, le
gal
an
d h
eal
th r
ela
ted
ap
pro
ach
es
are
no
t su
ffic
ien
tly
resp
on
sive
to
th
ese
. O
ur
wo
rk d
em
on
stra
tes
the
im
po
rtan
ce
of
rela
tio
ns
as b
oth
pro
tec
tive
an
d p
erp
etr
ativ
e.
Th
is s
ug
ge
sts
the
ori
es
of
ch
ang
e w
hic
h f
oc
us
on
re
lati
on
s b
etw
ee
n r
isk
gro
up
s, t
he
ir f
amil
ies,
th
e c
om
mu
nit
ies
in w
hic
h t
he
y li
ve a
nd
th
e l
oc
al p
ub
lic
off
icia
ls.
Imp
ort
antl
y, f
amil
ies,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic
off
icia
ls m
igh
t c
on
stit
ute
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t p
rote
cti
ve n
etw
ork
s th
at r
isk
gro
up
s h
ave
. H
ow
eve
r,
the
y m
igh
t al
so p
erp
etr
ate
vio
len
ce
or
allo
w i
t to
tak
e p
lac
e.
If f
amil
ies
are
no
t w
illi
ng
to
pro
tec
t th
eir
ch
ild
ren
, fo
r in
stan
ce
be
cau
se o
f d
rug
ab
use
, th
ose
ch
ild
ren
are
mu
ch
m
ore
at
risk
of
be
ing
har
me
d b
y c
om
mu
nit
y m
em
be
rs a
nd
by
the
sta
te.
Th
is e
nta
ils w
ork
ing
wit
h t
he
yo
un
g p
eo
ple
th
em
selv
es
– t
o d
eal
wit
h t
he
vio
len
ce
pe
rpe
trat
ed
ag
ain
st t
he
m,
and
oft
en
th
e v
iole
nce
th
ey
pe
rpe
trat
e o
n o
the
rs,
as w
ell
as t
o
atte
nd
to
th
e r
ela
tio
ns
the
y h
ave
wit
h f
amili
es,
pe
ers
, co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic o
ffic
ials
. Th
is
mig
ht
incl
ud
e t
he
fo
llow
ing
ele
me
nts
:
a)
Imp
rove
d
self
-est
ee
m,
abili
ty
to
de
al
wit
h
trau
ma,
h
eal
ing
, aw
are
ne
ss
of
the
psy
cho
soci
al im
pac
t o
f to
rtu
re a
mo
ng
ris
k g
rou
ps
in g
en
era
l an
d a
mo
ng
vic
tim
s in
p
arti
cula
r;
b)
Imp
rove
d u
nd
ers
tan
din
g a
mo
ng
vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s o
f th
e is
sue
s th
at p
ut
the
m
at r
isk
and
th
e a
bili
ty t
o d
eal
wit
h t
he
ris
k co
nst
ruct
ive
ly;
c)
Imp
rove
d s
kills
to
en
gag
e i
n m
ean
ing
ful
soci
al a
ctiv
itie
s in
re
lati
on
to
th
e l
abo
ur
mar
ket,
ed
uca
tio
n a
nd
oth
er
soci
al a
ren
as;
and
d)
Vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s th
at a
re m
ob
ilize
d a
nd
org
aniz
ed
fo
r p
reve
nti
on
an
d f
or
en
gag
ing
in m
ean
ing
ful r
ela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h a
uth
ori
tie
s, c
om
mu
nit
ies
and
fam
ilie
s.
Wo
rk w
ith
ris
k g
rou
ps
mu
st b
e c
om
ple
me
nte
d w
ith
in
terv
en
tio
ns
in r
ela
tio
n t
o f
amili
es,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic o
ffic
ials
. In
th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce, n
ot
all o
rgan
izat
ion
s w
ork
eq
ual
ly
wit
h a
ll le
vels
. Fo
r e
xam
ple
, w
hile
it
is t
rue
th
at L
AP
S an
d C
SVR
tar
ge
t al
l le
vels
, D
IGN
ITY
wo
rks
mo
re w
ith
pu
blic
off
icia
ls, c
om
mu
nit
y m
em
be
rs a
nd
vo
lun
tee
rs w
he
reas
BA
LAY
wo
rks
mo
re w
ith
fam
ilie
s an
d y
ou
ng
pe
op
le. D
ep
en
din
g o
n t
he
co
nte
xt a
nd
th
e o
rgan
izat
ion
, th
e fo
llow
ing
ele
me
nts
may
be
re
leva
nt:
The
fam
ilies
: a)
Im
pro
ved
fa
mily
co
hes
ion
an
d
fun
ctio
nin
g
to
esta
blis
h
reh
abili
tativ
e an
d
hea
lth
y re
latio
ns,
incl
ud
ing
with
ris
k g
rou
ps
and
tar
get
gro
up
s;
b)
Imp
rove
d s
oci
al p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tio
n o
f vi
ole
nce
by
sup
po
rtin
g f
amili
es
in
the
ir r
ela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
sta
te a
uth
ori
tie
s; a
nd
c)
Fam
ilie
s m
ob
ilize
d t
o e
ng
age
in a
dvo
cacy
fo
r n
on
-vio
len
t an
d h
eal
thy
rela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h s
tate
au
tho
riti
es,
an
d in
ad
voca
cy f
or
stat
e a
uth
ori
tie
s to
ass
um
e t
he
ir r
ole
as
du
ty b
ear
ers
.
The
com
mun
ity:
a)
Th
e co
mm
un
ity, m
app
ed th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
an
d tr
eate
d a
s p
ote
ntia
l par
tner
s,
sho
uld
be
par
t o
f an
alli
ance
to
pre
ven
t vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st r
isk
gro
up
s b
ased
on
a s
olid
an
alys
is o
f vi
ole
nce
;
b)
Ove
rall
com
mu
nity
effi
cacy
imp
rove
s w
her
e th
ere
are
few
er in
cid
ents
of
vio
len
ce a
nd
co
nfli
cts,
an
d w
her
e co
nfli
cts
may
be
add
ress
ed in
co
nst
ruct
ive
way
s; a
nd
c)
Imp
rove
d
abili
ty
to
iden
tify
po
ssib
le
area
s o
f co
llab
ora
tion
an
d
crea
te
incl
usi
ve
com
mu
nal
pro
ject
s (e
spec
ially
th
ose
th
at p
rom
ote
pro
-so
cial
beh
avio
urs
), an
d t
o s
eek
sup
po
rt f
or
them
bo
th in
sid
e an
d o
uts
ide
the
com
mu
nity
.
The
stat
e an
d pu
blic
offi
cial
s:
a)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s co
uld
be
map
ped
th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
, an
d p
ote
ntia
l par
tner
s in
sid
e th
e st
ate
cou
ld b
e m
ob
ilize
d b
ased
on
an
an
alys
is o
f th
e p
atte
rns
of
vio
len
ce;
b)
Imp
ort
ant
stat
e o
ffici
als
nee
d t
o r
eflec
t at
titu
des
to
war
ds
risk
gro
up
s th
at a
re b
ased
on
so
un
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
the
pro
ble
ms
of
the
risk
gro
up
s;
c)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s n
eed
to
ass
um
e th
eir
resp
on
sib
ilitie
s as
du
ty b
eare
rs t
ow
ard
s ri
sk
gro
up
s, f
amili
es a
nd
co
mm
un
ities
; an
d
d)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s co
uld
en
gag
e in
wel
fare
act
iviti
es a
nd
pro
gra
mm
es i
n p
artn
ersh
ips
with
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es th
at e
nab
le th
em to
par
ticip
ate
in s
oci
ety
as fu
ll ci
tizen
s.
10
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
11
Intr
odu
ctio
nA
cro
ss th
e w
orl
d in
po
or,
urb
an n
eigh
bo
urh
oo
ds,
bo
th s
tate
an
d n
on
-sta
te a
uth
ori
ties
use
vio
len
ce
agai
nst
th
ose
th
ey c
on
sid
er t
o b
e in
op
po
sitio
n t
o t
hem
, wh
eth
er t
o c
on
tro
l th
eir
con
stitu
enci
es
or
to i
mp
ose
do
min
ant
mo
ral
no
rms.
Th
is f
orm
of
vio
len
ce i
s o
ften
co
nsi
der
ed l
egiti
mat
e b
y au
tho
ritie
s, e
ven
by
tho
se th
at fa
ll vi
ctim
to it
. Tar
gets
mig
ht b
e d
rug-
dea
ling
or d
rug-
usi
ng
you
th,
sexu
al m
ino
ritie
s, o
uts
ider
s o
r m
igra
nts
. So
met
imes
the
vio
len
ce is
exe
rcis
ed b
y st
ate
auth
ori
ties;
at
oth
er t
imes
, it
is p
erp
etra
ted
by
no
n-s
tate
act
ors
act
ing
on
th
e b
ehes
t, in
th
e ab
sen
ce o
r w
ith
the
con
sen
t o
f th
e st
ate;
an
d fi
nal
ly, s
om
etim
es t
he
vio
len
ce is
dire
cted
aga
inst
th
e st
ate.
Wh
at
un
ites
thes
e d
iffer
ent f
orm
s o
f vio
len
ce is
a c
laim
to u
ph
old
ord
er, d
isci
plin
e, ju
stic
e an
d th
e ri
ghts
o
f th
ose
wh
o a
llege
th
ey r
epre
sen
t th
e m
any
by
targ
etin
g gr
ou
ps
of s
o-c
alle
d t
ran
sgre
sso
rs, a
nd
fo
r th
is r
easo
n w
e ca
n s
ay i
t is
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed.
Imp
ort
antly
, d
iffer
ent
gro
up
s m
igh
t co
nst
itute
th
e o
bje
ct o
f th
e d
isci
plin
e d
epen
din
g o
n w
hic
h a
uth
ori
ties
are
in c
on
tro
l lo
cally
. W
hile
su
ch
vio
len
ce h
app
ens
in r
ura
l are
as a
s w
ell,
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce in
th
e ci
ties
take
s o
n a
sp
ecifi
c n
atu
re d
iffer
ent
fro
m r
ura
l are
as. A
s se
vera
l co
mm
enta
tors
hav
e n
ote
d (
Bja
rnes
on
an
d J
ense
n,
2014
; Ro
dge
rs, 2
014
; Wo
rld
Ban
k, 2
011
, Ari
as, 2
00
6),
urb
an v
iole
nce
is c
har
acte
rize
d b
y a
ran
ge
of
acto
rs a
nd
fo
rms
and
by
a h
igh
deg
ree
of
con
flict
bet
wee
n d
iffer
ent
vio
len
t n
etw
ork
s an
d
acto
rs, i
ncl
ud
ing
vigi
lan
te g
rou
ps,
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
s, a
nd
diff
eren
t co
mp
etin
g p
olit
ical
act
ors
an
d
stat
e o
ffici
als.
Ap
art
fro
m b
ein
g d
iffer
ent
fro
m r
ura
l vio
len
ce, t
his
form
of u
rban
vio
len
ce is
qu
ite d
iffer
ent
fro
m
ho
w w
e o
ften
un
der
stan
d s
tate
vio
len
ce a
s fo
r in
stan
ce t
ort
ure
an
d il
l-tr
eatm
ent
– a
s ex
trem
e,
spec
tacu
lar
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
. R
ath
er,
the
vio
len
ce w
e ar
e ad
dre
ssin
g is
co
mm
on
pla
ce,
take
n
for
gran
ted
; it
hap
pen
s ev
ery
day
; it
is o
ften
co
nsi
der
ed le
gitim
ate
by
the
maj
ori
ty o
f th
e p
artie
s,
and
it o
ften
esc
apes
hu
man
rig
hts
inte
rven
tion
s as
th
ey a
re u
sual
ly fo
cuse
d o
n le
gisl
ativ
e re
form
an
d t
rain
ing
stat
e in
stitu
tion
s o
n h
ow
to
up
ho
ld h
um
an r
igh
ts.
For
inst
ance
, wh
at p
uts
yo
uth
or
sexu
al m
ino
ritie
s at
ris
k is
no
t th
e ig
no
ran
ce o
f au
tho
ritie
s o
f w
hat
th
ey c
an a
nd
can
no
t d
o;
it is
wh
at t
hey
fee
l le
gitim
ated
to
do
an
d w
hat
co
mm
un
ities
dem
and
th
at t
hey
do
, in
clu
din
g th
e ki
nd
s o
f vi
ole
nce
th
at p
olic
e ar
e so
met
imes
exp
ecte
d t
o u
se a
gain
st c
rim
inal
s b
y th
e ge
ner
al
po
pu
latio
n (H
orn
ber
ger,
2014
; Jen
sen
20
14)1 .
Th
e ta
rget
ed g
rou
ps
are
usu
ally
at
risk
bec
ause
of
the
pra
ctic
es th
ey e
nga
ge in
(ste
alin
g o
r rio
ting)
, wh
at th
ey s
ymb
oliz
e (m
ora
l co
rru
ptio
n),
ho
w th
ey
loo
k (s
exu
al m
ino
ritie
s), o
r w
her
e th
ey a
re (s
tran
gers
, mig
ran
ts).
Bu
t m
ore
th
an a
nyt
hin
g th
ey a
re
at r
isk
bec
ause
no
on
e is
will
ing
to p
rote
ct th
em, a
s th
ey a
re s
een
to tr
ansg
ress
mo
ral b
ou
nd
arie
s o
r n
ot
be
“wo
rth
y vi
ctim
s”. W
hen
th
ey a
re h
urt
, few
peo
ple
th
ink
they
des
erve
tre
atm
ent
or
care
. A
diff
eren
t ap
pro
ach
to
ad
dre
ssin
g a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
urb
an v
iole
nce
is t
her
efo
re n
eces
sary
.
Th
ere
is a
ten
den
cy w
ithin
th
e fie
ld o
f p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n t
o d
ivid
e th
e h
ealin
g an
d
pre
ven
tion
an
d t
o e
qu
ate
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
hes
on
ly t
o r
ehab
ilita
tion
. T
his
mea
ns
that
th
e p
ote
ntia
l of t
he
psy
cho
soci
al fi
eld
to in
fluen
ce p
reve
ntio
n is
no
t exp
lore
d. C
urr
ently
in th
e fie
ld o
f p
reve
ntio
n, e
ffo
rts
focu
s m
ain
ly o
n in
stitu
tion
al re
form
an
d tr
ain
ing.
In c
on
text
s o
f urb
an v
iole
nce
, th
e d
iffer
entia
tion
bet
wee
n p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n i
s n
ot
use
ful
in c
reat
ing
a su
stai
nab
le
1 T
he
issu
e o
f d
efin
itio
ns
is c
om
plic
ated
. We
use
th
e te
rms
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce h
ere
to s
tres
s th
e n
eed
to
b
egin
fro
m lo
cal p
ract
ices
of
auth
ori
ty r
ath
er t
han
str
ict
leg
al n
orm
s (K
yed
, 20
12).
In m
any
case
s, t
he
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
reg
iste
red
her
e w
ill in
dee
d b
e ca
rrie
d o
ut
by
the
stat
e. W
hile
th
ey m
ay a
pp
ear
leg
itim
ate
fro
m a
lo
cal p
oin
t o
f vi
ew, t
hey
will
oft
en b
e in
co
ntr
aven
tion
of
the
Co
nve
ntio
n A
gai
nst
To
rtu
re, a
t le
ast
the
par
t o
f th
e co
nve
ntio
n t
hat
co
nce
rns
cru
el,
inh
um
an a
nd
deg
rad
ing
tre
atm
ent.
Wh
ile s
tate
offi
cial
s w
ill n
ot
alw
ays
carr
y o
ut
the
vio
len
ce, t
hey
will
oft
en, i
n t
he
wo
rds
of t
he
con
ven
tion
, co
nse
nt
or
acq
uie
sce,
an
d h
ence
be
in
con
trav
entio
n o
f th
e co
nve
ntio
n. F
or
furt
her
dis
cuss
ion
of
defi
niti
on
s in
a S
ou
th A
fric
an c
on
text
, see
Jen
sen
, 20
14 a
nd
Dis
sel,
Jen
sen
an
d R
ob
erts
, 20
09.
app
roac
h t
o a
dd
ress
ing
auth
orit
y-b
ased
vio
len
ce.
Th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce a
ims
to a
dvo
cate
fo
r an
in
tegr
ated
ap
pro
ach
to
war
ds
wo
rkin
g w
ith h
ealin
g an
d p
reve
ntio
n w
ithin
th
e u
rban
vio
len
ce fi
eld
th
rou
gh u
sin
g th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
. We
ou
tlin
e a
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
h w
hic
h fo
cuse
s o
n
com
bin
ing
pre
ven
tativ
e an
d h
ealin
g w
ork
th
rou
gh c
om
mu
nity
-led
inte
rven
tion
s w
ith r
isk
gro
up
s,
the
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
s in
wh
ich
th
ey l
ive,
th
eir
fam
ilies
an
d t
he
auth
orit
ies
that
see
fit
to p
un
ish
th
em t
o m
ain
tain
ord
er.
Th
is a
pp
roac
h c
om
ple
men
ts l
egal
ap
pro
ach
es t
o p
reve
ntio
n.
Inst
ead
o
f re
pro
du
cin
g an
ap
pro
ach
th
at a
ssu
mes
a d
ich
oto
my
bet
wee
n v
ictim
s (a
s rig
hts
ho
lder
s) a
nd
p
erp
etra
tors
(e.
g. a
s d
uty
bea
rers
), w
e fo
cus
on
rel
atio
nsh
ips
bet
wee
n v
ictim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s an
d t
hei
r su
rro
un
din
gs in
th
eir
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es a
nd
in r
elat
ion
to
au
tho
ritie
s. W
e al
so
un
der
stan
d th
at in
co
nte
xts
of u
rban
vio
len
ce it
can
be
diffi
cult
to d
iffer
entia
te b
etw
een
vic
tims
and
p
erp
etra
tors
: in
man
y in
stan
ces
the
face
of
the
vict
im a
nd
per
pet
rato
r is
th
e sa
me
(e.g
. so
meo
ne
wh
o is
per
ceiv
ed a
s a
per
pet
rato
r o
f in
terp
erso
nal
vio
len
ce m
ay b
e a
vict
im o
f po
lice
tort
ure
).
Th
e p
urp
ose
of
this
pap
er i
s to
exp
lore
su
ch a
psy
cho
soci
al,
com
mu
nity
-led
ap
pro
ach
. W
e d
o n
ot
des
crib
e in
det
ail
wh
at t
he
diff
eren
t in
terv
entio
ns
in t
he
fou
r co
nte
xts
of
Den
mar
k,
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
Lib
eria
an
d S
ou
th A
fric
a co
mp
rise
. R
ath
er,
we
dis
cuss
pri
nci
ple
s an
d r
eflec
t o
n
ho
w t
o u
nd
erst
and
th
e vi
ole
nce
th
at w
e ai
m t
o p
reve
nt
and
th
e eff
ects
we
aim
to
ad
dre
ss.
Co
mm
un
ity-l
ed a
pp
roac
hes
to
vio
len
ce p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
hea
ling
hav
e o
ften
bee
n h
eral
ded
as
a p
anac
ea f
or
soci
al il
ls in
clu
din
g p
ove
rty
and
vio
len
ce.
Th
e as
sum
ptio
n is
th
at o
nly
th
rou
gh a
co
mm
un
ity-l
ed a
pp
roac
h a
re w
e ab
le to
reac
h th
e co
un
tless
nu
mb
ers
of p
oo
r peo
ple
wh
ere
they
ar
e. F
urt
her
mo
re, c
om
mu
nity
-led
ap
pro
ach
es a
re a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith n
otio
ns
of e
mp
ow
erm
ent a
nd
o
wn
ersh
ip.
Wh
ile w
e ar
e sy
mp
ath
etic
to
th
ese
argu
men
ts,
com
mu
nity
-led
in
terv
entio
ns
hav
e b
een
mar
red
by
a n
um
ber
of s
ho
rtco
min
gs: l
ack
of m
on
itori
ng,
lack
of c
lari
ty o
f go
als,
an
d ta
rget
gr
ou
ps
that
are
ill-
defi
ned
. Th
ey h
ave
also
bee
n c
red
ited
with
bei
ng
effec
tive
even
in s
ituat
ion
s w
her
e th
eir
imp
act
mig
ht
be
limite
d. T
his
pap
er a
ims
to r
ever
se s
om
e o
f th
ese
sho
rtco
min
gs b
y p
rese
ntin
g a
clea
r d
escr
iptio
n a
nd
an
alys
is o
f th
e co
nte
xt o
f au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
, in
clu
din
g
un
der
stan
din
g w
ho
th
e ri
sk g
rou
ps
are,
ou
tlin
ing
po
ssib
le t
heo
ries
of
chan
ge w
ith in
dic
ato
rs f
or
the
psy
cho
soci
al m
od
el, a
nd
ske
tch
ing
the
mai
n n
atio
nal
, reg
ion
al a
nd
glo
bal
ad
voca
cy a
gen
das
. H
ence
, th
e p
aper
exp
lore
s fo
ur
diff
eren
t co
nte
xts
of
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce,
each
illu
stra
ted
b
y o
ne
of
ou
r fo
ur
case
s. N
ext,
it d
etai
ls w
ho
en
ds
up
at
risk
in
th
e fo
ur
con
text
s. A
s w
e sh
all
see,
wh
o t
hat
is m
igh
t sh
ift d
rast
ical
ly w
hils
t st
ill lo
oki
ng
surp
risi
ngl
y si
mila
r. Fi
nal
ly, w
e ex
plo
re
ho
w w
e u
nd
erst
and
pro
cess
es o
f ch
ange
– w
hat
do
we
hyp
oth
esiz
e w
ill h
app
en w
hen
we
do
so
met
hin
g?
Th
e p
aper
beg
ins
with
a c
ritic
al a
nal
ysis
on
ho
w w
e co
nce
ptu
ally
un
der
stan
d t
he
vio
len
ce t
o b
e ad
dre
ssed
an
d p
reve
nte
d b
y th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
. It
then
exp
lore
s p
oss
ible
ele
men
ts o
f a
com
mu
nity
-led
psy
cho
soci
al in
terv
entio
n, i
ncl
ud
ing
theo
ries
of
chan
ge. W
e d
o n
ot
atte
mp
t to
cr
eate
on
e m
on
olit
hic
ap
pro
ach
to b
e fo
llow
ed b
y al
l. R
ath
er, t
he
pap
er a
ims
to e
nab
le re
flect
ion
s ab
ou
t psy
cho
soci
al in
terv
entio
ns
add
ress
ing
vio
len
ce in
po
or,
urb
an n
eigh
bo
urh
oo
ds.
Th
e p
aper
is
bas
ed o
n th
e w
ork
car
ried
ou
t in
fou
r co
un
trie
s: D
enm
ark,
Ph
ilip
pin
es, L
iber
ia a
nd
So
uth
Afr
ica
by
resp
ectiv
ely
DIG
NIT
Y, B
alay
, LA
PS
and
Cen
tre
for
the
Stu
dy
of
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
(C
SVR
). T
hu
s, it
rep
rese
nts
a u
niq
ue
exp
erie
nce
th
at t
ran
scen
ds
the
glo
bal
so
uth
an
d t
he
glo
bal
n
ort
h t
o p
rod
uce
in
sigh
ts t
hat
mig
ht
be
rele
van
t fo
r co
mm
un
ity-l
ed i
nte
rven
tion
s ac
ross
th
e w
orl
d a
nd
fo
r th
inki
ng
of
hea
ling,
fu
nct
ion
ing
and
pre
ven
tion
with
in o
ne
anal
ytic
al a
nd
pra
ctic
al
fram
ewo
rk.
12
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
13
Un
der
stan
din
g co
nte
xts
of v
iole
nce
Wh
en a
imin
g t
o p
reve
nt
vio
len
ce a
nd
ad
dre
ss i
ts i
mp
licat
ion
s fo
r ri
sk g
rou
ps,
tw
o o
f th
e fir
st
qu
esti
on
s to
ask
are
wh
at k
ind
of
vio
len
ce w
e ar
e ad
dre
ssin
g a
nd
ho
w d
iffer
ent
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
rel
ate
to e
ach
oth
er.
Alt
ho
ug
h o
ur
acco
un
t is
no
t ex
hau
stiv
e, w
e id
enti
fy t
he
follo
win
g f
orm
s o
f vi
ole
nce
as
rele
van
t to
th
e fo
ur
diff
eren
t p
roje
ct in
terv
enti
on
sit
es:
1)
You
th v
iole
nce
in
clu
din
g g
ang
vio
len
ce,
crim
inal
ity,
sch
oo
l vi
ole
nce
an
d v
iole
nce
re
late
d t
o d
rug
co
nsu
mp
tio
n;
2)
Co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce i
ncl
ud
ing
vig
ilan
tism
, xe
no
ph
ob
ic a
ttac
ks,
hat
e cr
imes
, se
rvic
e d
eliv
ery
rela
ted
vio
len
ce,
pro
test
ag
ain
st f
orc
ed e
vict
ion
s an
d v
iole
nce
ag
ain
st
vict
ims
of
dis
ease
(e.
g.
HIV
an
d E
bo
la).
Co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce is
usu
ally
leg
itim
ized
by
refe
rrin
g t
o s
om
e ki
nd
of
mo
ral
com
mu
nit
y th
at p
rote
cts
loca
l m
ora
ls o
r a
mo
ral
ord
er;
3)
Inti
mat
e an
d
inte
rper
son
al
vio
len
ce
incl
ud
ing
ch
ild
abu
se,
do
mes
tic
vio
len
ce,
and
co
nfl
icts
bet
wee
n n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
co
mm
un
ity
mem
ber
s re
late
d t
o a
lco
ho
l co
nsu
mp
tio
n,
deb
ts,
reso
urc
es,
lan
d o
r h
um
iliat
ion
s. I
n o
ther
co
nte
xts,
th
ese
are
calle
d ‘s
oci
al f
abri
c’ c
rim
es;
4)
Stat
e vi
ole
nce
invo
lvin
g t
each
ers,
po
lice,
mili
tary
, hea
lth
sta
ff, p
riso
n s
taff
, po
litic
ian
s an
d w
elfa
re o
ffici
als;
5)
Ext
ract
ive
vio
len
ce in
volv
ing
mai
nta
inin
g a
nd
cre
atin
g e
con
om
ic re
sou
rces
incl
ud
ing
st
rike
bre
aker
s, m
inin
g g
uar
ds
and
lan
dlo
rds;
an
d
6)
Rev
olu
tio
nar
y vi
ole
nce
incl
ud
ing
reg
ime-
top
plin
g a
ctiv
itie
s lo
cally
or
glo
bal
ly.
Th
ese
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
exi
st in
diff
eren
t w
ays
and
to
diff
eren
t d
egre
es in
all
fou
r co
un
trie
s.
It s
erve
s n
o p
urp
ose
to
go
th
rou
gh
all
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
in
th
e fo
ur
diff
eren
t p
lace
s, b
ut
a fe
w e
xam
ple
s m
igh
t ill
ust
rate
th
e p
oin
t. C
olle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
, a
term
th
at d
eriv
es v
ery
mu
ch
fro
m t
he
Sou
th A
fric
an c
on
text
(V
on
Ho
ldt
et a
l, 2
013
) ex
ists
in
all
fou
r co
nte
xts.
In
So
uth
A
fric
a it
ap
pea
rs i
n f
orm
s su
ch a
s vi
ole
nt
serv
ice
del
iver
y p
rote
sts,
vig
ilan
te a
ctiv
itie
s, a
nd
xe
no
ph
ob
ic a
ttac
ks o
n f
ore
ign
ers.
In
Lib
eria
, th
e p
rim
ary
targ
ets
of
vio
len
ce w
ere
you
ng
ex
-co
mb
atan
ts (
oft
en t
alke
d a
bo
ut
as t
he
mo
torc
ycle
bo
ys).
Furt
her
mo
re,
in t
he
wak
e o
f th
e E
bo
la c
risi
s, n
ew t
arg
ets
wer
e th
ose
th
at w
ere
seen
to
bri
ng
in
dis
ease
an
d d
eath
. In
th
e in
terv
enti
on
sit
es i
n t
he
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
colle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
oft
en t
akes
th
e fo
rm o
f vi
gila
nte
act
ivit
ies
bu
t in
oth
er p
lace
s ar
ou
nd
th
e co
un
try,
co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce m
igh
t re
late
to
rev
olu
tio
nar
y, e
xtra
ctiv
e an
d s
tate
vio
len
ce.
In D
anis
h h
ou
sin
g e
stat
es y
ou
ng
peo
ple
, o
r p
eop
le w
ho
are
see
n a
s so
meh
ow
dev
ian
t fr
om
a s
oci
al n
orm
of
a st
ron
g g
rou
p w
ith
in t
he
esta
te, m
igh
t b
e d
isci
plin
ed in
way
s th
at a
re o
ften
ref
erre
d t
o b
y m
ain
stre
am D
anis
h m
edia
as
bei
ng
fro
m a
‘par
alle
l so
ciet
y’ (
Joh
anse
n, 2
013
). Li
kew
ise,
sta
te v
iole
nce
exi
sts
in a
ll fo
ur
loca
tio
ns.
Ho
wev
er,
ther
e ar
e h
ug
e d
iffer
ence
s in
ho
w i
t is
per
ceiv
ed a
nd
ho
w i
t re
late
s to
th
e la
w. V
iole
nce
per
pet
rate
d b
y th
e D
anis
h s
tate
is m
ost
oft
en le
git
imiz
ed in
law
s in
volv
ing
in
carc
erat
ion
an
d p
enet
rati
on
in
to f
amili
es.
In t
he
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
vio
len
ce i
s o
ften
ass
oci
ated
w
ith
co
rru
pt
po
lice
pra
ctic
es.
Mod
els
for
un
der
stan
din
g vi
olen
ce
Thes
e re
mar
ks p
rom
pt q
uest
ions
in
rela
tion
to v
iole
nce
whi
ch a
re c
entr
al t
o t
he p
sych
oso
cial
m
ode
l fo
r pr
even
tion
and
wel
lbei
ng i
n po
or
urba
n ne
ighb
our
hoo
ds,
incl
udin
g th
e fu
ndam
enta
l o
ne o
f w
hy w
e sh
oul
d in
terv
ene
at a
ll to
red
uce
vio
lenc
e. W
e w
ill b
riefly
co
nsid
er t
hese
que
stio
ns
thro
ugh
anth
ropo
logi
cal,
trau
ma
and
publ
ic h
ealth
app
roac
hes
to v
iole
nce.
Let
us
begi
n w
ith t
he
anth
ropo
logi
cal
appr
oac
h. F
irstly
, w
hen
is v
iole
nce
cons
ider
ed v
iole
nt a
nd b
y w
hom
? W
hile
thi
s qu
estio
n m
ight
see
m s
elf-
evid
ent,
it is
act
ually
no
t. M
ost
of
the
peo
ple
we
wo
rk w
ith –
esp
ecia
lly
poo
r, yo
ung
peo
ple
– d
o n
ot c
ons
ider
the
vio
lenc
e th
ey e
xper
ienc
e as
vio
lenc
e be
caus
e it
is w
hat i
t is
– ju
st n
orm
al li
fe. I
n th
e P
hilip
pine
s, th
e te
rm ‘O
k la
ng’ o
r ‘ju
st o
k’ c
aptu
res
the
sens
e o
f vio
lenc
e th
at
is t
o b
e ex
pect
ed a
nd h
ence
no
t ‘re
al v
iole
nce’
, eve
n if
vict
ims
are
hurt
or
hum
iliat
ed b
y it
(Jen
sen,
H
apal
and
Mo
dvig
, 20
13).
Tort
ure
is a
cat
ego
ry o
f vio
lenc
e th
at is
mo
st o
ften
ass
oci
ated
with
spe
cific
ev
ents
or r
egim
es li
ke th
e ap
arth
eid
regi
me
in S
out
h A
fric
a o
r the
mar
tial l
aw p
erio
d in
the
Phi
lippi
nes.
Fe
w
peo
ple
are
will
ing
talk
ab
out
th
e cu
rren
t, ev
eryd
ay
vio
lenc
e pe
rpet
rate
d by
po
lice
as
rele
vant
to
the
Co
nven
tion
Aga
inst
To
rtur
e.
In
thes
e in
stan
ces,
w
hat
defin
es
vio
lenc
e is
w
ho
the
vict
im
is.
Vio
lenc
e pe
rpet
rate
d by
the
po
lice
agai
nst
activ
ists
is
perc
eive
d as
rea
l vi
ole
nce,
ye
t th
e sa
me
vio
lenc
e,
whe
n pe
rpet
rate
d ag
ains
t yo
ung
m
en i
n tr
oub
le w
ith t
he l
aw i
s no
t co
nsid
ered
vio
lenc
e.
Like
wis
e, t
he
repr
essi
ve p
ow
ers
of t
he D
anis
h st
ate
are
rare
ly s
poke
n ab
out
as
vio
lenc
e.
Vio
lenc
e se
ems
to
be
rele
vant
o
nly
in
rela
tion
to
exce
ss,
as
the
Fren
ch p
hilo
soph
er E
tienn
e B
alib
ar
(199
8)
sugg
ests
. H
is a
naly
sis
clo
sely
fo
llow
s th
e le
gal
requ
irem
ents
o
f ju
s be
llum
or
just
war
. U
nder
the
se
requ
irem
ents
, vi
ole
nce
can
be
legi
timat
e o
nly
if it
is p
erpe
trat
ed i
n
self-
defe
nce
and
if it
is p
ropo
rtio
nate
to
the
thr
eat.
This
mo
del i
s im
plic
itly
in o
pera
tion
in a
lmo
st a
ll di
sco
urse
s o
n vi
ole
nce.
Tak
e fo
r in
stan
ce t
he
war
on
terr
or,
whi
ch i
s le
gitim
ized
as
pr
e-em
ptiv
e st
rikes
ag
ains
t a
thre
at
that
w
ill
mat
eria
lize
in
the
futu
re.
Even
att
acks
lik
e th
ese
draw
o
n th
e id
ea o
f se
lf-de
fenc
e, a
s do
m
any
prev
enta
tive
crim
inal
ju
stic
e in
terv
entio
ns.
The
disc
ussi
ons
o
n
sent
enci
ng a
re a
n ex
ampl
e o
f ho
w
14
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
15
pro
port
iona
lity
is a
co
nsta
nt e
lem
ent
– h
ow
lo
ng s
houl
d a
crim
inal
sta
y in
pris
on
for
a ce
rtai
n
crim
e? T
hese
rem
arks
als
o s
ugge
st t
hat
whi
le t
he p
rinci
ple
for
the
use
of
legi
timat
e vi
ole
nce
refe
rs
to s
elf-
defe
nce
and
to p
ropo
rtio
nalit
y, t
his
is a
fau
lt lin
e w
hich
is u
p fo
r co
nsta
nt d
iscu
ssio
n an
d
cont
esta
tion
by t
hose
inv
olv
ed.
Hen
ce,
whi
le A
mer
ican
mili
tary
per
sonn
el m
ight
co
nsid
er d
rone
at
tack
s le
gitim
ate,
resi
dent
s in
the
trib
al a
reas
of P
akis
tan
clea
rly d
o n
ot a
gree
. The
sam
e ca
n be
sai
d
abo
ut ra
ids
in S
out
h A
fric
an to
wns
hips
. Whi
le th
e po
lice
mig
ht c
ond
uct s
uch
raid
s w
ith s
elf-
defe
nce
in m
ind
– p
rote
ctin
g So
uth
Afr
ica
agai
nst
a dr
ug m
enac
e –
man
y to
wns
hip
resi
dent
s do
no
t ag
ree
(Jen
sen,
20
08
). H
ence
, whe
n vi
ole
nce
is le
gitim
ate
or
not i
s co
nsta
ntly
neg
otia
ted
and
cont
este
d.
The
seco
nd q
uest
ion
to b
e co
nsid
ered
is
Wha
t is
the
pur
pose
of
vio
lenc
e? O
n a
conc
rete
lev
el,
the
answ
er to
this
que
stio
n is
that
it d
epen
ds o
n th
e co
ntex
t. H
ow
ever
, we
can
expl
ore
it a
t a m
ore
ab
stra
ct le
vel.
The
Ger
man
phi
loso
pher
Wal
ter
Ben
jam
in2
sugg
este
d a
usef
ul d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n
law
-pre
serv
ing
and
law
-mak
ing
vio
lenc
e. In
Ben
jam
in’s
ana
lysi
s, v
iole
nce
is n
ot
dest
ruct
ive
of
law
an
d o
rder
; it
is c
ons
titut
ive
for
law
and
ord
er. H
ence
, we
sho
uld
not
onl
y be
co
ncer
ned
with
wha
t vi
ole
nce
dest
roys
but
als
o w
hat
kind
of s
oci
ality
and
co
mm
unity
it e
nabl
es a
nd p
rodu
ces.
The
idea
th
at v
iole
nce
pro
duce
s so
cial
ity m
ight
be
coun
ter-
intu
itive
fo
r m
any.
Ho
wev
er, c
ons
ider
vig
ilant
e vi
ole
nce
and
how
am
biva
lent
it
is;
whi
le i
t de
stro
ys h
uman
bo
dies
and
liv
es,
it al
so r
eco
nfirm
s an
d re
pro
duce
s th
e ex
iste
nce
of
a pr
ocl
aim
ed m
ora
l co
mm
unity
at
the
sam
e tim
e as
it c
ond
one
s vi
ole
nce
in w
ays
that
arg
uabl
y ea
t aw
ay a
t a
soci
al f
abric
sha
red
by a
ll. I
n th
at s
ense
, it
is e
xact
ly
wha
t Ben
jam
in w
oul
d ca
ll ‘la
w-p
rese
rvin
g vi
ole
nce’
. Whi
le it
is n
ot b
ased
on
form
al o
r co
nstit
utio
nal
law
, it
relie
s o
n an
oth
er,
mo
re l
oca
lized
‘la
w’
whi
ch i
s no
les
s eff
ectiv
e in
the
spe
cific
co
ntex
t. If
we
follo
w th
is th
ou
gh
t, w
e m
igh
t say
that
man
y o
f th
e fo
rms
of c
olle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
men
tion
ed
abo
ve f
all
into
th
e ca
teg
ory
of
‘law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce’,
even
if
the
vio
len
t p
ract
ices
are
in
co
ntr
aven
tion
of
form
al l
aw.
An
exa
mp
le h
ere
cou
ld b
e th
e vi
ole
nce
vis
ited
up
on
sex
ual
m
ino
ritie
s, w
hic
h is
ag
ain
st th
e So
uth
Afr
ican
Co
nst
itutio
n b
ut l
egiti
miz
ed b
y m
ora
l an
d re
ligio
us
cod
es (J
ense
n, 2
00
5). I
n a
ll th
e ca
ses,
co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce is
leg
itim
ized
as
the
def
ence
of a
mo
ral
com
mu
nity
; th
at is
, th
at g
rou
p o
f peo
ple
wh
o a
re a
ble
to a
sser
t th
eir a
uth
ori
ty a
s th
e co
mm
un
ity.
Th
is s
ug
ges
ts th
at th
e co
nce
pt o
f co
mm
un
ity is
als
o c
on
test
ed. ‘
Th
e co
mm
un
ity’ t
hen
bec
om
es
an e
ntit
y th
at d
epen
ds
on
th
e ab
ility
an
d p
ow
er t
o d
efin
e it
and
mai
nta
in it
, oft
en t
hro
ug
h ‘l
aw-
pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce’.
Stat
e vi
ole
nce
cle
arly
fal
ls u
nd
er t
he
cate
go
ry o
f la
w-p
rese
rvin
g v
iole
nce
. W
e co
uld
arg
ue
that
man
y fo
rms
of
do
mes
tic a
nd
inte
rper
son
al v
iole
nce
wo
uld
fal
l un
der
th
e ca
teg
ory
of
law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce, a
s d
om
estic
vio
len
ce o
ften
rel
ates
to
th
e p
rese
rvat
ion
of
for
inst
ance
pat
riar
chal
or
gen
erat
ion
al p
ow
er s
tru
ctu
res.
To
a v
ery
larg
e ex
ten
t, t
he
vio
len
ce
her
e d
escr
ibed
thro
ug
h th
e co
nce
pt o
f law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce is
wh
at w
e re
fer t
o in
the
pro
ject
as
‘au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
’, th
at is
, vio
len
ce t
hat
pre
serv
es w
hat
is lo
cally
co
nsi
der
ed a
mo
ral
com
mu
nity
or
a co
mm
un
ity o
f m
ora
lly u
pst
and
ing
res
iden
ts.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
acco
rdin
g t
o B
enja
min
’s a
nal
ysis
, la
w-m
akin
g v
iole
nce
rel
ates
to
war
b
etw
een
nat
ion
s, w
her
e th
e co
nq
uer
or
wo
uld
ch
ang
e th
e le
gal
sta
tus
qu
o.
As
revo
lutio
nar
y vi
ole
nce
als
o a
ims
to m
ake
law
by
top
plin
g a
leg
al r
egim
e, it
can
be
con
sid
ered
in t
his
cat
ego
ry.
In e
ach
of
the
fou
r si
tes,
th
ere
are
trac
es o
f re
volu
tion
ary
vio
len
ce –
th
e re
bel
lion
in L
iber
ia, t
he
Mao
ist
and
Mo
ro in
surg
ency
in t
he
Ph
ilip
pin
es, t
he
anti-
apar
thei
d s
tru
gg
le in
So
uth
Afr
ica
and
to
so
me
exte
nt
the
so-c
alle
d f
ore
ign
fig
hte
rs in
Den
mar
k tr
avel
ling
to
Syr
ia t
o t
op
ple
a r
egim
e th
ere.
It c
an a
lso
be
app
lied
to te
rro
rist
act
ion
s in
Den
mar
k an
d e
lsew
her
e in
the
Wes
tern
wo
rld
, si
nce
th
ey a
im t
o t
op
ple
wh
at is
co
nsi
der
ed ‘W
este
rn d
om
inan
ce’.
Wh
ile it
mig
ht
be
stre
tch
ing
th
e im
agin
atio
n,
we
cou
ld a
lso
dis
cuss
so
me
par
ts o
f yo
uth
vio
len
ce a
s la
w-m
akin
g v
iole
nce
, as
gan
g n
arra
tives
(fo
cuse
d a
rou
nd
gan
gst
er-r
ap a
nd
th
e A
mer
ican
rap
per
Tu
pac
) oft
en p
ort
ray
gan
g v
iole
nce
as
resi
stan
ce t
o s
oci
ety
(Jen
sen
an
d R
od
ger
s, 2
00
9).
2 h
ttp
://c
ritic
alle
gal
thin
kin
g.c
om
/20
13/1
0/1
1/n
ote
s-th
ou
gh
t-w
alte
r-b
enja
min
-cri
tiqu
e-vi
ole
nce
/
Th
e la
st e
xam
ple
, ho
wev
er, m
ay in
dic
ate
the
limit
of
Ben
jam
in’s
co
nce
pts
, as
you
th v
iole
nce
–
and
ind
eed
oth
er f
orm
s o
f vi
ole
nce
– c
lear
ly c
ann
ot
be
exp
lain
ed p
ure
ly a
s ei
ther
law
-mak
ing
o
r la
w-p
rese
rvin
g v
iole
nce
. O
ther
exp
lan
ato
ry a
pp
roac
hes
are
nec
essa
ry t
o f
ocu
s u
sefu
lly o
n
vio
len
ce in
dys
fun
ctio
nal
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es, a
s w
ell a
s o
n s
tru
ctu
ral f
orm
s o
f vio
len
ce li
ke
un
emp
loym
ent a
nd
so
cial
mar
gin
aliz
atio
n; t
hat
is, a
n e
colo
gic
al a
nd
pu
blic
hea
lth
ap
pro
ach
. Th
e b
oo
k ‘Y
ou
th V
iole
nce
in S
ou
th A
fric
a’ is
a w
ell-
arg
ued
exa
mp
le o
f th
e ec
olo
gic
al m
od
el (
War
d,
van
der
Mer
ve a
nd
Daw
es, 2
012
). H
ere
the
focu
s is
less
on
th
e p
rod
uct
ive
than
th
e d
estr
uct
ive
sid
e o
f vi
ole
nce
. T
his
cle
arly
als
o fi
nd
s re
son
ance
in G
altu
ng
an
d L
eder
ach
’s s
ug
ges
tion
s th
at
wh
ile c
on
flict
is in
evita
ble
, vio
len
ce c
an b
e p
reve
nte
d (L
eder
ach
, 19
98
; Gal
tun
g, 1
99
6).
Th
e th
ird
qu
estio
n is
: Wh
at d
rive
s th
is v
iole
nce
? T
he
pu
blic
hea
lth
an
d tr
aum
a ap
pro
ach
es a
ssis
t in
an
swer
ing
this
qu
estio
n. T
he
pu
blic
hea
lth
ap
pro
ach
loo
ks a
t vio
len
ce fr
om
the
per
spec
tive
of
risk
fac
tors
an
d p
rote
ctiv
e fa
cto
rs. R
isk
fact
ors
are
th
ose
wh
ich
pla
ce in
div
idu
als
at r
isk
of
eith
er
per
pet
ratin
g v
iole
nce
or
bei
ng
vic
tims
of
vio
len
ce a
nd
pro
tect
ive
fact
ors
are
th
ose
th
at p
rote
ct
on
e fr
om
per
pet
ratin
g v
iole
nce
or
bei
ng
vic
timiz
ed.
In i
nst
ance
s w
her
e ri
sk f
acto
rs o
utw
eig
h
pro
tect
ive
fact
ors
, an
in
div
idu
al c
an b
e co
nsi
der
ed a
t ri
sk o
f ei
ther
per
pet
ratin
g v
iole
nce
or
suff
erin
g it
. A lo
t of w
ork
has
bee
n d
on
e w
ithin
the
field
of p
ub
lic h
ealt
h to
iden
tify
bo
th p
rote
ctiv
e an
d ri
sk fa
cto
rs fo
r vio
len
ce p
erp
etra
tion
. Th
ey ra
ng
e fr
om
ind
ivid
ual
to fa
mily
to n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
to
so
ciet
al. S
om
e ex
amp
les
are
bio
log
ical
issu
es (e
.g. m
ales
bei
ng
at
a h
igh
er r
isk
than
fem
ales
), fa
mili
al (p
aren
tal e
spec
ially
mat
ern
al n
egle
ct a
nd
reje
ctio
n a
s a
risk
fact
or)
, nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
d s
oci
al
attit
ud
es (
a n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
with
pro
-so
cial
val
ues
as
a p
rote
ctiv
e fa
cto
r an
d a
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
d
with
an
tiso
cial
val
ues
as
a ri
sk f
acto
r), a
nd
at
mes
o-s
cale
so
ciet
al f
acto
rs s
uch
as
ineq
ual
ity a
re
fou
nd
to b
e a
risk
fact
or f
or v
iole
nce
per
pet
ratio
n. W
hile
thes
e h
elp
us
to b
ette
r un
der
stan
d w
hat
d
rive
s g
ener
al v
iole
nce
, th
ere
has
bee
n l
imite
d w
ork
on
un
der
stan
din
g w
hat
dri
ves
auth
ori
ty-
bas
ed v
iole
nce
. M
ost
of
the
time
with
in t
he
pu
blic
hea
lth
mo
del
, th
e sa
me
peo
ple
wh
o a
re
at r
isk
of
per
pet
ratin
g v
iole
nce
on
oth
ers
are
also
fo
un
d t
o b
e at
ris
k o
f vi
ctim
izat
ion
by
the
auth
ori
ties.
Th
ere
has
bee
n l
imite
d w
ork
in
un
der
stan
din
g t
his
in
terf
ace
bet
wee
n v
ictim
ho
od
an
d p
erp
etra
tion
. Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
ere
has
bee
n l
imite
d w
ork
do
ne
to u
nd
erst
and
th
e ri
sk a
nd
p
rote
ctiv
e fa
cto
rs f
or
the
per
pet
ratio
n o
f au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
. So
me
of
the
risk
fac
tors
th
at h
ave
bee
n id
entifi
ed in
th
e fo
ur
com
mu
niti
es in
clu
ded
leg
itim
izat
ion
an
d c
on
do
nin
g o
f th
e vi
ole
nce
by
the
com
mu
niti
es.
Th
e p
ub
lic h
ealt
h m
od
el f
urt
her
iden
tifie
s tr
aum
a as
a r
isk
fact
or
for
per
pet
rati
on
of
vio
len
ce.
Gab
arin
o (
2013
) sp
ecifi
cally
lo
oks
at
typ
e 3
trau
ma
(wh
ere
ther
e h
as b
een
sev
ere
child
ho
od
n
egle
ct a
nd
vio
len
ce).
Gar
bar
ino
arg
ues
th
at b
ehin
d e
very
per
pet
rato
r th
ere
is a
n u
ntr
eate
d
trau
mat
ized
ch
ild,
and
th
at v
iole
nce
pre
ven
tio
n t
her
efo
re h
as t
o d
eal
wit
h t
hes
e u
ntr
eate
d
child
ho
od
wo
un
ds.
Wh
ilst
this
co
nce
pt
can
be
use
ful
in h
elp
ing
to
un
der
stan
d s
om
e o
f th
e in
div
idu
al p
sych
olo
gic
al d
rive
rs fo
r in
div
idu
als
wh
o p
erp
etra
te a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce, i
t do
es
no
t h
elp
in u
nd
erst
and
ing
th
e co
llect
ive
and
/or
inst
itu
tio
nal
nat
ure
of
this
vio
len
ce. C
on
cep
ts
fro
m th
e em
erg
ing
fiel
d o
f co
llect
ive
trau
ma
may
be
hel
pfu
l in
exp
lain
ing
this
. Co
llect
ive
trau
ma
sug
ges
t th
at it
is p
oss
ible
for
colle
ctiv
es s
uch
as
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
ds,
inst
itu
tio
ns
(po
lice
etc)
, an
d
soci
etie
s at
lar
ge
to b
e tr
aum
atiz
ed (
Blo
om
, 19
96
). It
su
gg
ests
th
at a
co
llect
ive
can
hav
e a
psy
che
of
its
ow
n, a
nd
co
nse
qu
entl
y, ju
st a
s w
ith
an
ind
ivid
ual
’s t
rau
ma,
if a
co
llect
ive
trau
ma
go
es u
ntr
eate
d o
r u
nre
solv
ed i
t w
ill m
anife
st i
tsel
f in
sev
eral
way
s. O
ne
way
fo
r a
colle
ctiv
e to
dea
l wit
h u
nb
eara
ble
an
d t
rau
mat
ic m
emo
ries
is b
y ac
tin
g t
hem
ou
t. T
his
is a
way
of
tryi
ng
to
rel
ieve
an
d u
nd
o t
he
trau
ma
(Blo
om
, 19
96
). A
cco
rdin
g t
o B
loo
m in
th
ese
inst
ance
s h
isto
ry
rep
eats
its
elf.
Th
is i
s se
en i
n i
nst
ance
s lik
e vi
ole
nt
serv
ice
del
iver
y p
rote
sts
in S
ou
th A
fric
a,
wh
ere
som
e o
f th
e ex
per
ien
ce o
f ap
arth
eid
are
rep
eate
d,
e.g
. si
ng
ing
of
stru
gg
le s
on
gs,
th
e ‘to
yi-t
oyi
’ dan
ce a
nd
th
e ty
pe
of
inte
ract
ion
bet
wee
n t
he
pro
test
ers
and
th
e p
olic
e, w
her
e th
e p
olic
e o
ften
use
th
e sa
me
vio
len
t cr
ow
d c
on
tro
l mec
han
ism
s th
at w
ere
use
d d
uri
ng
ap
arth
eid
16
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
17
(Mo
gap
i, 20
11).
Th
is i
s al
so s
een
in
co
un
trie
s w
ith
un
reso
lved
his
tori
es o
f vi
ole
nt
rep
ress
ive
stat
es w
her
e st
ate
inst
itu
tio
ns
such
as
the
po
lice
on
ce u
sed
vio
len
ce t
o d
eal
wit
h ‘
acti
vist
s’
or
peo
ple
th
e st
ate
con
sid
ered
‘ter
rori
st’.
Even
if s
uch
co
un
trie
s n
ow
hav
e d
emo
crat
ic s
tate
s,
the
inst
itu
tio
ns
that
use
d v
iole
nce
du
rin
g t
he
op
pre
ssio
n s
till
use
sim
ilar
tact
ics
to a
dd
ress
‘at
risk
’ gro
up
s to
day
. In
thes
e co
un
trie
s, tr
adit
ion
al h
um
an r
igh
ts a
pp
roac
hes
su
ch a
s p
ro-h
um
an
rig
hts
law
s, p
olic
ies
and
pra
ctic
es h
ave
no
t b
een
eff
ecti
ve in
tra
nsf
orm
ing
th
ese
inst
itu
tio
ns.
W
e ar
gu
e th
at p
art
of
the
reas
on
fo
r th
e la
ck o
f su
cces
s o
f th
ese
trad
itio
nal
hu
man
rig
hts
ap
pro
ach
es is
th
at t
hey
do
no
t d
eal w
ith
th
e co
llect
ive
trau
ma
that
exi
sts
in t
hes
e in
stit
uti
on
s.
Th
e m
emo
ries
lin
ked
wit
h t
he
colle
ctiv
e tr
aum
a ar
e tr
ansf
erre
d f
rom
on
e g
ener
atio
n o
f th
e p
olic
e to
th
e n
ext,
an
d t
he
nar
rati
ves
use
d a
gai
nst
act
ivis
ts i
n t
he
pas
t ar
e tr
ansp
ose
d o
nto
th
e ‘p
rob
lem
atic
ind
ivid
ual
s’ in
th
e p
rese
nt.
Psy
cho
soci
ally
info
rmed
vio
len
ce p
reve
nti
on
th
us
invo
lves
ad
dre
ssin
g t
his
inst
itu
tio
nal
tra
um
a an
d n
ot
just
tra
inin
g o
n h
um
an r
igh
ts.
In t
he
acco
un
t ab
ove
, w
e in
tro
du
ce t
hre
e d
iffer
ent
mo
del
s fo
r u
nd
erst
and
ing
vio
len
ce.
In t
he
pu
blic
hea
lth
mo
del
vio
len
ce i
s ak
in t
o a
dis
ease
th
at n
eed
s to
be
cure
d a
nd
pre
ven
ted
. In
th
e tr
aum
a m
od
el,
vio
len
ce i
s a
sym
pto
m a
nd
th
ere
is a
nee
d t
o a
dd
ress
bo
th t
he
sym
pto
m
and
th
e u
nd
erly
ing
cau
ses.
Fin
ally
, in
th
e m
ore
an
thro
po
log
ical
ap
pro
ach
, im
plic
itly
insp
ired
b
y B
enja
min
, vi
ole
nce
is
con
stitu
tive
and
alw
ays
ther
e. I
t is
no
t a
by-
pro
du
ct o
f u
nfo
rtu
nat
e st
ruct
ure
s b
ut c
entr
al to
law
itse
lf. A
ll th
ree
mo
del
s –
vio
len
ce a
s d
estr
uct
ive,
as
sym
pto
m a
nd
as
pro
du
ctiv
e –
are
rele
van
t fo
r in
terv
entio
ns
we
dis
cuss
, as
we
shal
l see
bel
ow
, an
d n
ot n
eces
sari
ly
con
trad
icto
ry. W
e ca
n s
ee th
is if
we
con
sid
er th
e q
ues
tion
: Wh
y sh
ou
ld w
e in
terv
ene
in d
iffer
ent
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
?
Why
inte
rven
e in
rel
atio
n to
vio
len
ce?
If w
e ac
cep
t th
at b
oth
mo
des
of
exp
lan
atio
n a
re r
elev
ant
– i.
e. t
hat
vio
len
ce is
bo
th a
dis
ease
an
d c
on
stitu
tive
to s
oci
ety
– t
he
nex
t q
ues
tion
is w
hy
we
sho
uld
inte
rven
e an
d t
ry t
o p
reve
nt
it at
all.
Let
us
bri
efly
go
th
rou
gh
so
me
of
the
diff
eren
t fo
rms
of
vio
len
ce id
entifi
ed a
bo
ve t
hat
se
em m
ost
rel
evan
t fo
r o
ur
wo
rk in
po
or
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s: y
ou
th v
iole
nce
, in
terp
erso
nal
vi
ole
nce
, co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce a
nd
sta
te v
iole
nce
.
Yout
h vi
olen
ce s
houl
d be
pre
vent
ed b
ecau
se:
1)
It h
arm
s an
d i
t h
urt
s. T
he
terr
itori
ality
of
mu
ch y
ou
th v
iole
nce
pre
ven
ts t
he
full
life
and
mo
vem
ent
of
you
ng
peo
ple
an
d r
esid
ents
. It
pre
ven
ts t
he
bu
ildin
g o
f re
latio
nsh
ips,
co
mm
un
ity a
nd
th
e fu
ll re
aliz
atio
n o
f p
ote
ntia
l;
2)
It h
as t
he
po
ten
tial t
o e
scal
ate
fro
m in
terp
erso
nal
vio
len
ce t
o c
olle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
, eve
n
into
reg
ion
al w
ars
and
inte
rnat
ion
al c
rim
inal
net
wo
rks,
as
we
hav
e se
en in
man
y o
f th
e w
ars
in W
est
Afr
ica
and
Lib
eria
wh
ere
ex-c
om
bat
ants
hav
e p
artic
ipat
ed in
inte
rnat
ion
al
mig
ratio
n, m
erce
nar
y ac
tiviti
es a
nd
dru
g t
rad
ing
(Vig
h, 2
016
);
3)
You
th
vio
len
ce
invi
tes
oth
er
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
–
es
pec
ially
co
llect
ive
and
st
ate
vio
len
ce –
to
co
un
ter
its e
ffec
ts,
for
exam
ple
vig
ilan
te a
ctiv
ities
, w
ars
on
gan
gs
and
co
un
teri
nsu
rgen
cy m
easu
res;
4)
Pre
ven
ting
yo
uth
vio
len
ce m
igh
t b
reak
th
e cy
cle
of
vio
len
ce –
th
e cu
ltu
re, t
he
psy
che,
th
e h
isto
ry –
th
at s
ees
vio
len
ce p
erp
etu
ate
itsel
f fr
om
on
e g
ener
atio
n t
o t
he
nex
t;
5)
You
th v
iole
nce
ad
ds
to a
nd
leg
itim
izes
th
e m
arg
inal
izat
ion
of
you
th a
nd
rep
rod
uce
s its
‘v
ictim
izab
ility
’. In
th
at s
ense
, yo
uth
vio
len
ce is
a p
red
icto
r o
f o
ther
fo
rms
of
vio
len
ce;
6)
Pre
ven
ting
yo
uth
vio
len
ce r
edu
ces
the
po
ten
tial f
or
po
lice
corr
up
tion
;
7)
Pre
ven
ting
yo
uth
vio
len
ce m
ay w
ork
to
im
pro
ve r
elat
ion
ship
s b
etw
een
ch
ildre
n a
nd
p
aren
ts a
nd
bet
wee
n y
ou
ng
peo
ple
an
d t
he
gen
eral
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
d; a
nd
8)
You
th v
iole
nce
clo
gs
pu
blic
hea
lth
an
d c
rim
inal
just
ice
syst
ems.
Inte
rper
sona
l vio
lenc
e (i
ntim
ate,
inte
rgen
erat
iona
l and
gen
der
viol
ence
) sh
ould
be
prev
ente
d be
caus
e: 1)
A
dd
ress
ing
it m
ay a
dd
ress
th
e u
neq
ual
an
d v
ertic
al r
elat
ion
s o
f p
ow
er in
intim
ate
and
in
terp
erso
nal
sp
her
es a
s a
cen
tral
par
t o
f cu
ltu
res
that
per
pet
uat
e vi
ole
nce
lo
cally
–
gen
der
(m
en a
bo
ve w
om
en),
inte
rgen
erat
ion
al (
old
bef
ore
yo
un
g)
and
co
mm
un
al
(eth
nic
, rac
ial,
nat
ion
al, e
tc.);
2)
Pre
ven
ting
it m
ay p
reve
nt
esca
latio
ns
into
co
llect
ive
and
sta
te v
iole
nce
;
3)
Inte
rper
son
al v
iole
nce
is
a p
roxy
an
d a
pre
dic
tor
for
vio
len
ce i
n a
so
ciet
y as
it
oft
en
feed
s an
d e
nab
les
oth
er f
orm
s o
f vi
ole
nce
, as
wh
en a
ch
ild is
pu
nis
hed
an
d c
arri
es t
his
vi
ole
nce
with
him
or
her
into
th
eir
ow
n p
ract
ice;
18
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
19
4)
Inte
rper
sona
l vio
lenc
e ca
n be
tran
smitt
ed u
nco
nsci
ous
ly in
situ
atio
ns o
f do
mes
tic v
iole
nce,
w
here
in t
he v
iole
nt b
ehav
iour
of
a pa
rent
sur
face
s in
do
mes
tic s
ituat
ions
of
the
child
ren
o
nce
they
are
adu
lts
5)
Indi
vidu
al h
uman
rig
hts
vio
latio
ns c
an c
reat
e co
llect
ive
trau
ma,
whi
ch c
an,
in t
urn,
fue
l ad
ditio
nal h
uman
rig
hts
vio
latio
ns a
nd o
ther
form
s o
f vio
lenc
e.
Colle
ctiv
e vi
olen
ce sh
ould
be
addr
esse
d be
caus
e: 1)
It
hurt
s an
d ha
rms
and
dest
roys
the
liv
elih
oo
d an
d so
cial
fab
ric o
f th
e m
ost
vul
nera
ble
gro
ups
of s
oci
ety
– th
ose
who
are
see
n as
a th
reat
to a
giv
en m
ora
l co
mm
unity
;
2)
Add
ress
ing
colle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
may
add
ress
the
ver
tical
lin
es o
f po
wer
of
the
mo
ral
com
mun
ity th
at p
erpe
tuat
es th
e vi
ole
nce.
Thi
s m
ay ta
ke th
e fo
rm o
f xen
oph
obi
c vi
ole
nce,
in
terg
ener
atio
nal v
iole
nce,
hat
e cr
imes
and
vio
lenc
e ag
ains
t vic
tims
of d
isea
se; a
nd
3)
Co
llect
ive
vio
lenc
e o
ften
esc
alat
es in
to s
tate
vio
lenc
e an
d in
tra-
com
mun
al s
trug
gle.
Stat
e vi
olen
ce (
carr
ied
out b
y te
ache
rs, p
riso
n gu
ards
, pol
ice
and
othe
r st
ate
offic
ials
) sh
ould
be
prev
ente
d be
caus
e:
1)
It ha
rms
and
dest
roys
the
liv
es a
nd l
ivel
iho
od
of
the
poo
r an
d w
reck
s in
divi
dual
and
co
mm
unal
trus
t;
2)
It un
derm
ines
the
belie
f in
just
ice
and
the
rule
of l
aw;
3)
It is
intim
atel
y co
nnec
ted
to v
iole
nt e
xto
rtio
nist
and
info
rmal
sta
te p
ract
ices
;
4)
It es
cala
tes
into
co
llect
ive
vio
lenc
e an
d o
ften
pro
pels
yo
uth
vio
lenc
e, e
ven
if th
ey a
re
obl
iged
by
law
to p
rote
ct th
e di
gnity
of p
eopl
e;
5)
It pr
even
ts m
eani
ngfu
l cha
nge
fro
m o
ccur
ring
as p
eopl
e ar
e fr
ight
ened
to
eng
age
in c
ivil
actio
n; a
nd
6)
It p
erp
etu
ates
mis
tru
st b
etw
een
citi
zen
s an
d s
tate
act
ors
, wh
ich
is c
ruci
al f
or
effec
tive
vio
len
ce p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
str
eng
then
ing
of
dem
ocr
acie
s.
Vic
tim
s, a
nd
ris
k a
nd
tar
get
grou
ps
Fro
m t
he
lists
of
vio
len
ce a
nd
rea
son
s fo
r in
terv
enin
g a
bo
ve w
e m
ay d
edu
ce r
isk
gro
up
s o
f au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
, as
wel
l as
targ
et g
rou
ps
for
inte
rven
tio
n. I
n o
ur
wo
rk w
e d
isti
ng
uis
h
bet
wee
n fi
ve d
iffer
ent
targ
et g
rou
ps
for
ou
r p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
to
ad
dre
ssin
g a
uth
ori
ty-
bas
ed v
iole
nce
. Th
ey c
om
pri
se v
icti
ms
of
vio
len
ce, r
isk
gro
up
s o
f vi
ole
nce
, fam
ilies
of
vict
ims
and
ris
k g
rou
ps,
th
e co
mm
un
itie
s in
wh
ich
th
ey li
ve a
nd
inst
itu
tio
ns
wie
ldin
g a
uth
ori
ty (
stat
e o
r n
on
-sta
te)
in t
he
giv
en c
on
text
. In
diff
eren
t w
ays
thes
e fiv
e g
rou
ps
po
pu
late
th
e fie
ld i
n
wh
ich
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
is
a ce
ntr
al p
rob
lem
. W
hile
th
ey a
ll in
hab
it t
he
field
, th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
dis
tin
gu
ish
es b
etw
een
vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s o
n t
he
on
e si
de
and
fa
mili
es, c
om
mu
nit
ies
and
au
tho
riti
es o
n t
he
oth
er.
Vic
tim
s an
d ri
sk g
rou
ps
com
pri
se th
ose
gro
up
s th
at in
diff
eren
t w
ays
are
seen
as
an a
ffro
nt
or
thre
at to
a lo
cally
en
do
rsed
mo
ral c
om
mu
nit
y.
As
we
can
see
fro
m a
bo
ve, t
hes
e g
rou
ps
mig
ht
be
con
stit
ute
d b
y yo
un
g p
eop
le,
mig
ran
ts,
susp
ecte
d
terr
ori
sts,
se
xual
m
ino
riti
es,
vict
ims
of
dis
ease
, o
r an
y o
ther
gro
up
th
at i
s m
arg
inal
ized
by
the
mo
ral
com
mu
nit
y. W
ho
th
ey a
re m
ust
be
det
erm
ined
in
th
e sp
ecifi
c co
nte
xt.
Ho
wev
er,
for
all
ou
r fo
ur
con
text
s,
you
ng
peo
ple
(m
ost
ly m
en b
ut
also
wo
men
) ar
e g
ener
ally
un
der
sto
od
as
bo
th a
ris
k an
d
at r
isk.
Oft
en a
uth
ori
ties
– s
tate
an
d n
on
-st
ate
– p
erce
ive
them
as
inh
eren
tly
crim
inal
o
r vi
ole
nt
and
ou
t o
f co
ntr
ol;
as m
emb
ers
of
gan
gs
and
dru
g a
bu
sers
. T
hes
e p
erce
pti
on
s le
git
imiz
e in
terv
enti
on
an
d o
ften
dis
cip
linar
y o
r re
trib
uti
ve v
iole
nce
ag
ain
st y
ou
ng
peo
ple
. W
hile
th
ese
per
cep
tio
ns
to s
om
e ex
ten
t h
ave
littl
e re
lati
on
to
th
e re
alit
y o
f yo
un
g p
eop
le,
you
ng
p
eop
le
are
ob
ject
ivel
y at
ri
sk
and
o
ften
th
eir
ow
n p
ract
ices
in
vite
ret
rib
uti
on
an
d d
isci
plin
ary
acti
on
. Th
us
we
may
use
fully
re
fer
to y
ou
ng
peo
ple
as
vict
im-p
erp
etra
tors
w
her
e it
is t
o s
om
e ex
ten
t th
eir
ow
n p
ract
ices
th
at i
nvi
te v
iole
nce
. H
ence
, p
rote
ctio
n m
ust
in
clu
de
wo
rkin
g b
oth
wit
h t
he
per
cep
tio
ns
of
soci
ety
and
th
e p
ract
ices
o
f yo
un
g
peo
ple
. T
hes
e re
mar
ks
sug
ges
t th
at
wh
ile
we
can
est
ablis
h a
firs
t d
isti
nct
ion
bet
wee
n
vict
ims
and
ri
sk
gro
up
s o
f au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce,
bo
th a
re c
entr
al t
arg
et g
rou
ps
for
inte
rven
tio
n.
An
y p
roje
ct
mu
st
des
crib
e in
d
etai
l b
oth
vic
tim
an
d r
isk
gro
up
s in
rel
atio
n
to t
he
stru
ctu
res
of
vio
len
ce.
Fin
ally
, w
hen
it
co
mes
to
in
terv
enti
on
s it
is
cr
uci
al
to
dis
tin
gu
ish
bet
wee
n v
icti
ms
wh
o h
ave
actu
ally
ex
per
ien
ced
vio
len
ce,
ill-t
reat
men
t an
d e
ven
20
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
21
tort
ure
on
th
e o
ne
han
d a
nd
ris
k g
rou
ps
on
th
e o
ther
. W
hile
ris
k g
rou
ps
sho
uld
be
eng
aged
w
ith
as
po
ten
tial
futu
re v
icti
ms,
th
ere
are
hea
lth
(ph
ysic
al a
nd
psy
cho
log
ical
) iss
ues
sp
ecifi
c to
vi
ctim
s th
at n
eed
to
be
dea
lt w
ith
diff
eren
tly
than
ris
k g
rou
ps.
A s
eco
nd
ord
er o
f tar
get
gro
up
s ca
n a
lso
be
ded
uce
d fr
om
th
e ab
ove
. Th
ey c
om
pri
se fa
mili
es,
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
ds
(co
mm
un
itie
s) a
nd
sta
te o
ffici
als.
Th
ese
gro
up
s ar
e ch
arac
teri
zed
by
bei
ng
b
oth
po
ten
tial
per
pet
rato
rs o
f vi
ole
nce
– e
ith
er a
s d
irec
t p
erp
etra
tors
or
as c
on
do
nin
g t
he
law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce a
gai
nst
ris
k g
rou
ps
– a
nd
po
ten
tial
cri
tica
l su
pp
ort
str
uct
ure
s in
p
reve
nti
ng
vio
len
ce a
nd
ad
dre
ssin
g i
ts c
on
seq
uen
ces.
Co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce w
ill o
ften
tak
e it
s p
oin
t o
f d
epar
ture
in
a m
ora
l co
mm
un
ity
and
sta
te v
iole
nce
will
oft
en fi
nd
its
leg
itim
acy
in
the
real
or
per
ceiv
ed t
hre
at p
ose
d b
y ri
sk g
rou
ps.
Wh
ile f
amili
es d
o n
ot
nec
essa
rily
en
gag
e in
dir
ect
colle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st t
hei
r o
wn
mem
ber
s, t
hey
may
en
do
rse
it f
or
dis
cip
linar
y re
aso
ns.
Hen
ce, p
aren
ts in
th
e fo
ur
con
text
s h
ave
bee
n k
no
wn
to
ask
au
tho
riti
es t
o d
isci
plin
e th
eir
child
ren
or
sim
ply
to
acc
ept
it.
Fam
ilies
may
eve
n c
on
stit
ute
th
e si
ng
le m
ost
vio
len
t sp
ace
for
risk
gro
up
s. T
he
dis
cip
linin
g m
ay a
lso
in
volv
e vi
ole
nce
to
pre
serv
e d
om
esti
c an
d
gen
erat
ion
al p
ow
er s
tru
ctu
res.
In
terv
enti
on
sh
ou
ld t
her
efo
re b
e fo
cuse
d o
n w
ork
ing
wit
h
fam
ilies
, co
mm
un
itie
s an
d s
tate
offi
cial
s as
a w
ay t
o p
reve
nt
vio
len
ce. A
s w
ith
vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s, p
roje
cts
mu
st u
nd
erst
and
an
d d
escr
ibe
the
rela
tio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
th
is s
eco
nd
-ord
er
targ
et g
rou
p a
nd
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
. Fi
nal
ly,
auth
ori
ties
oft
en e
xact
sev
ere
form
s o
f b
oth
ph
ysic
al a
nd
psy
cho
log
ical
vio
len
ce t
o a
n e
xten
t th
at i
t fa
lls u
nd
er t
he
pu
rvie
w o
f th
e C
on
ven
tio
n A
gai
nst
To
rtu
re.
Ho
wev
er,
in t
he
case
of
fam
ilies
, co
mm
un
itie
s an
d a
uth
ori
ties
th
ey m
ay a
lso
tu
rn o
ut
to b
e cr
itic
al a
llian
ce p
artn
ers
in p
reve
nti
ng
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
an
d a
dd
ress
ing
its
con
seq
uen
ces.
Wh
ile w
e ad
voca
te f
or
a p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
th
at f
ocu
ses
on
vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s,
inte
rven
tio
ns
may
beg
in f
rom
an
d f
ocu
s o
n a
ll ac
tors
wit
hin
th
e fie
ld, b
e th
ey v
icti
ms
and
ris
k g
rou
ps
or
fam
ilies
, co
mm
un
itie
s an
d a
uth
ori
ties
.
Th
eory
of c
han
ge –
focu
sin
g on
rel
atio
nsh
ips
A c
entr
al fo
cus
of t
he
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
h is
on
rel
atio
nsh
ips
– in
fam
ilies
, in
co
mm
un
ities
an
d
with
the
stat
e. If
we
mak
e o
ur p
oin
t of d
epar
ture
the
abo
ve c
om
men
ts o
n th
e co
nte
xts
of v
iole
nce
an
d p
erp
etra
tors
an
d v
ictim
s, w
e n
ote
that
rel
atio
nsh
ips
per
vad
e o
ur
dis
cuss
ion
s. R
isk
gro
up
s an
d
vict
ims
are
pu
t at
ris
k d
ue
to t
he
rela
tion
ship
s –
as
mo
ral a
ffro
nts
, so
ciet
al d
ange
rs a
nd
as
peo
ple
in
nee
d o
f d
isci
plin
ing
– t
hey
hav
e w
ith t
hei
r fa
mili
es,
com
mu
niti
es a
nd
th
e st
ate.
Sim
ilarl
y, w
e n
ote
th
at g
oo
d r
elat
ion
ship
s w
ith t
he
sam
e gr
ou
ps
and
act
ors
may
be
sup
po
rtiv
e an
d p
rote
ctiv
e.
Take
on
e o
f th
e C
SVR
par
tner
s in
Kag
iso
, wh
o e
xpla
ined
that
he
and
his
gro
up
nee
ded
to w
ork
on
th
eir
imag
e in
th
e co
mm
un
ity. T
his
su
gges
ts a
n a
war
enes
s o
f w
hat
pu
ts h
im a
nd
his
co
mp
atrio
ts
at r
isk
– n
amel
y p
rob
lem
atic
rel
atio
nsh
ips.
Ask
ed a
bo
ut
his
rel
atio
nsh
ip w
ith t
he
po
lice,
he
wen
t o
n t
o e
xpla
in t
hat
in
fac
t th
e re
latio
nsh
ips
with
fam
ily a
nd
co
mm
un
ity w
ere
mo
re i
mp
ort
ant
than
th
e o
ne
with
th
e p
olic
e b
ecau
se a
go
od
rel
atio
nsh
ip w
ith t
he
form
er w
ou
ld p
rote
ct h
im in
re
latio
n t
o t
he
latt
er.
Th
is d
oes
no
t m
ean
th
at a
uth
orit
ies
are
no
t im
po
rtan
t; r
ath
er,
it su
gges
ts
that
pro
tect
ion
can
beg
in in
the
intim
ate
fam
ily a
nd
co
mm
un
ity r
elat
ion
s. T
his
als
o in
form
s m
uch
o
f w
hat
Bal
ay d
oes
in
Bag
on
g Si
lan
g, n
amel
y w
ork
ing
on
par
enta
l sk
ills
and
rel
atio
ns
bet
wee
n
par
ents
an
d th
eir c
hild
ren
. Pro
tect
ion
do
es n
ot h
ave
to s
tart
with
inst
itutio
nal
refo
rm o
f th
e p
olic
e.
It c
an b
egin
fro
m b
elo
w,
thro
ugh
a c
on
cert
ed e
ffo
rt t
ow
ard
s en
ablin
g vi
ctim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s to
en
gage
in
mea
nin
gfu
l an
d p
rod
uct
ive
rela
tion
ship
s an
d h
elp
ing
fam
ilies
, co
mm
un
ities
an
d
auth
orit
ies
sup
po
rt a
nd
nu
rtu
re s
uch
rela
tion
ship
s. G
oo
d re
latio
nsh
ips
are
also
use
ful i
n fa
cilit
atin
g
hea
ling
fro
m tr
aum
a. M
any
of t
he
trau
mat
ic e
xper
ien
ces
are
as a
resu
lt o
f bei
ng
deh
um
aniz
ed a
nd
dis
resp
ecte
d b
y an
oth
er d
urin
g o
pp
ress
ive
regi
mes
, an
d t
his
is m
ost
ly in
th
e h
and
s o
f th
e st
ate.
C
on
tinu
ed d
ehu
man
izat
ion
an
d d
isre
spec
t ca
n w
ork
as
trig
gers
fo
r re
-en
actm
ent
of
the
trau
ma
thro
ugh
vio
len
ce.
Stro
ng,
car
ing
rela
tion
ship
s th
at p
rom
ote
hu
man
dig
nity
can
co
un
tera
ct t
he
effec
ts o
f tra
um
a an
d t
hu
s co
ntr
ibu
te t
o v
iole
nce
pre
ven
tion
.
In t
his
way
, o
ur
anal
ysis
is
bo
rne
ou
t in
th
e ex
per
ien
ces
we
hav
e fr
om
wo
rkin
g in
po
or,
urb
an
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
s. W
hile
th
e ap
pro
ach
an
d t
he
thin
kin
g b
ehin
d i
t d
oes
em
anat
e o
ut
of
loca
l en
gage
men
ts,
this
pap
er w
ill n
ot
spel
l o
ut
in d
etai
l w
hat
sh
ou
ld b
e d
on
e. T
hat
is
sub
ject
to
co
nte
xtu
al a
nal
ysis
. Rat
her
, we
spel
l ou
t cen
tral
prin
cip
les
that
may
insp
ire a
nd
co
nn
ect t
o d
iffer
ent
app
roac
hes
to
co
mm
un
ity-l
ed in
terv
entio
ns.
Th
e o
vera
rch
ing
Th
eory
of
Ch
ange
co
verin
g al
l p
sych
oso
cial
in
terv
entio
ns
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e fie
ld o
f au
tho
rity-
bas
ed v
iole
nce
can
be
stat
ed a
s fo
llow
s: If
we
wo
rk w
ith w
ell t
ho
ugh
t-o
ut
and
st
ron
ger
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
hes
to
urb
an v
iole
nce
su
pp
ort
ing
and
pro
du
cin
g p
osi
tive
rela
tion
s,
then
we
will
be
able
to p
reve
nt a
uth
orit
y-b
ased
vio
len
ce a
nd
tack
le it
s co
nse
qu
ence
s. T
his
theo
ry
of
chan
ge n
eed
s to
be
bro
ken
up
in
to i
ts c
on
stitu
tive
par
ts i
n r
elat
ion
to
vic
tims,
ris
k gr
ou
ps,
fa
mili
es, c
om
mu
niti
es a
nd
au
tho
ritie
s. B
elo
w w
e d
etai
l th
eorie
s o
f ch
ange
an
d o
utc
om
es fo
r eac
h
of t
he
five
targ
et g
rou
ps.
Vic
tim
s/at
ris
k g
rou
ps:
Fac
ilit
ate
hea
lin
g, s
ocia
l in
clu
sion
an
d
psy
chol
ogic
al a
war
enes
s
Th
e cl
ose
r o
ne
get
s to
vic
tims
the
mo
re c
entr
al t
he
hea
lth
an
d h
ealin
g a
pp
roac
hes
bec
om
e.
Th
ey a
re i
mp
ort
ant
for
reh
abili
tativ
e p
urp
ose
s, n
ot
leas
t th
e ab
ility
of
vict
ims
to e
ng
age
in
mea
nin
gfu
l rel
atio
nsh
ips.
Att
emp
ts b
y vi
ctim
s o
f vi
ole
nce
to
en
gag
e in
so
cial
rel
atio
nsh
ips
may
b
e m
ired
in w
ithd
raw
al a
nd
fear
. Th
is c
an d
amag
e re
latio
nsh
ips,
eve
n w
ith t
hei
r o
wn
fam
ilies
. In
ad
diti
on
, hea
lth
ap
pro
ach
es c
ann
ot
stan
d a
lon
e, e
ven
in r
elat
ion
to
hea
ling
. It
is im
per
ativ
e to
en
able
vic
tims
and
risk
gro
up
s to
en
gag
e in
so
cial
, cu
ltu
ral a
nd
eco
no
mic
act
iviti
es. F
urt
her
mo
re,
emp
ow
erin
g,
org
aniz
ing
an
d s
hift
ing
att
itud
es a
nd
cu
ltu
res
can
be
seen
as
a m
ove
to
war
ds
vio
len
ce p
reve
ntio
n. E
mp
ow
erm
ent
may
als
o n
urt
ure
ad
voca
cy a
s vi
ctim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s fin
d
pla
tfo
rms
to te
ll th
eir o
wn
sto
ries
. Th
is li
fts
the
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
hes
bey
on
d s
ervi
ce d
eliv
ery
into
ad
voca
cy.
Whi
le c
onte
xtua
lly d
eter
min
ed, i
nter
vent
ions
shou
ld fo
cus o
n cr
eati
ng th
e fo
llow
ing
outc
omes
: a)
Im
pro
ved
sel
f-es
teem
, ab
ility
to d
eal w
ith tr
aum
a, h
ealin
g, a
war
enes
s o
f th
e p
sych
oso
cial
im
pac
t o
f to
rtu
re a
mo
ng
ris
k g
rou
ps
in g
ener
al a
nd
am
on
g v
ictim
s in
par
ticu
lar;
b)
Imp
rove
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
am
on
g v
ictim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s o
f th
e is
sues
th
at p
ut
them
at
risk
an
d t
he
abili
ty t
o d
eal w
ith t
he
risk
co
nst
ruct
ivel
y;
c)
Imp
rove
d s
kills
to e
ng
age
in m
ean
ing
ful s
oci
al a
ctiv
ities
in r
elat
ion
to th
e la
bo
ur
mar
ket,
ed
uca
tion
an
d o
ther
so
cial
are
nas
; an
d
d)
Vic
tims
and
ris
k g
rou
ps
that
are
mo
bili
zed
an
d o
rgan
ized
fo
r p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
fo
r en
gag
ing
in m
ean
ing
ful r
elat
ion
ship
s w
ith a
uth
ori
ties,
co
mm
un
ities
an
d f
amili
es.
22
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
23
Fam
ilie
s: P
rom
otin
g fa
mil
ies
as s
up
por
t st
ruct
ure
s ra
ther
th
an a
s p
erp
etra
tors
or
risk
gro
up
s
Fam
ilie
s ca
n b
e a
t ri
sk;
the
y ca
n s
uff
er
the
co
llect
ive
im
pac
t o
f vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st t
he
ir
me
mb
ers
; th
ey
can
be
pe
rpe
trat
ors
of
(inte
rpe
rso
nal
an
d i
nti
mat
e)
vio
len
ce a
nd
th
ey
can
al
so b
e c
ruci
al p
artn
ers
in
pre
ven
tin
g v
iole
nce
an
d c
reat
ing
an
en
ablin
g e
nvi
ron
me
nt.
Fa
mili
es
in t
he
po
or,
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s w
e w
ork
in a
re o
fte
n s
ub
ject
ed
to
exc
ruci
atin
g
pre
ssu
re f
rom
po
vert
y, m
arg
inal
izat
ion
an
d e
xplo
itat
ion
. O
n t
op
of
this
, th
ey
are
oft
en
ca
ug
ht
be
twe
en
th
eir
ow
n e
xpe
ctat
ion
s, t
he
exp
ect
atio
ns
of
the
su
rro
un
din
g c
om
mu
nit
y an
d t
he
sta
te o
n t
he
on
e h
and
, an
d t
he
pra
ctic
es
that
th
ey
(incl
ud
ing
fo
r in
stan
ce y
ou
ng
m
en
) n
ee
d t
o e
ng
age
in
to
su
rviv
e.
Par
en
ts,
for
inst
ance
, ar
e o
fte
n c
aug
ht
be
twe
en
th
eir
re
spo
nsi
bili
ty t
o d
isci
plin
e t
he
ir s
on
s an
d t
he
ir s
on
s’ p
rob
lem
atic
be
hav
iou
r. N
avig
atin
g
be
twe
en
th
ese
dif
fere
nt
de
man
ds
oft
en
re
sult
s in
inte
rpe
rso
nal
vio
len
ce a
nd
ab
use
. He
nce
, p
sych
oso
cial
in
terv
en
tio
ns
mu
st a
ssis
t fa
mili
es
in i
mp
rove
d f
un
ctio
nin
g t
o e
nab
le t
he
m
to e
ng
age
pro
du
ctiv
ely
wit
h b
oth
su
rro
un
din
gs
and
th
eir
ow
n f
amily
me
mb
ers
wh
o a
re
targ
ete
d v
iole
ntl
y b
y au
tho
riti
es.
Ass
isti
ng
fam
ilie
s to
be
com
e t
he
be
st p
oss
ible
fam
ilie
s o
n t
he
ir o
wn
te
rms
has
pre
ven
tati
ve a
s w
ell
as r
eh
abili
tati
ve e
ffe
cts.
Hav
ing
a s
tro
ng
er
and
mo
re s
up
po
rtiv
e f
amily
fac
ilita
tes
he
alin
g f
or
vict
ims
and
re
du
ces
the
ris
k fo
r ta
rge
t g
rou
ps
of
be
ing
exp
ose
d t
o a
uth
ori
ty-b
ase
d v
iole
nce
. Th
is a
pp
roac
h a
lso
po
ten
tial
ly w
ork
s to
war
ds
soci
al p
reve
nti
on
, as
org
aniz
ing
fam
ilie
s in
to a
sso
ciat
ion
s o
r d
iffe
ren
t ki
nd
s o
f n
etw
ork
s in
cre
ase
s th
eir
ab
ility
to
en
gag
e w
ith
sta
te a
uth
ori
tie
s to
pu
sh f
or
the
pre
ven
tio
n
of
auth
ori
ty-b
ase
d v
iole
nce
.
Whi
le o
utco
mes
are
con
text
ually
det
erm
ined
, th
ey s
houl
d in
clud
e th
e fo
llow
ing
cons
ider
atio
ns:
a)
Imp
rove
d
fam
ily
coh
esio
n
and
fu
nct
ion
ing
to
es
tab
lish
re
hab
ilita
tive
and
h
ealt
hy
rela
tion
s, in
clu
din
g w
ith r
isk
gro
up
s an
d t
arg
et g
rou
ps;
b)
Imp
rove
d s
oci
al p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tion
of
vio
len
ce b
y su
pp
ort
ing
fam
ilies
in
th
eir
rela
tion
ship
s w
ith n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
sta
te a
uth
ori
ties;
an
d
c)
Fam
ilies
mo
bili
zed
to
en
gag
e in
ad
voca
cy f
or
no
n-v
iole
nt
and
hea
lth
y re
latio
nsh
ips
with
sta
te a
uth
ori
ties,
an
d in
ad
voca
cy f
or
stat
e au
tho
ritie
s to
ass
um
e th
eir
role
as
du
ty
bea
rers
.
Com
mu
nit
y: P
rom
otin
g co
mm
un
itie
s as
su
pp
ort
stru
ctu
res
rath
er
than
as
per
pet
rato
rs
As
is e
vid
ent
in o
ur
rem
arks
ab
ove
, w
e ca
nn
ot
assu
me
that
co
mm
un
itie
s ar
e in
her
entl
y p
eace
ful
and
/or
coh
esiv
e. I
n m
any
way
s, s
tru
gg
les
ove
r th
e ri
gh
t to
defi
ne
the
(mo
ral)
com
mu
nit
y o
f th
e ri
gh
teo
us
are
at t
he
hea
rt o
f co
mm
un
al a
nd
co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce.
Th
e p
olit
ics
aro
un
d t
he
defi
nit
ion
of
com
mu
nit
y fe
eds
into
per
pet
uat
ing
vio
len
ce. H
ence
, th
ere
is a
nee
d t
o e
xplo
re h
ow
th
e u
se o
f vi
ole
nce
is
inst
rum
enta
l in
pro
du
cin
g a
nd
mai
nta
inin
g
com
mu
nit
ies
and
to
un
der
stan
d w
hat
mig
ht
con
trib
ute
to
les
s vi
ole
nce
. A
gai
n,
the
focu
s o
f th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
mu
st b
e o
n e
nab
ling
an
d s
up
po
rtin
g p
osi
tive
rel
atio
nsh
ips
bet
wee
n r
isk
gro
up
s, f
amili
es a
nd
th
e w
ider
co
mm
un
ity.
A c
entr
al p
art
of
this
wo
rk r
evo
lves
ar
ou
nd
the
real
izat
ion
that
co
mm
un
itie
s p
ote
nti
ally
co
nd
on
e vi
ole
nce
an
d p
erp
etu
ate
vio
len
t va
lues
. R
esea
rch
als
o i
nd
icat
es t
hat
pro
-so
cial
att
itu
des
in
co
mm
un
itie
s ar
e a
pro
tect
ive
fact
or
agai
nst
vio
len
ce w
hils
t th
ose
th
at p
rom
ote
an
tiso
cial
att
itu
des
can
be
a ri
sk f
acto
r fo
r vi
ole
nce
. T
hu
s d
evel
op
ing
so
cial
co
hes
ion
aro
un
d a
ctiv
itie
s th
at p
rom
ote
so
cial
val
ues
is
a c
riti
cal c
om
po
nen
t o
f vi
ole
nce
pre
ven
tio
n. H
ence
, a p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
mu
st w
ork
w
ith
sh
ifti
ng
att
itu
des
to
tra
nsf
orm
co
mm
un
al s
etti
ng
s in
to s
tru
ctu
res
that
fac
ilita
te t
he
pre
ven
tio
n o
f vi
ole
nce
an
d s
up
po
rt f
or
vict
ims.
An
oth
er im
po
rtan
t in
sig
ht
fro
m o
ur
wo
rk is
th
at c
om
mu
nit
y w
ork
do
es n
ot
nec
essa
rily
rel
ate
to a
n e
nti
re c
om
mu
nit
y, b
ut
focu
ses
on
g
rou
ps
wit
hin
th
e co
mm
un
ity.
As
it i
s o
ften
un
real
isti
c to
im
agin
e h
arm
on
iou
s an
d n
on
-co
nfl
ictu
al c
om
mu
nit
ies,
ou
r w
ork
mu
st fo
cus
on
est
ablis
hin
g a
nd
su
pp
ort
ing
a c
riti
cal m
ass
wit
hin
a c
om
mu
nit
y th
at c
an a
dva
nce
vio
len
ce p
reve
nti
on
.
Whi
le o
utco
mes
are
con
text
uall
y de
term
ined
, the
y sh
ould
incl
ude
the
foll
owin
g co
nsid
erat
ions
: a)
A
co
mm
un
ity
ne
ed
s to
be
map
pe
d t
hro
ug
h s
take
ho
lde
r an
alys
is a
nd
po
ten
tial
p
artn
ers
sh
ou
ld b
e p
art
of
an a
llian
ce
to
pre
ven
t vi
ole
nc
e a
gai
nst
ris
k g
rou
ps;
b)
Ove
rall
co
mm
un
ity
eff
icac
y im
pro
ves
wh
ere
th
ere
are
fe
we
r in
cid
en
ts o
f vi
ole
nc
e an
d c
on
flic
ts, a
nd
wh
ere
co
nfl
icts
may
be
ad
dre
sse
d in
co
nst
ruc
tive
way
s; a
nd
c)
Imp
rove
d a
bili
ty t
o i
de
nti
fy p
oss
ible
are
as o
f c
olla
bo
rati
on
an
d c
reat
e i
nc
lusi
ve
co
mm
un
al p
roje
cts
(e
spe
cia
lly t
ho
se t
hat
pro
mo
te p
ro-s
oc
ial
be
hav
iou
rs),
an
d t
o
see
k su
pp
ort
fo
r th
em
bo
th in
sid
e a
nd
ou
tsid
e t
he
co
mm
un
ity.
Stat
e au
tho
riti
es: P
erp
etra
tors
or
du
ty b
eare
rs
As
our
rem
arks
abo
ve s
ugge
st,
it is
im
pera
tive
to f
acto
r in
sta
te a
nd n
on-
stat
e au
tho
ritie
s fo
r an
y ps
ycho
soci
al a
ppro
ach.
Sta
te a
utho
ritie
s ar
e es
peci
ally
impo
rtan
t as
they
oft
en c
om
man
d co
nsid
erab
le
reso
urce
s to
sup
pres
s th
e st
ate’
s o
wn
popu
latio
n an
d su
ppo
rt it
s w
ellb
eing
as
a du
ty b
eare
r. H
uman
rig
hts
appr
oac
hes
will
oft
en t
arge
t st
ate
auth
orit
ies
to c
ond
uct
inst
itutio
nal
refo
rm,
to t
rain
and
ca
paci
tate
its
wo
rker
s an
d, if
no
thin
g el
se w
ork
s, u
ltim
atel
y to
sha
me
them
into
co
mpl
ianc
e, a
ssum
ing
th
eir
role
as
duty
bea
rers
. Whi
le th
is is
a c
entr
al a
ppro
ach
to w
ork
ing
with
sta
te a
utho
ritie
s, e
spec
ially
at
a p
olic
y le
vel –
and
one
tha
t ea
ch o
f th
e fo
ur p
artn
ers
in t
he G
loba
l Alli
ance
als
o e
mpl
oys
– t
he
psyc
hoso
cial
mo
del f
or p
reve
ntio
n o
f vio
lenc
e an
d tr
eatin
g its
co
nseq
uenc
es m
ust w
ork
at a
diff
eren
t, m
ore
rel
atio
nal l
evel
. The
sta
te is
pre
sent
in e
ach
of o
ur fo
ur c
ont
exts
, fro
m t
he a
lmo
st o
mni
pres
ent
Dan
ish
wel
fare
sta
te t
o t
he h
ighl
y ch
alle
nged
Lib
eria
n st
ate.
But
wha
teve
r th
e st
reng
th o
f th
e lo
cal
stat
e, in
terv
entio
ns m
ust b
e ai
med
at s
uppo
rtin
g th
e pr
actic
es a
nd in
stitu
tions
that
mig
ht b
e pa
rtne
rs in
pr
even
ting
vio
lenc
e. S
uch
inte
rven
tions
mus
t be
base
d o
n so
und
stak
eho
lder
ana
lysi
s an
d an
intim
ate
kno
wle
dge
of t
he w
ork
ings
of t
he lo
cal s
tate
, inc
ludi
ng th
e o
ffici
als
wo
rkin
g th
ere.
It is
abo
ut a
ssis
ting
lo
cal s
tate
inst
itutio
ns t
o b
eco
me
the
best
po
ssib
le p
artn
ers.
Thi
s en
tails
wo
rkin
g w
ith a
utho
ritie
s to
ex
plo
re a
nd s
hift
the
no
rms,
min
d-se
ts a
nd c
ultu
res
that
per
petu
ate
vio
lenc
e. It
is a
lso
abo
ut fi
ndin
g
way
s to
wo
rk w
ith th
e lo
cal i
nstit
utio
ns o
f the
sta
te to
cre
ate
and
mai
ntai
n su
ppo
rtiv
e in
stitu
tions
that
24
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
25
pro
mo
te p
eopl
e’s
dign
ity ra
ther
than
str
ip th
em o
f it.
Thi
s is
a c
ritic
al c
om
pone
nt o
f vio
lenc
e pr
even
tion
as
the
pro
mo
tion
of p
eopl
e’s
dign
ity h
as b
een
indi
cate
d as
a k
ey c
om
pone
nt o
f vio
lenc
e pr
even
tion
in
the
psyc
hoso
cial
fiel
d. P
sych
oso
cial
stu
dies
indi
cate
that
hum
iliat
ion
and
the
strip
ping
of o
ne’s
dig
nity
an
d se
lf-w
ort
h is
at t
he c
ore
of v
iole
nce
in u
rban
set
tings
. In
cont
exts
suc
h as
So
uth
Afr
ica,
Lib
eria
and
th
e Ph
ilipp
ines
, whe
re t
here
has
bee
n a
hist
ory
of
opp
ress
ive
regi
mes
with
go
vern
men
t in
stitu
tions
fe
edin
g in
to d
ehum
aniz
ing
expe
rienc
es,
the
reco
nstr
uctio
n o
f st
ate-
citiz
en r
elat
ions
to
a l
evel
tha
t pr
om
ote
s m
utua
l re
spec
t an
d hu
man
dig
nity
is
thus
a c
ruci
al c
om
pone
nt o
f vi
ole
nce
prev
entio
n.
Psyc
hoso
cial
stu
dies
in th
e fie
ld o
f tra
uma
indi
cate
that
if in
divi
dual
s ha
ve u
nres
olv
ed h
isto
ries
of b
eing
vi
ola
ted,
a c
urre
nt e
xper
ienc
e th
at re
min
ds th
em o
f the
trau
ma
coul
d se
rve
as a
trig
ger,
lead
ing
to th
em
actin
g o
ut t
heir
pain
thr
oug
h vi
ole
nce.
In o
ther
wo
rds,
inte
ract
ions
with
ho
stile
, unc
arin
g an
d vi
ole
nt
stat
e in
stitu
tions
can
set
in m
otio
n a
repl
ay o
f unr
eso
lved
his
toric
al v
iole
nce.
Thu
s fu
nctio
nal,
resp
ectf
ul
gove
rnm
ent i
nstit
utio
ns in
thes
e co
ntex
ts c
an b
e a
pow
erfu
l veh
icle
of b
oth
hea
ling
and
prev
entio
n.
Whi
le o
utco
mes
are
con
text
ually
det
erm
ined
, th
ey s
houl
d in
clud
e th
e fo
llow
ing
cons
ider
atio
ns:
a)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s sh
ou
ld b
e m
app
ed th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
an
d p
ote
ntia
l par
tner
s in
sid
e th
e st
ate
mo
bili
zed
to
be
par
t o
f an
alli
ance
with
co
mm
un
ities
an
d f
amili
es t
o
pre
ven
t vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st r
isk
gro
up
s;
b)
Imp
ort
ant
stat
e o
ffici
als
nee
d t
o r
eflec
t at
titu
des
to
war
ds
risk
gro
up
s th
at a
re b
ased
o
n s
ou
nd
un
der
stan
din
g o
f th
e p
rob
lem
s o
f th
e ri
sk g
rou
ps
rath
er t
han
ste
reo
typ
ical
n
otio
ns
of
dan
ger
an
d m
ora
l co
nta
min
atio
n s
aid
to
be
emb
od
ied
in t
he
risk
gro
up
s;
c)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s sh
ou
ld a
ssu
me
thei
r re
spo
nsi
bili
ties
as d
uty
bea
rers
to
war
ds
risk
g
rou
ps,
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es a
s p
art
of
and
in
teg
ral
to t
hei
r o
rder
-mai
nta
inin
g
activ
ities
rat
her
th
an p
laci
ng
th
em in
op
po
sitio
n t
o o
rder
; an
d
d)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s sh
ou
ld e
ng
age
in w
elfa
re a
ctiv
ities
an
d p
rog
ram
mes
in
par
tner
ship
s w
ith fa
mili
es a
nd
co
mm
un
ities
, an
d s
up
po
rt th
em in
pra
ctic
es th
at e
ase
the
pre
ssu
re o
n
them
an
d e
nab
le t
hem
to
par
ticip
ate
in s
oci
ety
as f
ull
citiz
ens.
Con
clu
sion
an
d r
ecom
men
dat
ion
s
Bas
ed o
n w
ork
in
po
or
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s b
y B
ALA
Y, D
IGN
ITY,
CSV
R a
nd
LA
PS,
in
th
is
pap
er w
e h
ave
arg
ued
fo
r th
e n
eed
to
dev
elo
p p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
es w
hic
h f
ocu
s o
n
com
bin
ing
pre
ven
tati
ve a
nd
hea
ling
wo
rk t
hro
ug
h c
om
mu
nit
y-le
d i
nte
rven
tio
ns
wit
h r
isk
gro
up
s, t
he
com
mu
nit
ies
in w
hic
h t
hey
live
, th
eir
fam
ilies
an
d t
he
auth
ori
ties
th
at p
erp
etra
te
vio
len
ce t
o m
ain
tain
ord
er.
Wh
ile h
igh
ly s
pec
ializ
ed (
leg
al)
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
(h
ealt
h-r
elat
ed)
reh
abili
tati
on
pra
ctic
es h
ave
con
trib
ute
d t
o a
dd
ress
ing
to
rtu
re a
nd
ill-
trea
tmen
t, t
hey
als
o
leav
e g
aps,
no
t le
ast
wh
en w
e b
egin
ad
dre
ssin
g w
hat
we
hav
e te
rmed
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce, t
hat
is, v
iole
nce
em
plo
yed
to
pre
serv
e lo
cal s
oci
al, l
egal
an
d m
ora
l ord
ers
in p
oo
r,
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s. T
his
vio
len
ce is
oft
en c
arri
ed o
ut
by
the
stat
e b
ut
in m
any
con
text
s,
no
n-s
tate
fo
rms
of
auth
ori
ty a
ssu
me
the
resp
on
sib
ility
to
mai
nta
in a
nd
pre
serv
e o
rder
oft
en
in c
om
ple
x re
lati
on
s to
th
e st
ate.
It
is m
un
dan
e an
d c
hro
nic
rat
her
th
an s
ud
den
tra
um
atic
eru
pti
on
s o
f vi
ole
nce
an
d h
as o
ften
bee
n n
orm
aliz
ed,
even
by
its
vict
ims.
In
terv
enti
on
s in
su
ch c
on
text
s d
eman
d t
hat
we
reco
nsi
der
so
me
of
ou
r b
asic
ass
um
pti
on
s ab
ou
t h
ow
to
go
ab
ou
t w
ork
ing
ag
ain
st t
ort
ure
an
d il
l-tr
eatm
ent.
Th
is p
aper
is a
firs
t st
ep f
or
us
– a
nd
mig
ht
insp
ire
oth
ers
wo
rkin
g in
sim
ilar
con
dit
ion
s –
to
rec
on
cep
tual
ise
ou
r w
ork
in w
ays
that
mak
e se
nse
fo
r a
focu
s o
n a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce i
n p
oo
r, u
rban
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
ds.
Th
e p
aper
d
oes
no
t –
can
no
t –
pro
du
ce a
set
of
bes
t p
ract
ices
an
d m
od
els
to b
e im
ple
men
ted
. Rat
her
it
set
s o
ut
ou
r re
flec
tio
ns
on
ho
w t
o u
nd
erst
and
th
e co
nte
xts
of
vio
len
ce, t
he
targ
et g
rou
ps
of
inte
rven
tio
ns
and
th
e th
eori
es o
f ch
ang
e re
leva
nt
in t
he
diff
eren
t co
nte
xts.
Ho
wev
er,
thro
ug
ho
ut
the
pro
ject
, sev
eral
pro
ject
s an
d a
pp
roac
hes
are
tes
ted
an
d w
ill b
e d
escr
ibed
in
sub
seq
uen
t p
ub
licat
ion
s.
Au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
in
co
nte
xt t
akes
man
y fo
rms
bu
t it
mu
st a
rgu
ably
co
nfo
rm t
o
cert
ain
un
der
lyin
g c
rite
ria
in o
rder
fo
r it
to
be
leg
itim
ate:
it
nee
ds
to b
e co
nst
rued
as
self
-d
efen
ce a
nd
it
mu
st b
e p
rop
ort
ion
ate
to t
he
thre
at t
hat
it
pu
rpo
rts
to c
ou
nte
r. H
ow
ever
, th
is f
orm
of
vio
len
ce d
oes
no
t ex
ist
in is
ola
tio
n a
nd
th
e p
aper
ou
tlin
ed t
he
rela
tio
n b
etw
een
d
iffer
ent
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
incl
ud
ing
yo
uth
vio
len
ce, i
nti
mat
e vi
ole
nce
, co
mm
un
al v
iole
nce
, st
ate
vio
len
ce a
nd
rev
olu
tio
nar
y vi
ole
nce
. Fu
rth
erm
ore
, w
e ex
plo
red
ho
w t
hes
e re
lati
on
s p
rod
uce
d c
on
dit
ion
s co
nd
uci
ve f
or
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce. C
entr
al t
o t
his
un
der
stan
din
g
is t
he
abili
ty t
o c
om
bin
e d
iffer
ent
app
roac
hes
to
vio
len
ce a
s p
rod
uct
ive
of
soci
al r
elat
ion
s an
d a
s d
estr
uct
ive
of
life
and
lim
b.
Th
is a
nal
ysis
of
vio
len
ce is
ab
solu
tely
cen
tral
an
d, w
e ar
gu
e, o
ften
fo
rgo
tten
or
rep
lace
d b
y as
sum
pti
on
s o
f vi
ole
nce
as
des
tru
ctiv
e o
nly
, o
r as
vio
lati
on
s o
f le
gal
no
rms.
It
also
en
able
s a
reco
nsi
der
atio
n o
f ta
rget
an
d r
isk
gro
up
s. In
mu
ch a
nti
-to
rtu
re w
ork
, to
rtu
re is
co
nsi
der
ed
to b
e an
ext
rao
rdin
ary
even
t (J
ense
n, K
elly
et
al, 2
017
). O
nce
we
real
ize
the
mu
nd
ane
nat
ure
o
f m
uch
to
rtu
re a
nd
ill-
trea
tmen
t, n
ew r
isk
gro
up
s em
erg
e lik
e yo
un
g m
en o
r ch
ildre
n
in c
on
flic
t w
ith
th
e la
w a
nd
th
e co
mm
un
ity
they
in
hab
it;
sexu
al m
ino
riti
es,
refu
gee
s an
d
mig
ran
ts o
r, a
s h
as b
een
th
e ca
se i
n b
oth
So
uth
Afr
ica
and
Lib
eria
, su
rviv
ors
or
vict
ims
of
dis
ease
s (H
IV o
r E
bo
la).
Th
ese
gro
up
s, a
nd
oth
ers
like
them
, ar
e se
en a
s aff
ron
ts t
o p
ub
lic
mo
ralit
y, s
om
etim
es b
ecau
se o
f th
eir
acti
on
s an
d s
om
etim
es b
ecau
se o
f a
dan
ger
th
ey a
re
seen
to
rep
rese
nt
(cri
me,
dru
gs,
ter
ror,
mo
ral d
ecay
, th
reat
s to
live
liho
od
s, e
tc.).
Wh
ile t
hey
ar
e ta
rget
ed v
iole
ntl
y b
y p
ub
lic o
ffici
als,
in w
ays
that
may
co
nst
itu
te to
rtu
re a
nd
ill-
trea
tmen
t,
com
mu
nit
ies
and
eve
n t
hei
r o
wn
fam
ilies
wh
o c
on
sid
er t
hem
in n
eed
of d
isci
plin
ing
als
o u
se
and
co
nd
on
e vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st t
hem
.
e)
Wh
ile f
ocu
sin
g o
n l
egal
rig
hts
of
child
ren
, w
om
en,
mig
ran
ts a
nd
th
e ri
gh
ts n
ot
to
be
tort
ure
d o
r ki
lled
as
imp
ort
ant
ben
chm
arks
, it
is
no
t en
ou
gh
to
sim
ply
to
hea
l th
e w
ou
nd
s o
f vi
ctim
s o
r to
lec
ture
offi
cial
s o
f th
eir
du
ties
. O
ur
wo
rk d
emo
nst
rate
s th
e cr
uci
al i
mp
ort
ance
of
rela
tio
ns
as b
oth
pro
tect
ive
and
per
pet
rati
ve.
Th
is i
nsi
gh
t su
gg
ests
a t
heo
ry o
f ch
ang
e w
hic
h f
ocu
ses
on
rel
atio
ns
bet
wee
n r
isk
gro
up
s, t
hei
r fa
mili
es, t
he
com
mu
nit
ies
in w
hic
h t
hey
live
an
d t
he
loca
l pu
blic
offi
cial
s. Im
po
rtan
tly,
fa
mili
es,
com
mu
nit
ies
and
p
ub
lic
offi
cial
s m
igh
t co
nst
itu
te
the
mo
st
imp
ort
ant
pro
tect
ive
net
wo
rks
that
ris
k g
rou
ps
hav
e. H
ow
ever
, th
ey m
igh
t al
so p
erp
etra
te
vio
len
ce o
r al
low
it t
o t
ake
pla
ce.
If f
amili
es a
re n
ot
will
ing
to
pro
tect
th
eir
child
ren
, fo
r in
stan
ce b
ecau
se o
f d
rug
ab
use
, th
ey a
re m
uch
mo
re a
t ri
sk o
f b
ein
g h
arm
ed
by
com
mu
nit
y m
emb
ers
and
by
the
stat
e. T
his
en
tails
wo
rkin
g w
ith
th
e yo
un
g
peo
ple
th
emse
lves
– t
o d
eal
wit
h t
he
vio
len
ce p
erp
etra
ted
ag
ain
st t
hem
, an
d o
ften
th
e vi
ole
nce
th
ey p
erp
etra
te o
n o
ther
s an
d t
o a
tten
d t
o t
he
rela
tio
ns
they
hav
e w
ith
fa
mili
es, c
om
mu
nit
ies
and
pu
blic
offi
cial
s. T
his
mig
ht
incl
ud
e th
e fo
llow
ing
ele
men
ts:
26
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
27
a.
Imp
rove
d
self
-est
eem
, ab
ility
to
d
eal
wit
h
trau
ma,
h
ealin
g,
awar
enes
s o
f th
e p
sych
oso
cial
im
pac
t o
f to
rtu
re a
mo
ng
ris
k g
rou
ps
in g
ener
al a
nd
am
on
g v
icti
ms
in
par
ticu
lar;
b.
Imp
rove
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
am
on
g v
icti
ms
and
ris
k g
rou
ps
of
the
issu
es t
hat
pu
t th
em a
t ri
sk a
nd
th
e ab
ility
to
dea
l wit
h t
he
risk
co
nst
ruct
ivel
y;
c.
Imp
rove
d s
kills
to
en
gag
e in
mea
nin
gfu
l so
cial
act
ivit
ies
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e la
bo
ur
mar
ket,
ed
uca
tio
n a
nd
oth
er s
oci
al a
ren
as;
and
d.
Vic
tim
s an
d a
t-ri
sk g
rou
ps
wh
o a
re m
ob
ilize
d a
nd
org
aniz
ed f
or
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
fo
r en
gag
ing
in m
ean
ing
ful r
elat
ion
ship
s w
ith
au
tho
riti
es, c
om
mu
nit
ies
and
fam
ilies
.
Wo
rk w
ith
ris
k g
rou
ps
mu
st b
e co
mp
lem
ente
d w
ith
in
terv
enti
on
s in
rel
atio
n t
o f
amili
es,
com
mu
nit
ies
and
pu
blic
offi
cial
s. I
n t
he
Glo
bal
Alli
ance
, n
ot
all
org
aniz
atio
ns
wo
rk e
qu
ally
w
ith
all
leve
ls.
For
exam
ple
, DIG
NIT
Y w
ork
s m
ore
wit
h p
ub
lic o
ffici
als,
co
mm
un
ity
mem
ber
s an
d v
olu
nta
ries
, w
her
eas
BA
LAY
wo
rks
mo
re w
ith
fam
ilies
an
d y
ou
ng
peo
ple
. D
epen
din
g o
n
the
con
text
an
d t
he
org
aniz
atio
n, t
he
follo
win
g e
lem
ents
may
be
rele
van
t:
The
fam
ilies
:
a)
Imp
rove
d
fam
ily
coh
esio
n
and
fu
nct
ion
ing
to
es
tab
lish
re
hab
ilita
tive
and
h
ealt
hy
rela
tion
s, in
clu
din
g w
ith r
isk
gro
up
s an
d t
arg
et g
rou
ps;
b)
Imp
rove
d s
oci
al p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tion
of
vio
len
ce b
y su
pp
ort
ing
fam
ilies
in
th
eir
rela
tion
ship
s w
ith n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
sta
te a
uth
ori
ties;
an
d
c)
Fam
ilies
mo
bili
zed
to
en
gag
e in
ad
voca
cy f
or
no
n-v
iole
nt
and
hea
lth
y re
latio
nsh
ips
with
sta
te a
uth
ori
ties,
an
d in
ad
voca
cy f
or
stat
e au
tho
ritie
s to
ass
um
e th
eir
role
as
du
ty
bea
rers
.
The
com
mun
ity:
a)
Th
e re
leva
nt
com
mu
nity
map
ped
th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
an
d p
ote
ntia
l p
artn
ers
sho
uld
be
par
t o
f an
alli
ance
to
pre
ven
t vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st r
isk
gro
up
s;
b)
Imp
rove
d c
om
mu
nity
effi
cacy
, wh
ere
ther
e ar
e fe
wer
inci
den
ts o
f vio
len
ce a
nd
co
nfli
cts,
an
d w
her
e co
nfli
cts
may
be
add
ress
ed in
co
nst
ruct
ive
way
s; a
nd
c)
Imp
rove
d
abili
ty
to
iden
tify
po
ssib
le
area
s o
f co
llab
ora
tion
an
d
crea
te
incl
usi
ve
com
mu
nal
pro
ject
s (e
spec
ially
th
ose
th
at p
rom
ote
pro
-so
cial
beh
avio
urs
), an
d t
o s
eek
sup
po
rt f
or
them
bo
th in
sid
e an
d o
uts
ide
the
com
mu
nity
.
The
stat
e an
d pu
blic
offi
cial
s:
a)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s ar
e m
app
ed t
hro
ug
h s
take
ho
lder
an
alys
is a
nd
po
ten
tial p
artn
ers
insi
de
the
stat
e m
ob
ilize
d;
b)
Imp
ort
ant
stat
e o
ffici
als
sho
uld
refl
ect
attit
ud
es t
ow
ard
s ri
sk g
rou
ps
that
are
bas
ed o
n
sou
nd
un
der
stan
din
g o
f th
e p
rob
lem
s o
f th
e ri
sk g
rou
ps;
c)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s sh
ou
ld a
ssu
me
thei
r re
spo
nsi
bili
ties
as d
uty
bea
rers
to
war
ds
risk
g
rou
ps,
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es; a
nd
d)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s sh
ou
ld e
ng
age
in w
elfa
re a
ctiv
ities
an
d p
rog
ram
mes
in
par
tner
ship
s w
ith fa
mili
es a
nd
co
mm
un
ities
an
d e
nab
le t
hem
to
par
ticip
ate
in s
oci
ety
as fu
ll ci
tizen
s.
28
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
29
Ref
eren
ces
Ari
as, D
. 20
06
. “T
he
Dyn
amic
s o
f C
rim
inal
Go
vern
ance
: Net
wo
rks
and
So
cial
Ord
er in
Rio
d
e Ja
nei
ro.”
Jou
rnal
of
Latin
Am
eric
an S
tud
ies
38 (2
): 2
93-
325.
Bal
ibar
, E. 1
99
8. “
Vio
len
ce, I
dea
lity
and
Cru
elty
.” N
ew F
orm
atio
ns
35: 7
-18
.
Bja
rnes
on
, J. a
nd
S. J
ense
n. 2
014
. “V
iole
nce
an
d U
rban
Po
litic
s.”
In C
laim
ing
th
e C
ity:
Civ
il So
ciet
y M
ob
ilisa
tion
by
the
Urb
an P
oo
r, ed
ited
by
H. M
oks
nes
an
d M
. Mel
in, 1
63-
171.
U
pp
sala
: Up
psa
la U
niv
ersi
ty.
Blo
om
, S. 1
99
6. “
Ever
y T
ime
His
tory
Rep
eats
Itse
lf th
e P
rice
Go
es U
p: T
he
Soci
al
Ree
nac
tmen
t o
f Tr
aum
a.”
Ori
gin
ally
pu
blis
hed
in S
exu
al A
dd
ictio
n a
nd
Co
mp
uls
ivity
3 (3
):
161-
194,
19
96
.
Dis
sel,
A.;
Jen
sen
, S. a
nd
Ro
ber
ts S
. 20
09.
To
rtu
re in
So
uth
Afr
ica:
Exp
lori
ng
to
rtu
re
and
cru
el, i
nh
um
an a
nd
deg
rad
ing
tre
atm
ent
or
pu
nis
hm
ent
thro
ug
h t
he
med
ia.
Joh
ann
esb
urg
: Cen
tre
for
the
Stu
dy
of
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
.
Gal
tun
g, J
oh
an. 1
99
6. P
eace
by
Pea
cefu
l Mea
ns:
Pea
ce a
nd
Co
nfli
ct, D
evel
op
men
t an
d
Civ
iliza
tion
. Lo
nd
on
, UK
: SA
GE
Pu
blic
atio
ns.
Gar
bar
ino
, Jam
es. 2
015
. Lis
ten
ing
to
Kill
ers:
Les
son
s Le
arn
ed f
rom
my
20 Y
ears
as
a P
sych
olo
gic
al E
xper
t W
itnes
s in
Mu
rder
Cas
es. U
niv
ersi
ty o
f C
alifo
rnia
Pre
ss.
Ho
rnb
erg
er, J
. (20
14) “
We
Nee
d a
Co
mp
licit
Po
lice!
Po
litic
al P
olic
ing
Th
en a
nd
No
w.”
SA
Cri
me
Qu
arte
rly
48
: 17-
24.
Jen
sen
, S. 2
00
5. “A
bo
ve t
he
Law
: Pra
ctic
es o
f So
vere
ign
ty in
Su
rrey
Est
ate,
Cap
e To
wn
.” In
So
vere
ign
Bo
die
s, e
dite
d b
y T.
Han
sen
an
d F
. Ste
pp
uta
t, 2
18-2
38. P
rin
ceto
n: P
rin
ceto
n
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss.
Jen
sen
, S. 2
00
8. G
ang
s, P
olit
ics
& D
ign
ity in
Cap
e To
wn
. Oxf
ord
: Jam
es C
urr
ey
Pu
blis
her
s.
Jen
sen
, S. 2
014
. “C
on
flict
ing
Lo
gic
s o
f Ex
cep
tion
ality
: New
Beg
inn
ing
s an
d t
he
Pro
ble
m
of
Po
lice
Vio
len
ce in
Po
st-A
par
thei
d S
ou
th A
fric
a.”
Dev
elo
pm
ent
and
Ch
ang
e 4
5 (3
): 4
58-
478
.
Jen
sen
, S. a
nd
D. R
od
ger
s. 2
00
9. “
Rev
olu
tion
arie
s, B
arb
aria
ns
or
War
Mac
hin
es?
Gan
gs
in
Nic
arag
ua
and
So
uth
Afr
ica.
” So
cial
ist
Reg
iste
r 4
5: 2
20-2
38.
Jen
sen
, S. K
. Hap
al a
nd
J. M
od
vig
. 20
13. “
Vio
len
ce in
Bag
on
g S
ilan
g.”
DIG
NIT
Y P
ub
licat
ion
Se
ries
on
To
rtu
re a
nd
Org
anis
ed V
iole
nce
; no
. 2.
Jen
sen
, S, T
. Kel
ly e
t al
. 20
17. “
Tort
ure
an
d Il
l-Tr
eatm
ent
Un
der
-Per
ceiv
ed: H
um
an R
igh
ts
Do
cum
enta
tion
an
d t
he
Po
or.”
acc
epte
d f
or
Hu
man
Rig
hts
Qu
arte
rly.
Joh
anse
n, M
.L. 2
013
. “In
th
e B
ord
erla
nd
s: P
ales
tinia
n P
aren
ts N
avig
atin
g D
anis
h W
elfa
re
Stat
e In
terv
entio
ns.
” P
hD
th
esis
, Aar
hu
s U
niv
ersi
ty.
Kye
d, H
. 20
12. “
Intr
od
uct
ion
to
th
e Sp
ecia
l Iss
ue:
Leg
al P
lura
lism
an
d In
tern
atio
nal
D
evel
op
men
t In
terv
entio
ns.
” Jo
urn
al o
f Le
gal
Plu
ralis
m a
nd
Un
offi
cial
Law
43:
1-2
3.
Led
erac
h, J
oh
n P
aul.
199
8. “
Bey
on
d V
iole
nce
: Bu
ildin
g S
ust
ain
able
Pea
ce”,
In T
he
Han
db
oo
k o
f In
tere
thn
ic C
oex
iste
nce
, ed
ited
by
Eug
ene
Wei
ner
, 236
-24
5. N
ew Y
ork
: A
bra
ham
Fu
nd
Pu
blic
atio
n.
Mo
gap
i, N
. 20
11. “
Co
llect
ive
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Co
llect
ive
Trau
ma:
Th
e Tr
aum
atic
Pas
t o
f A
par
thei
d a
nd
th
e P
arad
ox
of
the
New
Dem
ocr
acy.
” In
Th
e Sm
oke
th
at C
alls
: In
surg
ent
Citi
zen
ship
, Co
llect
ive
Vio
len
ce a
nd
th
e St
rug
gle
fo
r a
Pla
ce in
th
e N
ew S
ou
th A
fric
a,
edite
d b
y K
arl v
on
Ho
ldt,
Mal
ose
Lan
ga,
Sep
etla
Mo
lap
o, N
om
fun
do
Mo
gap
i, K
ind
iza
Ng
ub
eni,
Jaco
b D
lam
ini a
nd
Ad
ele
Kir
sten
, 119
-129
. Jo
han
nes
bu
rg: C
SVR
an
d S
WO
P.
Ro
dg
ers,
D. a
nd
J. H
azen
. 20
14. G
lob
al G
ang
s: S
tree
t V
iole
nce
acr
oss
th
e W
orl
d.
Min
nea
po
lis: U
niv
ersi
ty o
f M
inn
eso
ta P
ress
.
Van
Ho
ldt,
K.;
Lan
ga,
K.;
Mo
lap
o, S
; Mo
gap
i, N
.; N
gu
ben
i, K
.; D
lam
ini,
J. a
nd
Kir
sten
, A.
2011
. Th
e Sm
oke
th
at C
alls
: In
surg
ent
Citi
zen
ship
, Co
llect
ive
Vio
len
ce a
nd
th
e St
rug
gle
fo
r a
Pla
ce in
th
e N
ew S
ou
th A
fric
a. J
oh
ann
esb
urg
: CSV
R a
nd
SW
OP.
Vig
h, H
. 20
16. “
Life
’s T
ram
po
line:
On
Nu
llific
atio
n a
nd
Co
cain
e m
igra
tion
in B
issa
u.”
In
Aff
ectiv
e C
ircu
its: A
fric
an M
igra
tion
to
Eu
rop
e an
d t
he
Pu
rsu
it o
f So
cial
Reg
ener
atio
n,
edite
d b
y C
. Gro
es a
nd
J. C
ole
. Ch
icag
o: C
hic
ago
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss.
War
d, C
. L. W
ard
, A. M
erw
e an
d A
. Daw
es. 2
012
. Yo
uth
Vio
len
ce: S
ou
rces
an
d S
olu
tion
s in
So
uth
Afr
ica.
Cap
e To
wn
: UC
T P
ress
.
Wo
rld
Ban
k. 2
011
. “V
iole
nce
in t
he
City
: Un
der
stan
din
g a
nd
Su
pp
ort
ing
Co
mm
un
ity
Res
po
nse
s to
Urb
an V
iole
nce
.” W
orl
d B
ank
Wo
rkin
g P
aper
.
30
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
31
The Global Alliance is a strategic alliance established in 2014 between likeminded civil society organisations working towards building a global alliance of communities against torture and urban violence. We conduct country-based, as well as collaborative intervention and knowl-edge generating projects across partners, focusing on countering authority-based violence in poor urban neighbourhoods.
The Global Alliance consists of four partner organizations from four different countries:
CSVR - The Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, South Africa; www.csvr.org.za
Balay Rehabilitation Center, the Philippines; www.balayph.net
LAPS – Liberia Association of Psychosocial Services, Liberia; www.lapsliberia.com
DIGNITY – Danish Institute Against Torture, Denmark; www.dignityinstitute.org