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A Test of a Multidimensional Model of Job Insecurity: The Case of Israeli TeachersAuthor(s): Zehava Rosenblatt and Ayalla RuvioSource: Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 17, Special Issue: Work Values Worldwide,(1996), pp. 587-605Published by: John Wiley & SonsStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3000379Accessed: 19/05/2008 10:01

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JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, VOL. 17, 587-605 (1996)

A test of a multidimensional model of job insecurity: the case of Israeli teachers

ZEHAVA ROSENBLATT AND AYALLA RUVIO School of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel

Summary The research reported here adopted a multidimensional approach to studying job insecurity, using Israeli teachers as a case in point. Based on two determinants of job insecurity-unionization and kibbutz affiliation-four distinct employment types were identified: unionized city teachers, unionized kibbutz members, unionized kibbutz hirees, and non-unionized personal contract teachers. The a priori job insecurity status of the four employment types matched the subjective reports of these teachers, supporting the external validity of the job insecurity scale used. The study explored the effect of job insecurity on work attitudes. Results indicated that job insecurity had an adverse effect on organizational commitment, perceived performance, perceived organizational support, intention to quit and resistance to change, supporting predictions in related literature. The results of this study have implications on the management of job insecurity in changing environments.

Introduction

Job insecurity (JI) is one of the most powerful issues on both workers' collective agenda and the personal agenda of individual employees (Hartley, Jacobson, Klandermans and Van Vuuren, 1991). Studies on JI have usually been conducted in the context of organizational crisis or decline (e.g. Jacobson, 1987; Kuhnert and Vance, 1992), and have predominantly focused on the meaning of this notion (Jacobson, 1987) and its implications for work attitudes and behaviors (Greenhalgh and Sutton, 1991). Most studies have adopted a global view, where JI is conceived as an overall concern about the future existence of the job.

The present study takes a different approach. First, it adopts the view that the experience of job insecurity is relevant whether or not an objective threat exists. This view was discussed at length by Jacobson and Hartley (1991, p. 9), who described JI as a discrepancy between the level of security a person experiences and the level she or he might prefer. As such, JI is not only independent of any crisis context, but may appear in seemingly 'safe' employment arrangements, such as tenured full-time positions. Second, it is argued here that JI may be caused by the loss or erosion of any employment condition, and not only by a discontinuation of employment. This argument is based on the assumption that any change in work arrangements disrupts the expected continuity of a job, and constitutes a breach of the 'psychological contract' (Rousseau, 1989; Schein, 1980) between the employee and the organization, leading to the experience of job insecurity (Greenhalgh, 1980). Thus, JI may be a multifaceted concept, encompassing various dimensions of work.

CCC 0894-3796/96/SI0587- 19 Received 2 July 1996 ? 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

588 Z. ROSENBLATT AND A. RUVIO

Operationally, the study of JI is characterized by two lines of measurement: unidimensional and multidimensional, as specified below.

Unidimensional measurement

Studies in this category range from using one-item measures of JI (Borg and Elizur, 1992; Brockner, Grover, Reed, Dewitt and O'Malley, 1992) to using multiple-item measures. Some of these measures are included in questionnaires dealing with issues such as work opinions (Johnson, Messe and Crano, 1984) or work strains (Caplan, Cobb, French, Van Harrison and Pinneau, 1975). Others are focused entirely on JI (Jacobson, 1991; Klandermans, Van Vuuren and Jacobson, 1991; Hartley, 1991). Regardless of the framework and the number of items, these measures share a unitary content domain, related to the whole job (for example 'my job is secure here at xyz'). The multiple-item structure of some of these scales is primarily intended to enhance their reliability. Needless to say, such scales contribute little to the understanding of the nature of the JI concept itself, beyond its basic meaning.

Multidimensional measurement

Three studies in this category represents the view that JI is a multidimensional concept. The first is Lahey's (1984) study, where a 44-item five-dimensional JI measure was developed ('Company concern for the individual', 'Job permanence', Job performance', 'Company growth', and 'Individual commitment'). Her model offered relatively little phenomenological contribution to the concept of JI, since some of her dimensions could pass for correlates of JI (e.g. work performance) rather than JI itself. Lahey's (1984) scale was criticized by Jacobson and Hartley (1991, p. 12) for its 'lack of parsimoniousness'. The second study is Borg and Elizur's (1992). They described the construction of a bidimensional JI scale, featuring a cognitive ('worry') aspect and an affective ('fear') aspect. But, each of the items in these dimensions was general in nature (e.g. 'In my opinion I will keep my job in the near future', and 'I would feel stressed if I had to fight for my job', respectively). Although this measure provides an important distinction between the two aspects of the JI experience, it does not tap into the differential effect that JI may have on specific areas of a person's work. The third multidimensional study is by Ashford, Lee and Bobko (1989). They constructed a JI scale that answered some of the concerns raised above. Their measure was based on Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's (1984) theoretical model of JI. According to this model, JI was defined as 'powerlessness to maintain desired continuity in a threatened job situation' (p. 438). The 'threatened job situation' pertained to various features on the job and to the total job, in a broad spectrum of job dimensions. Ashford et al. (1989) operationalized this model and constract-validated it. The JI scale they developed had the following components: job features (importance x likelihood of losing a given job feature), total job (importance x likelihood of losing a given dimension of the total job), and powerlessness. Each of the items in this scale represented a different facet of JI. Ashford et al.'s (1989) JI scale, then, made possible a detailed illustration of JI in one's working life. The content validity of their job features subscale was confirmed by Van Vuuren, Klandermans, Jacobson and Hartley, (1991, p. 72), who found significant correlation between fear of losing job features and feelings of job insecurity. For these reasons, Ashford et al.'s (1989) JI scale was adopted in the present study.

One of the central questions posed by researchers of JI is: what is the effect JI has on work attitudes and performance? Generally, most studies that have addressed this question suggested

A MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL OF JOB INSECURITY 589

that JI had an adverse effect on organizational consequences. The rationale is simple: any employee whose job is perceived as threatened is likely to psychologically protect him/herself by voluntary withdrawal from the job. This withdrawal behavior may consist of a decrease in involvement, commitment, or loyalty. In addition, an employee in this position may resist changes, especially if these are perceived as threats to the continuity of his/her job. A threatened employee may become incapacitated by anxiety, leading to lowering standards of performance. Finally, a threatened employee is likely to seek better opportunities and personal future by leaving the organization (Jacobson, 1985; Greenhalgh and Sutton, 1991).

Studies on attitudes such as organizational commitment (Kuhnert and Vance, 1992), trust in organization (Ashford et al., 1989) and organizational loyalty (Loseby, 1992) all reported negative associations with JI. The results related to the association of JI with other variables were less conclusive. For example, tendency to quit was found positively associated with JI (Ashford et al., 1989) but company length of service was not (Loseby, 1992). Also, employee performance was found only partially related to JI when measured by sales per employee (Loseby, 1992), but when measured by performance evaluation it was not found related to JI at all (Ashford et al., 1989; Greenhalgh, 1983). A contingency approach was taken by Brockner, Greenberg. Brockner, Bortz, Davy and Carter (1986; see also Brockner, 1988), who found that under certain conditions, such as low esteem and perception of random layoffs (rather than merit-based layoffs), insecure workers increased their output. In another study, Brockner et al. (1992) found an inverted U-shape relationship between job insecurity and work effort. It is understandable that the pattern of work effort would be different from the pattern of performance, since effort under conditions of stress might reflect external elements such as impression management (Sutton, 1990).

Finally, although no study (as far as we know) has directly addressed the relationship between JI and perceived organizational support, it has been suggested by Ashford et al. (1989) that these two notions are interrelated. The assumption is that the experience of JI is correlated to a decrease in perceived organizational support, since affected employees find that their employing organizations abrogate the informal contract presumed to exist between the two parties.

The present research is an attempt to contribute to this research endeavor, and clarify some of the inconsistent results in regard to the interrelationships between JI and work attitudes. The conceptualization of JI as presented by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) and its operationalization by Ashford et al. (1989) is used. Since JI in this framework is general and not crisis- ridden, the population selected for the study is a non-threatened segment of the working population in Israel: schoolteachers. Job content, then, is held constant in this study, in contrast to Ashford et al.'s (1989) work, where various organizations and various occupations (hygienists, internal auditors, nurses and business students) were used invariably.

JI of Israeli schoolteachers

Schoolteaching has always been one of the most secure occupations in Israel. Teacher's job security, like that of other occupational groups in the public sector, has been guaranteed by strong unions and protective work laws. Every Israeli teacher in the public system becomes automatically tenured after 2 years of service. Once a tenure status is achieved it is extremely hard to fire a teacher. Even when specific jobs cannot be protected (such as in the case of a school closing) employment is still guaranteed using inter-school transfers. It should be added that the traditional practice of employment security in the Israeli public sector has spilled over to the private sector in Israel, where the norm of guaranteed employment has become widespread over the years.


Yet recent economic and political shifts in Israel have posed a challenge to this job-security norm. The mid-1980s recession and deep cuts in government expenditure shattered old con- ceptions, and, among other things, legitimized layoffs throughout industry and services (Rosenblatt, 1991). These changes did not affect teachers, unlike other occupational groups in Israel at that time, but new ideas about less-secured employment arrangements for teachers started to emerge. In addition to addressing economic concerns, these ideas represented an attempt to respond to rising criticism about the quality of education and educators in Israel. Alternatives to the public system have begun to mushroom, such as private schools and new colleges, where the main form of employment is personal contract.

Personal contracts, as an alternative to teachers' tenure status, involve minimal employment guarantee. Under such arrangements, higher salaries are offered to compensate for lack of job security. Groups of Israeli teachers have already been working under this arrangement for years, mainly in private high schools designed to prepare students for matriculation exams and in university preparatory schools. In light of the recent developments mentioned above, their number is increasing and is expected to continue to do so.

Another determinant of job security in Israel is anchored in the social context of employment. In Israel, the kibbutz is a unique shelter of secure work (as well as of other aspects of life). Although the Israeli kibbutz movement has recently experienced serious financial and social problems (Merry, 1990; Sheaffer, 1992), membership of a kibbutz is still considered a safe employment arrangement for the individual. Since education is highly valued in this ideo- logically-based community type, kibbutz teachers enjoy improved working conditions (for example, smaller classes, enriched curriculum, and increased teachers' autonomy), compared with their city counterparts. Teaching in a kibbutz used to be exclusively by kibbutz members. In recent years, as external labor began to infiltrate kibbutzim (Rosner, 1992), teachers started being hired too. Although the work of these hirees is not as secure as that of kibbutz members, they still enjoy the same advantageous working conditions.

The level and meaning of JI, as manifested in the traditional and in the alternative working arrangements of Israeli teachers, are investigated in this study. Its questions, then, are the following: To what extent do workers in Israel experience JI? Is there any congruence between this experience and formal employment arrangements of Israeli workers? Does the JI experience affect workers' attitudes at work? Does the JI model of Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) and its multidimensional operationalization (Ashford et al., 1989) apply to an Israeli population? The goal of this study is twofold: theoretically, to characterize the experience of JI and to validate Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's (1984) predictions regarding the presumed effects of JI on work attitudes; methodologically, to test the external (inter-sample) validity of the Ashford et al.'s 1989 JI scale (which is based on Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's conceptualization), using a sample of Israeli schoolteachers.

Method

Population and sample

Three hundred and eighty-five teachers of secondary schools in the northern part of Israel participated in the study; their personal characteristics are presented in Appendix 1. About 70 per cent of the teachers were female, their average age was 40, almost 90 per cent of them were married, with about 10 years of school seniority, and about 15 years seniority as teachers. About


54 per cent had a Bachelor's degree, 14 per cent had a Master's degree, and 32 per cent had a 'professional' degree (equivalent to junior college diploma, with teaching credentials). Their teaching orientation was mostly humanities (57 per cent), then sciences (27 per cent) and the remaining teachers (16 per cent) had a 'non-academic' orientation, such as home economics, physical education, etc.

Study design

The level of JI was determined in this study by two criteria: (a) Affiliation with a professional union (where JI meant no affiliation, being employed through personal- not Collective- contract); (b) affiliation with a kibbutz (where JI meant no affiliation).

The combination of these two criteria generated four employment types, with distinct JI status:

Kibbutz Hirees Teachers who were hired by kibbutz schools. Unlike kibbutz members, they did not usually participate in the governance or any other form of kibbutz life. Kibbutz hirees had a relatively high proportion of females, were slightly younger, and more educated, particularly in sciences at the undergraduate level. They were usually hired for positions in the non-humanities area (subjects of little ideological weight). Kibbutz hirees were affiliated to professional unions.

Kibbutz members Teachers who were kibbutz members and taught in kibbutz schools. Their salaries (paid by the Ministry of Education) went into the common budget of the kibbutz. Although they were a little older than the average teacher, their seniority level was relatively low. They were highly educated, with a strong emphasis on humanities. Kibbutz members were affiliated to professional unions.

City teachers These teachers worked for city schools. They were characterized mainly by a high female proportion, and a slightly higher seniority than the other types at their current school and in the profession. City teachers were affiliated to professional unions.

Personal Contract These teachers worked for private schools and were employed under personal contacts, without affiliation to professional unions (unlike the other three types). These teachers were characterized by a low female proportion, low educational level and a relatively high non-academic orientation. It should be noted that regardless of the variation in employment types, the educational system in Israel was relatively uniform in terms of teachers' compensation and principals' discretion, and centralized in terms of school curriculum. All secondary teachers (excluding the non-academic) shared a common mission: to prepare high-school students for the national standardized matriculation exams.


Clearly, three levels of job insecurity status are represented by the above four groups. At the lowest JI level were kibbutz members, who satisfied both criteria of job security. These teachers were affiliated to a professional union, i.e. worked under a collective bargaining contract, and their affiliation to the kibbutz was the strongest; therefore they were the most secure. At the highest JI level were personal contract teachers, who did not satisfy any criterion of job security, and therefore were the least secure. In the middle were the remaining two groups (kibbutz hirees and city teachers). Both these groups satisfied one criterion of security- affiliation to a professional union, while the former was also affiliated loosely to the kibbutz. No assumptions were made in this study about the relative difference in JI between the latter twbo groups. The four employment types, then, represented three a priori JI levels. These a priori levels were used to test the external (inter-sample) validity of the JI scale, using the following hypotheses.

Study hypotheses

Hypothesis 1 Teachers of different employment types, where employment type is determined by (1) affiliation to professional unions, (i.e. collective bargaining contracts versus personal contracts) and by (2) kibbutz affiliation, (i.e. membership versus non-membership) will report different subjective levels of JI, as follows:

la. Teachers employed through personal contract are less job-secure than teachers employed through collective bargaining.

lb. Non-kibbutz teachers are less job-secure than kibbutz teachers.

Hypotheses la and b respond to Ashford et al.'s (1989, p. 824) invitation to test the external validity of their JI measure by using samples of a priori JI status.

Hypothesis 2 JI affects work attitudes in the following ways:

2a. Higher JI leads to lower commitment to school 2b. Higher JI leads to higher intention to quit 2c. Higher JI leads to higher resistance to change 2d. Higher JI leads to lower perceived performance level 2e. Higher JI leads to lower perceived organizational support

Hypotheses 2a-d are based on Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's (1984) predictions, and on empirical findings (Greenhalgh, 1983; Kuhnert and Vance, 1992; Loseby, 1992), suggesting that JI has adverse effect on work outcomes. Hypotheses 2a, b and d replicate Ashford et al.'s (1989) study, and are intended to confirm their results. Hypothesis 2e is based on Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison and Sowa's (1986) and on Ashford et al.'s (1989) contention that organizational support is perceived by employees as organizational input in an exchange process. It is therefore assumed that the removal of this support has the potential of shattering JI.


Study measures

JI scale Scale development To adapt the JI scale to the Israeli's population, a two-stage pretest was conducted. In the first stage, five school principals were interviewed about possible sources of JI among teachers. In consequence a few items were created and added to Ashford et al.'s (1989) original measure. In the second stage, the expanded JI measure (Ashford et al.'s original plus the added items) was distributed among 60 teachers who participated in a management training program. In addition to checking the items on the prepared list, they could add items that they perceived as most characteristic of teachers' JI. Seven items were thus added (nos 18 through 21 in the job features subscale, and nos 1, 4 and 5 in the total job subscale; see Table 1). Eight items were dropped from Ashford et al.'s (1989) original JI scale (items 1-8 in Ashford et al.'s (1989) total job subscale: 'Move to a lower level', 'Move to same level', 'Fluctuation in working hours', 'Move to a higher position in the same organization', 'Move to a higher position in a different location', 'Laid off for a short while', 'Laid off permanently', 'Department's future is uncertain': all eight were found irrelevant to the Israeli teachers' population). A major part (30 per cent) of the job features subscale was composed of Hackman and Oldham's (1980) Job Characteristics Model (see Ashford et al., 1989, p. 810). These were items 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 19 (Table 1, job features subscale).

The final scale consisted of the following: (a) job features subscale, 21 items; (b) total job subscale, five items; (c) powerlessness subscale, three items. For each item in the first two subscales (a and b) the respondent had to refer to both the importance and the likelihood of negative change, for example, 'Autonomy in performing your work: How important is it to you? What is the likelihood of change that would affect this feature negatively?' The subscale item score was a product of the 'importance' and the 'likelihood' components. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Each subscale item could range from 5 (5 x 1) to 25 (5 x 5). In the final analysis of the study results it was decided to drop the powerlessness subscale (see later in this section). The final JI scale score was determined by the following formula, following the work of Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) and Ashford et al. (1989):

JI = Average (importance of job feature x likelihood of losing job feature) + Average (importance of total job x likelihood of total job)

The final JI score could range from 2 to 50.

Test of the multidimensionality of the JI scale To test the multidimensional structure of the JI measure a factor analysis, using the Maximum Likelihood Rotation Varimax method, was performed (see Table 1). As expected, three separate factors emerged; factor 1 corresponded to the job features subscale (excluding items 3 and 4), factor 2 corresponded to the total job subscale, and factor 3 corresponded to the powerlessness subscale. The three factors were found to be significantly different (X2 = 854.82; p = 0.00). Items 3 and 4 (originally placed in the job features subscale) both dealt with financial compensation, and might have been perceived by respondents as part of the total job concept because of the heavy weight usually assigned to the financial features in one's job. In the final scale, though, they were left in the job features subscale since they did not resemble the total job content domain. Also, traditionally the financial factor is considered as a job feature in work values scales (e.g. Harpaz, 1990).

Interrelationships among the JI subscales The interrelationships among the three JI subscales (job features, total job and powerlessness) are presented in Table 2. The results show that


Table 1. Factor analysis of job insecurity scale

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Job features subscale 1. Geographic location 0.367 0.300 -0.033 2. Promotion opportunities 0.290 0.186 -0.017 3. Maintain pay level 0.301 0.489 0.060 4. Pay raise 0.221 0.392 0.037 5. Status 0.470 0.350 0.045 6. Autonomy in work design 0.596 0.264 0.157 7. Autonomy in performing work 0.614 0.244 0.099 8, Access to resources 0.633 0.154 -0.041 9. Coworkers 0.548 0.072 -0.037

10. Performance feedback 0.586 0.213 0.001 11. Supervision 0.595 0.150 0.071 12. Physical demands 0.505 0.041 -0.003 13. Interaction with public 0.609 0.031 0.012 14. Task variety 0.597 -0.002 0.056 15. Complete entire work 0.575 0.233 0.004 16. Making significant impact 0.567 0.233 0.027 17. Self-evaluation of performance 0.527 0.220 0.025 18. Team participation 0.461 0.048 -0.007 19. Recognition from principal 0.491 0.326 0.081 20. Training 0.430 0.219 0.079 21. Special assignments 0.410 0.250 0.044

Total job subscale 1. Cut in working hours 0.148 0.739 -0.040 2. Layoffs 0.032 0.721 0.050 3. Involuntary early retirement 0.093 0.474 -0.013 4. Undesirable changes in work schedule 0.155 0.676 0.014 5. Teach lower level class 0.157 0.370 0.125

Powerlessness subscale 1. Power to control events 0.080 0.031 0.692 2. Prevent negative things -0.010 0.075 0.839 3. Understand the organization -0.038 0.034 0.791

X2= 854.82, p = 0.00

powerlessness did not correlate with the JI scale or with either of the other two subscales (except for the 'likelihood' component of the total job subscale and for the 'importance' component of job features subscale). One possible explanation is the strong political power of teachers' professional unions in Israel. This might indicate that the meaning of powerlessness is different for Israeli teachers from its meaning for Ashford et al.'s (1989) respondents. Considering this, it was decided to drop the powerlessness subscale from the final version. This decision also found support by Jacobson (1991), who argued that the notion of powerlessness was incorporated in the likelihood dimension of JI 'since powerlessness to resist the threat makes the loss more likely' (pp. 34-35). For him, then, the inclusion of a powerlessness dimension in a JI scale was unnecessary.

Reliability The reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha) achieved for the JI scale and its subscales are presented in Table 2. The coefficients' levels are acceptable, and are very similar to the corresponding coefficients achieved by Ashford et al. (1989).


Table 2. Pearson correlations among the components of the job insecurity scale and reliability coefficients

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alpha

1. Job features importance 0.20 0.16 0.10 -0.12 n.s. (0.00) (0.00) n.s. n.s. (0.04) (0.02) 0.76

2. Job features likelihood 0.96 0.53 0.45 0.09 0.76 (0.00) n.s. (0.00) (0.00) (0.09) (0.00) 0.91

3. Job features (1x2) n.s. 0.51 0.46 0.79 (0.00) (0.00) n.s. (0.00) 0.89

4. Total job importance 0.11 0.46 0.32 (0.02) (0.00) n.s. (0.00) 0.67

5. Total job likelihood 0.91 0.11 0.87 (0.00) (0.04) (0.00) 0.75

6. Total job (3 x 4) 0.91 n.s. (0.00) 0.75

7. Powerlessness 0.09 (0.07)

8. Job insecurity (l x 2) + (3 x 4) 0.81 0.90

Work attitudes scales Organizational commitment This attitude was measured using Mowday, Steers and Porter's (1979) 9-item scale. The reliability level achieved in the present study was alpha= 0.84. This scale was also used by Ashford et al. (1989), who reported a reliability level of alpha = 0.91, and a correlation level of r = -0.47 (p < 0.01) with their JI scale.

Intention to quit This attitude was measured using Walsh, Ashford and Hill's (1985) 5-item scale. The reliability level achieved in the present study was alpha = 0.84. This scale was also used by Ashford et al., (1989), who reported a reliability level of alpha = 0.92 and a correlation level of r = -0.46 (p < 0.01) with their JI scale.

Resistance to change This 7-item scale was adopted from Georgiades (1967), who used it in a study of schoolteachers. The reliability achieved in the present study was alpha = 0.72.

Perceived performance This 4-item scale was developed by Brokstein (1991) in his study of Israeli schoolteachers. Brokstein (1991) reported a reliability level of alpha= 0.78. The reliability achieved in the present study was alpha = 0.73.

Perceived organizational support This 17-item scale was adapted from Eisenberger et al. (1986), who used it with a population of schoolteachers with a reliability level of alpha = 0.97. The reliability level achieved in the present study was 0.82.

Translation All study scales were translated into Hebrew and then translated independently back into English to ensure faithfulness to the original language. The translations were done by two professional translators.


Table 3. Job insecurity scores (means and S.D.)

Job insecurity scale Job features subscale Total job subscale

Total sample (N= 385) 18.05 (6.34) 8.93 (2.97) 9.12 (4.40) 1. Kibbutz hirees (N= 53) 17.05 (5.40) 8.40 (3.05) 8.64 (3.33) 2. Kibbutz members (N= 59) 13.75 (4.00) 7.34 (1.98) 6.41 (2.68) 3. City teachers (N= 152) 17.31 (5.32) 8.86 (2.74) 8.44 (3.86) 4. Personal contract (N= 121) 21.52 (7.10) 10.01 (3.19) 11.51 (4.98) F 26.73 (0.00) 12.66 (0.00) 24.54 (0.00)

LSD 1#2 1#2 1#2 1#4 3#2 3#2 2#3 4#2 4#2 2#4 4#1 4#1 3#4 4#3 4#3

Results

The mean scores of the JI scale and of its two subscales are presented in Table 3. The most insecure group according to all three measures was the personal contract group, whose score was significantly lower (judging by the LSD statistic) than all other groups. This result supports hypothesis la, that personal contract teachers should report higher insecurity than the other three collective-bargaining groups. The least insecure group was the kibbutz members, whose score was significantly lower (judging by the LSD statistic) than that of each of the other three groups; this supports hypotheses lb. These results, showing that the a priori level of JI is congruent with its perceived level, contribute to the external validity of the JI scale. Although the results of the two subscales were similar to the results of the composite scale (i.e. each subscale could potentially replace it), the latter scale was found preferable since it covered a more complete range of the JI content domain.

A JI profile of Israeli teachers

A detailed profile of teachers' JI can be drawn from the mean scores of the specific items in the JI scale. The job features JI profile is presented in Table 4. Results show that the Israeli teachers studied were most insecure about their pay raise, their ability to maintain pay level and their autonomy in performing work. They were least insecure about physical demands, a feature which is typically low in the teaching profession. This last result was consistent for all four employment types. Generally, significant differences (see F scores in Table 4) among the four employment types were found in most cases (16 out of the 21 job features).

Examination of the specific profiles of the four employment types shows the following: kibbutz hirees were mostly insecure about losing their autonomy in performing work, their performance feedback and their ability to complete the entire job. These features of insecurity can be relate to the improved working conditions in the kibbutz compared with city schools (see earlier). Any change in these conditions could pose a threat to the hired kibbutz teacher. In addition to being lowest in insecurity about physical demands, kibbutz hirees also showed little insecurity in regard to team participation and to special assignments, perhaps owing to their low expectations about


Table 4. Job security profile of the job features subscale (means and S.D.s, F)

Job features Total Kibbutz Kibbutz City Personal F sample hirees members teachers contract

1. Geographic location 8.6 (5.4) 8.5 (5.8) 7.4 (5.2) 8.1 (5.8) 9.9 (5.9) 3.7 (0.01) 2. Promotion opportunities 8.3 (5.2) 8.1 (6.3) 6.7 (4.8) 8.1 (4.5) 9.5 (5.4) 4.4 (0.00) 3. Maintain pay level 10.1 (5.8) 9.0 (5.3) 6.9 (3.5) 9.1 (4.6) 13.5 (6.7) 25.7 (0.00) 4. Pay raise 10.4 (5.6) 9.3 (5.5) 8.1 (4.8) 9.6 (4.6) 13.2 (6.2) 16.9 (0.00) 5. Status 9.5 (5.0) 9.4 (4.8) 8.2 (4.4) 8.7 (4.3) 11.1 (5.6) 7.1 (0.00) 6. Autonomy in work design 9.5 (5.2) 8.9 (5.0) 7.6 (3.6) 9.5 (4.9) 10.5 (6.0) 4.3 (0.01) 7. Autonomy in perf. work 10.2 (5.5) 10.0 (6.1) 8.0 (3.5) 9.8 (5.2) 11.8 (6.0) 7.0 (0.00) 8. Access to resources 9.4 (5.4) 9.5 (6.1) 7.6 (4.3) 9.3 (4.9) 10.5 (5.8) 4.1 (0.01) 9. Coworkers 8.6 (5.1) 8.0 (4.5) 8.3 (3.8) 8.3 (5.0) 9.6 (6.0) n.s. 10. Performance feedback 9.2 (5.2) 9.9 (5.7) 7.1 (4.1) 9.3 (5.1) 9.8 (5.3) 4.4 (0.00) 11. Supervision 8.4 (5.0) 7.4 (4.5) 6.4 (4.2) 9.1 (5.1) 9.0 (5.2) 5.1 (0.00) 12. Physical demands 6.7 (4.9) 5.4 (4.4) 4.5 (3.2) 7.6 (5.1) 7.2 (5.2) 7.8 (0.00) 13. Interaction with public 7.6 (4.2) 6.8 (4.1) 6.3 (2.9) 8.1 (4.5) 7.9 (4.4) 3.5 (0.01) 14. Task variety 9.3 (4.9) 9.3 (5.1) 8.3 (4.5) 10.0 (5.4) 9.0 (5.5) n.s. 15. Complete entire work 9.5 (5.4) 9.8 (5.6) 7.4 (4.0) 9.5 (5.0) 10.6 (6.1) 4.7 (0.00) 16. Making significant impact 9.4 (5.2) 8.3 (4.5) 8.6 (4.8) 9.4 (5.0) 10.3 (5.9) n.s. 17. Self-eval. of performance -9.1 (5.2) 8.5 (4.8) 8.3 (4.8) 8.8 (4.8) 10.1 (6.1) n.s. 18. Team participation 7.5 (5.2) 6.7 (5.1) 6.9 (4.5) 7.9 (5.3) 7.7 (5.3) n.s. 19. Recognition from principal 8.8 (5.5) 8.6 (5.7) 6.9 (4.3) 8.8 (5.2) 9.7 (6.1) 3.5 (0.01) 20. Training 9.1 (5.1) 8.5 (4.5) 7.9 (4.3) 9.1 (5.0) 10.1 (5.8) 3.1 (0.02) 21. Special assignments 8.1 (5.3) 6.4 (4.0) 6.6 (4.6) 8.3 (5.1) 9.3 (6.1) 5.9 (0.00)

being included in participative decision-making and in special kibbutz projects. Kibbutz members were mostly insecure about making a significant impact, losing coworkers, losing task variety, and losing their self-evaluation of performance. These results highlight the prominence of intrinsic and social rewards in kibbutz working life, above and beyond the extrinsic and materialistic ones. Apparently, losing rewards that are greatly valued in a socially-intensive society can lead to insecurity. Kibbutz members were least insecure (in addition to physical demands) about supervision and interaction with the public, which could be explained by the egalitarian and close-system nature of the kibbutz. City teachers were mostly insecure about task variety, pay raise and their autonomy in performing work. They were least insecure (in addition to physical demands) about team participation, geographical location, promotion opportunities and interaction with the public. Finally, personal contract teachers were mostly insecure about maintaining their pay level, pay raise and autonomy in performing work. They were least insecure about team participation and interaction with the public (in addition to physical demands). Given the special circumstances of the personal contract work-the emphasis on financial remunera- tion in lieu of guaranteed employment, lack of permanent and steady work, and focus on teaching only (and not on other educational roles in school), the profile picture of the personal contract teacher is not surprising. Autonomy in performing work seemed to be important to all groups except kibbutz members, who perhaps did not view it as a potential threat, since it was a natural part of their democratic life system.

A JI profile of the total job subscale is presented in Table 5. Generally, the Israeli teachers studied were most insecure in regard to undesirable changes in work schedule and a cut in working hours. The strong emphasis put by teachers on the first of these two items-schedule changes could be explained simply by the sex variable. Females, as the dominant gender in the teaching


Table 5. Job insecurity profile of the total job subscale (means, S.D., F)

Total job items Total Kibbutz Kibbutz City Personal F sample hirees members teachers contract

1. Cut in working hours 10.1 (6.7) 9.8 (6.1) 7.1 (5.7) 8.5 (7.2) 13.7 (7.5) 21.3 (0.00) 2. Layoffs 8.7 (6.5) 7.2 (5.7) 5.2 (3.3) 7.7 (4.6) 12.1 (8.4) n.s. 3. Involuntary early retirement 7.2 (5.2) 5.8 (3.7) 4.6 (2.9) 7.6 (5.0) 8.8 (6.2) 11.1 (0.00) 4. Undesirable changes in 10.9 (6.4) 11.0 (5.6) 8.0 (5.6) 10.3 (5.8) 13.1 (7.2) 9.6 (0.00)

work schedule 5. Teaching lower level class 8.6 (6.1) 9.4 (5.9) 7.1 (5.9) 8.2 (5.9) 9.7 (6.3) 3.1 (0.03)

profession, may attach more importance to balancing their work and life schedules than to other factors of their job. The second-a cut in working hours-was a strong source of threat since it translated directly to pay, and moreover, unlike pay, it could be manipulated by school principals. The lowest insecurity score was involuntary early retirement which is indeed less prevalent as a workforce reduction technique in teaching than in industrial occupations. A review of the F scores of the four employment types in Table 5 shows that they were significantly different from each other in four of the five total job items. Yet, they all were high in regard to undesirable changes in work schedule. They all shared also the lowest score of JI: involuntary early retirement. Kibbutz hirees and city teachers assigned the next to the highest score to a cut in working hours. Personal contract teachers were the most insecure group, as reflected in each of the five total job subscale items, and kibbutz members were consistently the most secure.

JI and work attitudes

Regression analyses of the relationships between JI and work attitudes are presented in Table 6. Each one of the outcome variables was regressed separately of the JI scale. As expected, JI affected all five work attitudes for the total sample, with significant changes in all betas. The results of the regression analysis support hypotheses 2a-e: higher JI led to lower commitment, perceived performance and perception of organizational support, and to higher intention to quit and resistance to change. However, some of the relationships disappeared when the four employment types were examined separately. For kibbutz hirees, JI was only related to performance. The fact that JI was not associated with any other work attitudes for kibbutz hirees may be related to the attractiveness of the kibbutz schools for these outside teachers, to the extent of dissociating their attitudes toward work from possible JI feelings. For kibbutz members, JI was not associated with organizational commitment and with intention to quit. The reason may be that both these attitudes were more relevant to a teacher in his/her role as a kibbutz member than in his/her role as a working person. For city teachers, job insecurity was not related to resistance to change and to performance. For personal contract teachers, JI was only related to .intention to quit. Considering that many of these teachers were part-timers and only minimally involved in their schools, this last result is not surprising. Note that the two employment types that showed only one significant result-kibbutz hirees and personal contract teachers-were characterized by a limited psychological contract: the former did not expect to get rights preserved for kibbutz members, and the latter got little work benefits other than pay. Possibly, employees' expectations related to their perceived psychological contract can explain some of the links between experienced JI and work attitudes.


Table 6. Regression analysis of job insecurity and work attitudes (beta, R2, F, p) of the total sample and the four employment types

Organizational Intention Resistance Perceived Organizational Commitment to quit to change performance support

Total sample Beta -0.18 0.36 0.14 -0.13 -0.18 (N= 385) R2 0.03 0.13 0.02 0.02 0.03

F 13.18 56.38 7.74 6.77 12.34 p 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00

1. Kibbutz hirees Beta -0.37 (N= 53) R2 0.14

F 8.28 P 0.01

2. Kibbutz members Beta 0.34 -0.36 -0.28 (N = 59) R 0.11 0.13 0.08

F 7.3 8.3 5.04 p 0.01 0.00 0.03

3. City teachers Beta -0.22 0.36 -0.19 (N= 152) R2 0.05 0.13 0.04

F 7.7 22.4 5.6 p 0.01 0.00 0.02

4. Personal contract Beta 0.31 (N= 121) R 0.10

F 12.8 p (0.00)

Discussion

The results of this study support the main thrust of Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's (1984) JI model; specifically, they show that the experience of JI leads to adverse work attitudes. The notion that JI affects work attitudes negatively has not been seriously challenged in previous research, except in regard to employee performance, where results were mixed. As recalled, performance was the only variable in Ashford et al.'s (1989) study that was not associated with JI. The fact that JI was found to be associated with performance in the present study might be related to a unique attribute of Israeli employees, revealed by Van Vuuren et al. (1991, p. 71) in their comparative study. They found that Israeli employees regarded personal output as a safeguard against job insecurity (71 per cent of Israeli respondents, compared with only 46 per cent of Dutch respondents). Israelis, then, tended to associate improved performance on one hand, and better chances to stay on the job on the other.

Interestingly, the regression results between JI and performance were very high for both groups of kibbutz teachers (r = 0.37 and r = 0.36, p < 0.-00), but diminished for both groups of non-kibbutz teachers. The explanation might be found in a series of studies on the effect of JI on layoff survivors conducted by Brockner et al. (1986) and by Brockner (1988). These researchers found that psychological contingencies, such as low self-esteem and perception of randomness in layoff decisions, mediated the relationship between JI and employees' input. Although the latter studies were performed on layoff survivors and not on 'normal' employees, their results might apply to at least part of the population studied here. It is possible that the psychological


conditions mentioned (low self-esteem and layoff fairness) are only relevant to non-kibbutz teachers. For kibbutz teachers, layoff has a different meaning, usually involving job transfer and possible loss of self-esteem, but only seldom incurring serious materialistic repercussions. Therefore, self-esteem and layoff fairness might not be relevant as mediators in the kibbutz case, but if used empirically in future studies on non-kibbutz employees, could produce different results.

The strongest effect of JI in the total sample was on intention to quit. The fear of being dismissed might impel employees to quit voluntarily in order to improve their future employment chances, to create early opportunities, or just to save face. Although there is a host of factors believed to determine intention to quit, JI is certainly one of the more important (Arnold and Feldman, 1982). The ultimate consequence of intention to quit is turnover (Steel and Ovalle, 1984), which is an indicator of organizational effectiveness. The JI-intention to quit relationship worked only for non-kibbutz teachers, but not for either kibbutz members (whose intention to quit was not related to work only) or kibbutz hirees, who might have dissociated their attitudes toward work in the kibbutz from their JI feelings, as mentioned earlier.

The data collection method (based on questionnaires) raised the question of whether the results of the regression analysis could be explained by common method variance. The significant inter-sample differences found in this study indicate that the common method variation effect might be only minimal. Also, as will be recalled, part of the job insecurity scale used in this study consists of items adopted from Hackman and Oldham's (1980) Job Characteristics Scale. Methodological investigations of this scale report repeatedly that the effect of common method variance explains outcome data at least as well as any traditional variation on job characteristics theory (Hogan and Martell, 1987), or has less effect than was assumed (Fried and Ferris, 1987; Johns, Xie and Fang, 1992). Still, it is possible that common method inflated some of the results. It is recommended, therefore, to use hard measures of employee performance and other work outcomes in future studies.

As a response to the call for more causal research on JI, as expressed by Hartley et al. (1991, p. 201), this study demonstrates causal relationships between JI and several work attitudes. Yet it is possible that JI works in both directions, namely that it does not only affect work attitudes and behaviors but is also affected by them in a negative feedback loop (Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt, 1984). This reverse relationship has not been seriously investigated in the JI literature, and has to be addressed in future studies.

Another gap in JI research is the interpretation of the nature of the relationship between JI and employees attitudes. The present study followed Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt's (1984) model, which assumed a direct link between the two, with no proposed mediating variables. One of the most obvious variables of mediating power is the concept of psychological contract. A psychological contract emerges 'when an individual perceives that contributions he or she makes obligate the organization to reciprocity' (Rousseau, 1989, p. 124). For example, while employees are committed to hard work, the organization is committed to guaranteed employment. Any breach in these terms, such as the employer's withdrawal from the 'promise' of permanent employment, shatters employees' expectations. Met expectations, then, play an important role in psychological contracts. When expectations are not met, the likelihood of the emergence of negative work attitudes and turnover rises (Wanous, Poland, Premack and Davis, 1992). In the present study, the notion of met expectations could explain the differential patterns found between JI and work attitudes for each one of the four employment types. For example, lack of expectations of the personal contract teachers from their employing organizations may have been responsible for the fact that JI, in their case, was related to only one work outcome- intention to leave (Table 6). In this study, the concept of met expectations was not addressed


empirically. It is recommended that future studies on JI include the measurement of expectations for better understanding of the nature of relationships between JI and work outcomes.

Implications of the Study

Methodological implications

The results of this study support the multidimensional approach to the conceptualization and measurement of job insecurity. In past research JI was treated as a global concept. From the results of this study there are some grounds for believing that JI is expressed differently in various facets of employee's work life. The profiles unveiled in this study show that every one of the groups of teachers studied had a unique structure of JI, reflecting its specific employment predispositions. Only a multidimensional measure could provide such a fine-grained picture of job insecurity.

Another contribution of this study is the confirmation of the external validity of Ashford et al.'s (1989) JI scale. In their study, they suggested that 'researchers could further assess the validity of the new measure using two groups that could be expected a priori to differ in their level of job insecurity . . .' (p. 824). The present study responded to this challenge by comparing the a priori JI status of four teacher groups with their perceived status (hypothesis 1). The results supported the external validity of the JI measure.

The survey method used in this study raises concern over a possible common method variance effect. Although it could be expected that the results are somewhat inflated owing to this effect, the significant differences between the various employment types (see LSD results in Table 3) support the credibility of the main instrument in this study, the JI scale. As will be recalled, a significant part of this scale is composed of Hackman and Oldham's (1980) Job Descriptive Scale (JDS). Although some studies on the JDS found that common method variance had a less-than- expected effect on research results (Fried and Ferris, 1987; Johns et al., 1992), it is recommended that hard measures of outcome variables (such as supervisors' ratings for performance) be included in future studies.

The present study used secondary schoolteachers as a case in point. Considering studies such as Ashford et al.'s (1989), who reached similar results using various occupational samples, it may be expected that the results of this study are generalizable to other occupational groups with equivalent a priori JI status, such as various types of governmental employees. Furthermore, if relatively secure employees such as schoolteachers exhibited a certain level of JI, it may be expected that not only higher levels but possibly different job features are affected in employees under organizational threat. Although studies on various aspects of JI among employees at risk have been reported (Brockner, 1988; Jacobson, 1985, 1987; Kuhnert and Vance, 1992) few used a multidimensional approach, as mentioned earlier. It is recommended, therefore, that more studies of JI among population at risk be conducted, applying the multidimensional JI scale used in this study.

The multidimensional methodology used in this study also has cultural implications. The results enhance the global potential of the JI scale, showing that a scale conceived in North America, and tested on North American employees, also 'worked' on an Israeli sample, contrib- uting to the transcultural potential of the measure used.

Finally, considering the moderate (albeit significant) level of results in this study, it is recommended to replicate it, possibly on other occupations and in other organizations, using a


larger number of subjects as a whole, and a larger number of subjects in each employment type specifically.

Managerial implications

If, as the results of this study indicate, JI can exist in a non-threatening environment, this should be an ongoing managerial concern. However, under the conditions of organizational decline and downsizing, when JI is most conspicuous, a considerable adverse impact on organizational effectiveness is expected. The findings of this study, in particular the relationships found between JI and work outcomes, contribute to the theory held by a number of authors (Cameron, Whetten and Kim, 1987; Cascio, 1993; Greenhalgh and McKersie, 1982; Greenhalgh and Sutton, 1991; Sutton, 1990; Whetten, 1987) that organizational downsizing has an adverse effect on the organization. Understanding the way JI is experienced by employees leads to the understanding of its impact on organizational effectiveness (Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt, 1984), either in normal or in critical times. We recommend that the path between organizational adverse states, the experience of JI, and organizational outcomes will be measured directly in future studies.

The study makes it quite clear that formal provision of job security in the form of employment contract is only partially related to the experience of JI in the workplace. As long as workplaces undergo changes of any kind, and as long as the rate of change grows, JI is expected to follow, if not to increase. Since JI affects work attitudes negatively, as evidenced by this and other studies, management's challenge is to identify and treat the sources of JI. Using multidimensional measures, human resource management can assess the specific JI profile of individuals or groups. Armed with this knowledge, managerial response can be more effective. When an objective JI situation is inevitable, management's task is to see that employees develop constructive attitudes and behaviors to cope with, not only respond to, the JI experience.

Another major implication of this study relates to a recent debate in organizational theory literature over externalization and workplace flexibility. Pfeffer and Baron (1988), in their review of recent trends in the structuring of employment, claimed that employers were increasingly externalizing their workforce, i.e. using workers who were weakly connected to the organization in terms of physical location, administrative control, and duration of employment. These workers served as a buffer, protecting the employment of the core or permanent workforce. Similarly, Atkinson (1987) suggested a model of the 'flexible firm', where a distinction was made between internal employees (core group of employees of firm- specific skills), and external employees, whose skills were more generic. These ideas about the changing nature of the workforce were shared by other writers as well (e.g. Piore and Sabel, 1984; Streeck, 1987). The findings of this study regarding teachers's concerns about their task variety (the ninth highest job feature out of 21; see Table 4) may be a reflection of teachers' own quest for the opportunity to develop and use extra skills, as a form of self-enrichment or to improve their competitive edge in a fast-changing work environment. If the claimed trend toward externalization is real, JI in its traditional form should become less prevalent, being relevant only to the shrinking internal group of employees. However, if JI is viewed as a multidimensional concept, it must be widely relevant to both internal and external employees. This study demonstrated that both external employees, such as the personal contract teachers and the kibbutz hirees, and the internal employees, such as the kibbutz members and the city teachers, experienced JI, but in different forms, subject to their specific working conditions. The study showed that while external and internal teachers shared insecurity about certain


work features such as autonomy in performing work, they differed in others: external teachers were mainly insecure about pay issues, while internal teachers were mainly insecure about losing task variety and about performance feedback. The multidimensional concept of JI used in this study, then, contributes to the understanding of this phenomenon in different employment structures.

Conclusions

The experience of JI among Israeli teachers was investigated in this study. The congruence between this experience and formal employment arrangements, the effect of the JI experience on work attitudes, and finally the application of Ashford et al.'s (1989) JI measure to the Israeli population were studied. Results show that the multidimensional measure used discriminated among different employment arrangements, so that a match was established between the a priori (objective) state of JI, and the reported (subjective) experience of JI. Ashford et al.'s (1989) JI scale was applied successfully to the population studied, moreover, its external validity was confirmed. Finally, as expected, negative effects of JI on various work attitudes were found. The results contribute both to the methodology of measuring JI and to the theory of JI organizational effects.

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Appendix 1: Personal characteristics of Israeli teachers

Characteristics Total Kibbutz Kibbutz City Personal sample hirees members teachers contract

(N= 385) (N= 53) (N= 59) (N= 152) (N= 121)

Sex (% F) 69 83 69 83 48 Age (Mean, S.D.) 40 (8.7) 38 (8.6) 41 (8.5) 40 (8.4) 39 (9.4) Married (%) 89 92 86 90 88

Seniority (years) At school 10.4 (8.0) 8.7 (7.7) 8.8 (6.1) 11.9 (8.5) 10.1 (8.1) In profession 15.1 (9.1) 12.1 (8.0) 11.8 (7.9) 16.9 (9.1) 15.8 (9.4)

Education (%) Professional degree 32.4 23.5 25.8 28.0 45.0 BA 53.7 64.7 53.5 55.8 46.8 MA and above 13.9 11.8 20.7 16.2 8.2

Teaching orient. (%) Humanities 56.7 44.5 67.2 59.0 53.6 Science 27.2 38.2 25.9 27.1 23.2 Non-academic 16.1 17.3 6.9 13.9 23.2

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