a teaching practice observation textbook. - … · a teaching practice observation textbook. ......
TRANSCRIPT
A teaching practice observation textbook.
Mtra. Martha Lorena Obermeier Pérez
Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas
México, 2013
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ISBN 978-607-00-7435-6
Edición: Martha Lorena Obermeier Pérez.
Prohibida la reproducción total o parcial de esta obra en cualquier
forma electrónica o mecánica, incluso fotocopia o sistema para
recuperar información sin permiso escrito del editor.
Impreso y hecho en México.
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Contenido
Introduction to observation ........................................................................................................... 4
Unit I The nature of class observation ............................................................................................ 5
1.1 Purposes and uses of observation ............................................................................................ 5
1.2 Observation methods ............................................................................................................. 11
1.3 Roles and ethics in observation .............................................................................................. 14
Unit II Classroom observation instruments ................................................................................... 19
2.1 Observation instruments to measure the use of class elements, skills, grammar, and vocabulary
in a language class ....................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Observation of language classes (use of video, among peers, teachers) .................................. 23
Unit III Registry of the class observation. ...................................................................................... 26
3.1 Elements of a classroom ......................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Group dynamics: individual work, working in pairs, time distribution, teacher’s and student’s
role .............................................................................................................................................. 33
3.3 Observation of learning, evidence of learning, students’ progress, goal achievement ............. 39
Unit IV Analyzing the class observation ........................................................................................ 42
4.1 Interview and feedback to the teacher ................................................................................... 42
4.2 Evaluating the observations ................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Designing a lesson plan to improve the teaching practice ....................................................... 52
Annex .......................................................................................................................................... 64
References ................................................................................................................................... 76
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Introduction to observation Observation is commonly considered as sitting in a classroom and observe what a
teacher is doing. In fact, classroom observation goes beyond the time spent in the
classroom. Observation needs time to be prepared and decide what aspects are
going to be observed. It also takes time after the class observation to analyze,
discuss and reflect on the whole experience.
Observation can be useful in several situations, as Wajnryb (1992) mentions
observation may be initiated either by the teachers themselves or by the school, as
part of a school-based support programme for teaching staff, or beginning teachers
or newly-employed teachers engaged in an induction period.
In an observation there are several factors that influence the results. First of all,
having an observer may alter the class dynamics in the beginning. An observer
may notice that students and the teacher do not behave in the same way when
observed in several classes. The physical environment conditions may have
influence in the way the students or the teacher behave. Simple facts like weather,
sitting arrangements, light, classroom elements may influence the students’ and
the teacher’s behavior.
This text book was designed for the academic unit Teaching practice observation.
It includes reading materials and activities to develop the observation skills. These
observation skills are one of the competences a language teacher should have.
Observation is used for training, improving and proposing new techniques for the
teaching practice.
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Unit I The nature of class observation
1.1 Purposes and uses of observation Observing a teacher offers a different perspective of what teaching practice
is. When teachers are in front of a class, their main concern is following a lesson
plan to achieve the objectives of the class. Observation provides the opportunity to
watch from a different point of view and have another idea of what is going on in a
classroom. Observation also helps the observer to better understand what is
teaching and to refine the ability to observe, analyze and interpret.
Observation is commonly considered as a menacing practice for a teacher’s
job. Some teacher may perceive observation as a danger to their jobs. They may
feel that if somebody asks permission to observe their classes, is the result of
students’ complains. Observation is a tool for improving the teaching practice,
being observed is not a prediction of somebody losing his job. Observation is a tool
to find out what is not working well and finding solutions to solve it. In fact, the
purposes and uses of observation are others:
1. Trainees being observed as an initial part of their training process.
2. Teachers observing trainees to improve their teaching practice.
3. Teacher developers as part of a support system.
4. Trainee trainers who observe teachers and trainee teachers.
The uses of observation can be to give some guidance or structure to the
process of observation. The main objective in this use is to enhance teacher’s
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professional growth and development. Another use of observation is for
assessment. This is how it is used in pre-service teacher training courses of during
probation periods or for employment-related matters. A teacher being observed
has a trainer’s opinion to improve his teaching practice. In some educational
institutions, teachers have to be observed in order to be employed.
Observing what happens in the classroom can be made from different
theoretical frameworks and with different purposes. A task as complex as the
teacher's professional activity in the classroom, affected by a multitude of factors
and elements of a varied nature, leads to partial and limited analysis and
impossible to cover all the systems involved (institutional, educational system,
social system). However, it is the classroom where curricular approaches is put
into action, offers a well-defined understandable space to analyze teaching
practice.
There are many things going on in a language class, but not everything can
be observed at the same time. It is necessary to previously decide what is going to
be observed. This is called an observation task, once you have decided on what
you are going to observe, you can design an observation sheet which will help you
register the information. In the next units, we are going to read about aspects that
can be observed and some examples of observation sheets are going to be
provided. These observation sheets can be modified according to what the
observation task is. According to Wajnryb (1992), the observation tasks are
designed to give teachers:
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A ‘way in’ to discovering the classroom from a perspective other than that of
the person actually teaching;
A way of observing that provides both focus and clarity;
A means of collecting classroom-based data and information about
teaching;
A meta-language: a language to talk about classrooms and the various
processes related to teaching and learning;
A raised awareness of classroom realities and a reservoir of information and
experience that will serve them in discussing and reflecting on the
classroom;
A greater understanding of teaching and learning to enable their own
classroom decision-making to be more informed and systematic;
Increased skill in interpreting and understanding data;
An understanding of the relationship between theory and practice and a
means of forging personally meaningful links between theoretical knowledge
about learning and experience of the classroom. Sometimes this involves
the top-down application of theory to the classroom; more often perhaps, it
is the bottom-up recognition of theory emanating from practice
(Lindstromberg 1990);
A means towards building relationships with colleagues based on mutual
respect and support;
A respect for the classroom as the laboratory of language learning; a
respect for data-driven, principled approaches to teaching; a healthy
skepticism about unsupported claims.
Purposes and observing strategies
The purpose of the observation may be an exploration of activities,
techniques and materials used by a teacher in order to do further analysis of their
teaching and make alternative strategies for improvement.
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The observation of the state of education in its natural state allows the study
in a contextualized way and to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the
behavior as occurred in the classroom context. The interpretation and evaluation of
the instructional process can be performed on the following dimensions:
a) Supports, aids and adjustment of activities and tasks proposed to students along
the sequence of teaching and learning. In this dimension, several aspects were
analyzed, namely:
i. If the teacher takes into account the characteristics of the students to get
involved and participate in the activities and tasks: skills, learning resources, prior
knowledge, motivations and interests, etc.
ii. The way the teacher explains a concept or procedure and the way he/she
responds to a question or corrects an error. The decisions he/she makes about
what activities and tasks to perform, what kind, in what order, at what length and
pace, with what alternation.
iii. The more open or more closed of the tasks which is proposed to students in
terms of the products that are to be achieved and the ways to do so, the degree of
variation in the types of activities and tasks proposed.
iv. The relative level of difficulty of the task, the greater or lesser possibility of
choice in its implementation by students, how to combine types of activities and
different tasks related to a particular aspect of the content of teaching and learning.
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v. The types of aids offered, the greater or minor dependence of aids and the of
support: present information, give examples, give feedback, return to the error,
rethink how to perform a task, to facilitate the execution of a procedure, etc.
b) Contingency resources and introduction of new information
This dimension examines whether the teacher refers to personal
experiences of the family environment of students or other non-school contexts
related to the content in question. If it exemplifies concepts or new ideas, support
materials or objects in the classroom situation, the slideshow, recovery of school
learning achieved in previous situations.
c) Rules of social participation in group activity between teacher and students.
Refers to how the class is organized by exposure, individual work, team
work, presentations by students, etc. Management rules and participation that
occur in the classroom: whether students may or may not ask during exhibitions,
relevant and personalized assistance from the teacher, guidance or teamwork. If
the development of the activities and tasks are performed under the initiative and
priority control of the teacher, the degree of freedom that students have in the
realization of the tasks and / or how to perform them.
d) Spaces and devices monitoring and verification of shared meanings, information
gathering and assessment of pupil performance. The degree to which the teacher
stops interventions and student questions to check his/her understanding and
modifying the initial plan envisaged when it detects errors or incorrect executions.
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Supervision or not the individual and team work, appropriate and timely
feedback. Detection and repairing of misunderstandings, misconceptions and
ruptures along the sequence of teaching and learning.
e) Motivational factors, relational and emotional that manifest.
The affective tone of relations between participants, interpersonal conflict
management, order management and discipline.
Extra activity:
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ask Ss to answer why, when and where observation is needed. They should also reflect on who can make observations and what aspects of a class can be observed.
While Ss can make a presentation with their answers to present them to rest of the group.
Post Ss will present their answers and explain if their classmates’ presentations were similar or different to what they presented.
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1.2 Observation methods Casual and Scientific observation
An observation with a casual approach involves observing the right thing
at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck
whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the
measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all the
observations are not scientific in nature.
Natural Observation
Natural observation involves observing the behavior in a normal setting
and no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the
observed. Improvement in the collection of the information and improvement in
the environment of making an observation can be done with the help of natural
observations.
Subjective and Objective observation
Subjective observation involves the observation of the one’s own
immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer as an entity
apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective
observation. Objective observation is also called as the retrospection. In a
subjective observation, you have the considerations of a person involved in the
phenomena observed. These considerations may be influenced by personal
opinions o r interests, while in objective observation, the observer is stranger to
the situation being observed.
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Direct and Indirect observation
In a direct observation, the observer is physically present in a situation
and monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies
of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like
photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively straighter forward as
compared to the indirect observation.
Participant and Non Participant observation
Participant observation refers to the participation of the observers with
the various types of operations of the group under study. In participant
observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by the nature of
the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its
demands. In the non participant type of observation, no participation of the
observer in the activities of the group takes place and also there occurs no
relationship between the researcher and the group.
Structured and Unstructured observation
Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific
information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information
that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various
features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such
observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data
collection that are also structured in nature.
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In the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically
against the structured observation. In such observation, observer has the
freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point
of study and also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of
exploratory research.
Controlled and None Controlled observation
Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence
of some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to
improvement in the precision of the research results.
Non controlled observations are made in the natural environment and
reverse to the controlled observation these observations involve no influence or
guidance of any type of external force.
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ss will be asked to point out the main differences among the different observation methods.
While Ss will make a comparative chart presenting the advantages, disadvantages and possible scenarios for every method.
Post Ss will present their charts and compare it to the ones the rest of their classmates did.
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1.3 Roles and ethics in observation In the observation process, there are two subjects involved: the observed
and the observer. The observed can be a student in teaching training or a teacher.
The observer can be a peer (in the case of the students), a trainee trainer or an
school authority. The roles and subjects may vary according to the purposes:
Training purposes
During pre -service training courses, trainees may be the observers of
experts at work and may be observed conducting teaching sessions as well. There
is a pre determined focus for observation and a designed observation schedule
Assessment purposes
During an in-service teacher training course, it is usually conducted by
personnel of the Ministry of Education, the Director of the Studies or an external
assessor on the basis “Is the trainee ready to pass this course…?”.
Development purposes
This observation is performed by peers who are usually colleagues. The
post-observation discussions are led by the observed teacher so that he can
develop his ability to notice as well as his pedagogic reasoning.
Research
Observations are carried out for getting useful data. This, in turn, will allow
to create new theories, generate fresh descriptions, provide plausible explanations
of educational phenomena.
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The following chart presented by Wajnryb (1992) presents the roles, the
contexts and purposes for observation:
Context Observer Observee Purpose of observation Samples of observation experiences
Training process
Ongoing development
School-based support
The contexts of in-service and school-based teacher development
1 Teacher Peer teacher
♦ Two teachers observe each other’s teaching as part of a mutual self-development venture or project.
2 Teacher Peer teacher or senior teacher
♦ ♦ A teacher observes another teacher (peer or more experienced) in response to a perceived need to develop in a particular area.
3 Teacher coordinator/ developer
Teacher ♦ ♦ A teacher invites a teacher developer to observe his/her teaching as part of a school-based teacher support
The context
4 Trainee teacher
Teacher ♦ A trainee observes an
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of pre-service training
experienced teacher as part of the experience module of the course
5 Trainee teacher
Teacher trainer
♦ A trainee observes a trainer teaching as a ‘modeling’ experience
6 Trainee teacher
Peer trainee teacher
♦ Two trainees observe each other within the practical teaching component of the course
7 Trainee trainer
Trainee teacher
♦ A trainer observes a trainee for diagnostic and support purposes
8 Trainee trainer
Teacher ♦ ♦ A trainer in-training observes teaching as part of systematic training in identifying and prioritizing teaching behaviours
9 Trainee trainer
Trainee teacher
♦ ♦ A trainer-in-training observes a trainee teacher as part of the
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practical component of a trainer training course
Ethics in observation
When observing a language classroom, the observer should have some
ethic principles in mind. First of all, he should remember that his analysis of the
observation should be aimed at improving the teaching practice and not to make
fun of the mistakes made by the teacher or to show his mistakes in an impolite
way. We should also remember that observation is part of a research process and
should be conducted in a formal way.
The information gathered should be treated professionally and there should
also be interaction with the teacher observed. This interaction is important to
provide positive feedback and also hear the observed teacher’s opinions.
An observer must always avoid invasion of privacy while observing. Some
observers tend to interfere or participate in the class, which would interfere in the
behavior or the subjects involved in the observation.
Information should also be treated carefully to avoid information disclosure.
What happens in a classroom should be observed to improve the teaching
practice, not to make fun of it or to punish the teacher. Information disclosure may
interfere in a negative way the next time you need to observe a teacher.
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Information disclosure may lead to social embarrassment or stigma of a teacher,
which may affect the teacher’s reputation or working situation.
Before observing, the teacher to be observed should be asked to and he
should agree to. An authority does not have the right to get in a classroom to
observe a teacher without previous warning, this may end up in legal difficulties.
As observers, there are some ethical standards that should be followed:
Respect for Persons
Informed consent
Information, comprehension, voluntariness
Beneficence
Risks and benefits must be assessed systematically
Justice
Fair procedures in subject treatment and selection of subjects
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ss will brainstorm think of the possible roles in an observation, and what ethical implications of observation might refer to.
While Ss will read the information and check whether or not their guessing was right
Post Ss will work in pairs to role play (or make up a story). They have to choose a role and then either infringe or implement the ethical implications of observation.
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Unit II Classroom observation instruments
2.1 Observation instruments to measure the use of class elements,
skills, grammar, and vocabulary in a language class Class elements
In a language class, you can find several elements; some of them are
physical like the board, the distribution of the chairs, the technology available in the
classroom, the light or the classroom size. Some other elements are not physical,
but they also influence the pace and the development of the class. Some elements
that may determine if the class is successful are the following:
1. Clear goals and objectives for each class
2. A fun and motivating atmosphere
3. A focus on student talking time
4. A clear link between the lesson and everyday life
5. Immediate error correction
6. Integration of cultural knowledge and skills
7. Inspiring and well-traveled teacher
A language teacher should try to include these elements in his class and
use these elements to develop the language skills, teach grammar and vocabulary.
Skills
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There are four skills in language teaching: reading, writing, listening and
speaking. Reading and listening are considered passive skills, while speaking and
writing are active skills. Reading and listening demand the recognition of grammar
structures, vocabulary and syntaxes. Speaking and writing are the skills that ask
the student to apply what they know about grammar and vocabulary. Although
these skills may seem difficult to measure, there are some ways to develop and
evaluate them.
It is important to develop the four skills on the students. The four skills
cannot be developed the four in the same class, this would be very ambitious.
Classes must be designed to develop at least one or two of them.
Grammar
Most teachers and modern language teaching theories may find that
grammar is boring, but grammar is necessary while teaching any foreign language.
Grammar is the structure of the language. Even in textbooks that are designed with
the communicative approach, you can find a grammar section. Grammar involves
rules and memorizing them to use them in certain situations. The grammar of our
fist language is always present and influences the foreign language grammar we
are trying to learn.
For most of students, grammar may be difficult, specially is their first
language and the foreign language grammars are different. Most of the students
respond well to controlled exercises and not so well to free form exercises. What
students may find as the most difficult is writing essays and having a conversation.
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In these two activities, students have to use correctly grammar and vocabulary to
express ideas, most of the times influenced by their first language grammar and
structure.
While observing a language class it is important to check how much
grammar is present in the lesson plan, how is it being introduced and what type of
exercises are being used to practice it.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is an important element in the language class. Not knowing the
vocabulary may difficult the reading and listening comprehension. Vocabulary
involves memorizing and remembering. Vocabulary is normally taught while
teaching the grammar. In most textbooks the structure of a lesson is organized as
follows: vocabulary related to the topic, listening to a conversation where the
structure is used, presenting the grammar structure and controlled exercises and a
final speaking, writing or reading exercise. Vocabulary is presented at the
beginning as an introduction to the topic but also as a tool. Vocabulary allows
expressing ideas using the grammar structure and the appropriate words.
Vocabulary is easy to forget, that is the reason why it should be practice in
language class using games and techniques to remember it.
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Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Brainstorm on observation instruments to measure skills, grammar and vocabulary in a language class.
While Compare your results to the reading. After comparing them, choose only one measuring instrument to write about.
Post Complete the measuring instrument you have chosen by giving pros and cons, remember that they can be designed to measure skills, grammar or vocabulary.
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2.2 Observation of language classes (use of video, among peers,
teachers) Use of video
When observing a language class, it is common to use observation sheets
to take notes. These sheets allow you to observe and write down what is going on,
but sometimes, you may miss important features of the class while writing. Using a
video recorder may be helpful; you can record the class and watch it later alone or
with a college to analyze it. Before recording, you should ask permission to the
teacher and the students. it is tempting to record without telling them to obtain
more valid information, but it is also a matter of ethics.
You can record a peer teacher or record yourself while teaching. If you
record yourself, you are going to realize about things you are doing in class and
didn’t even know it.
Observation among peers
Observation is a good tool for learning, improving and analyzing. Peer
observation can be used for formative and summative purposes. The formative
purpose is related to improving the teaching. The summative purpose is related to
evaluation to verify if the student has developed enough skills to improve his
teaching practice. Apart from improving your teaching practice, observation may
provide you new ideas to use in your language class. Watching what others are
doing or how they are dealing with some situations may help you to use them in
your own classroom.
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Observers should arrive before the class starts, should be introduced to the
class and explain the purpose of the observation. Observers should not interfere in
the class and use an instrument to register the observations. Using a blank sheet
observation is not reliable; it is more reliable to use a check list form to standardize
the observation. The observer should have in mind what aspect he is going to
observe before going to the class, the teacher to be observed should be notified
about the purpose of the observation.
Observation among teachers
Observation among teachers is a common practice in some schools
nowadays. Its main purpose is improving the teaching practice. In some private
schools, teachers are asked to give a public class at the end of the semester. In
this class, the teacher can show his abilities and perform in front of the parents,
authorities and colleagues. The purpose of observation among teachers is not to
criticize each other, but to improve the teaching skills.
Observation is valuable as a professional development technique because it
shows in real contexts how to practice the theory. In most professional
development programs, teachers are asked to be observed and to observe. This
allows them to have a professional opinion about their teaching skills and
sometimes suggestions to improve it.
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Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Write down which of the observation methods you have used and, if you haven’t, which method would you like to use.
While Make a comparative chart about the three methods of observation.
Post Decide what observation method would be more appropriate to different scenarios.
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Unit III Registry of the class observation.
3.1 Elements of a classroom In a common classroom, there are elements that you can find such as
board, chairs, video recorder or cassette player which have influence in the
development of the class. The board is the most common element in any
classroom and offers the opportunity to share information with students. The basic
requisites to use a board are three: start with a clean board, write legibly and use
the right implement. The information that you can share using the board is:
Permanent or reference material.- new vocabulary items, model sentences
and reminders of items students persistently get wrong.
Material for development of the lesson.- material related to the stage of the
lesson you are at, materials students need to copy down, a model sentence,
a picture or an outline of grammar rule.
Impromptu work.- answer to an unpredicted question or an alternative
explanation.
Notes and reminders.- the date to help students learn the numbers and days
of the week or reminders for you to prepare something for the next lesson.
Even if the board is a useful tool, don’t get so dependent on it. If you think
that it is important for students to have some information, write it properly and
make copies for them.
Another element are the chairs, most people may think that something
simple as a chair may not interfere in the class, but this is far from reality. If the
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chairs are not comfortable enough, the students are not going to feel well to pay
attention to the class. The physical environment of a classroom is important; if you
have big windows, your students are more likely to get distracted by the visual
distracters. The same happens with the acoustics in the classroom, they can be
distracted by the external noise.
The sitting arrangement is also important, depending on what kind of group
dynamic you are going to use, you can rearrange the chairs to allow students to
work individually, in pairs or teams.
A textbook could be a great time saver, having a good text book saves you a
lot of time teachers usually use to look for materials. Some textbooks have visual
aids, exercises, video or audio materials, which saves you a lot of time. A textbook
is also designed to follow a sequence of objectives and presents the grammar
structures in an organized order. Textbooks are likely to be designed to cover the
objectives of a program of studies. Using a textbook would give you the opportunity
to focus on your dynamics and how to give good use of it, instead of focusing on
preparing the materials. Some books also have resource materials and teachers’
book, which also saves you time as you have the answers to the exercises.
Textbooks are useful resources and time savers, but how can you know for sure if
the textbook is going to be good for your class purposes? Brown (2001) proposes
a checklist to evaluate a textbook:
1. Goals of the course (Will this textbook help to accomplish your course
goals?)
2. Background of the students (Does the book fit the students’ background?)
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a. age c. educational background
b. native language and culture d. motivation or purpose for learning
English
3. Approach (Does the theoretical approach reflected in the book reflect a
philosophy that you and your institution and your students easily identiry
with?)
a. Theory of learning
b. Theory of language
4. Language skills (Does the book integrate the “four skills”? Is there a
balanced approach toward the skill? Does the textbook emphasize skills
which the curriculum also emphasizes?)
a. listening c. reading
b. speaking d. writing
5. General Content (Does the book reflect what is now known about language
and language learning?)
a. Validity –does the textbook accomplish what it purports to?
b. Authenticity of language
c. Appropriateness and currency of topics, situations, and contexts
d. Proficiency level – is it pitched for the right level?
6. Quality of practice material
a. Exercises –is there a variety from controlled to free?
b. Clarity of directions –are they clear to both students and teacher?
c. Active participation of students –is this encouraged effectively?
d. Grammatical and other linguistic explanation –inductive or deductive’
e. Review material –are there sufficient spiraling and review exercises?
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7. Sequencing (How is the book sequenced?)
a. by grammatical structures c. by situations
b. by skills d. by some combination of the above
8. Vocabulary (Does the book pay sufficient attention to words and word
study?)
a. relevance c. strategies for word analysis
b. frequency
9. General sociolinguistic factors
a. Variety of English –American, British, dialects, or international varieties
b. Cultural content –is there a cultural bias?
10. Format (Is the book attractive, usable, and durable?)
a. Clarity of typesetting
b. Use of special notation (phonetic symbols, stress/intonation marking,
etc)
c. Quality and clarity of illustrations
d. General layout –is it comfortable and not too “busy”?
e. Size of the book and binding
f. Quality of editing
g. Index, table of contents, chapter headings
11. Accompanying materials (Are there useful supplementary materials?)
a. workbook c. posters, flash cards, etc.
b. tapes –audio and/or video d. a set of tests
12. Teacher’s guide (Is it useful?)
a. methodological guidance c. suitability for nonnative speaking
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teacher
b. alternative and supplementary
exercises
d. answer keys
When somebody says technology, people normally think about computers,
but technology goes beyond them. Every time a technology has been discovered, it
has been used in education. This is the case of the board, pencil, movie projector,
radio, television, calculator, computer, ipads, etc.
Some textbooks provide video or audio materials designed to develop
listening skills in the students. if you do not have a textbook that provides these
materials, you can try to produce them or use authentic materials. Some talk
shows, news, tv shows or radio programs can be a good option. Selecting
authentic materials for the classroom can be time consuming, but at the same time
it ads really to your class.
Whether you choose authentic or didactic audio or video materials, you
need to check if the technology works out and if you know how to use it. Before the
class, check the quality of the sound and if you know how to use the controls. You
should also wind the material forward to the beginning of the conversation or video
you are going to use. You should also remember not to play any tape or video
without anticipating the language skills you are going to develop. Do not play a
tape or video without giving an instruction to the topic or a task. Doing so will make
students get bored and lost because they won’t know what they are expected to
do. Let the tap do the work and play it many times as necessary. Repeating what
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the tape is saying won’t help your students improve their listening skills. Most
students get used to your voice and pronunciation and have some trouble
understanding what native speakers say, letting them understand the tape will help
them understand other voices and accents. Remember to stop the tape at difficult
parts to understand or when the tape is too long, this may help students
understand the ideas.
The computer offers many possible uses in the language classroom such as
presenting or searching information, material design and communication.
Collaborative or research projects can be carried out utilizing data available on the
World Wide Web and other information resources. Communication via e-mail with
students is also possible as well as sharing information to peer-editing of
compositions, as some e-mail allows you to share documents.
Some institutions have web pages to offer courses or materials to students.
They not only become acquainted with computer technology in general but utilize
English in doing research on a topic, composing and designing, and collaborating
with other students. These web pages are designed with an academic objective:
offer the appropriate materials as a complement to the contents of the program.
One of the main advantages of using web pages is that students surf the page, do
exercises and have immediate feedback, his activities are registered in the site and
the teacher can monitor them without being present all the time.
Computers offer a great source for the language class, but teachers must be
aware of the distractions that it also offers. Most students use the internet to do
32
research, but sometimes forget what they were looking for in the first place
because of the distracters. Providing a web site to support your teaching, helps
students to focus on what materials can be used, exercises according to their skills
and level and immediate feedback.
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ss will be asked what they would do if they had poor conditions in their classroom, or overcrowded facilities, or too many students.
While Ss will read the document and discuss the problems they have to face in their teaching contexts. They will also talk about what they have done to solve these problems.
Post Ss will design two classroom settings: one with good physical environment and good classroom climate, and one with bad conditions. They have to explain how the situations affect the learning process and what they could do to alleviate such problems.
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3.2 Group dynamics: individual work, working in pairs, time
distribution, teacher’s and student’s role Individual work
Asking students to work individually, allows them to prepare their personal
ideas, views or arguments. If students are given time to prepare an answer rather
than being obliged to provide immediate responses, they are more likely to
produce a considered response and likely to benefit from the time spent working
out an appropriate answer. Individual work may take the form of silent reading
activities, problems or case studies. For example, you might ask students to read
through an article and identify a grammar structure, main ideas, vocabulary, etc.
correcting individual work on a regular basis would let you know about students’
progress and understanding of the topics.
Working in pairs
Students can be asked to work together in pairs or small groups to consider
the answers to specific problems, discuss ideas, prepare for whole-class
discussions, compare their answers or mark each other’s work. Sometimes, you
can ask a strong student to work with a weak student so the weak student can be
helped by the strong one. The objective of asking students to work in pairs or small
groups is to encourage them to learn from each other. Less confident students can
learn from the understanding of more confident students, and students with a
higher level of understanding can consolidate their thinking through explaining
ideas to others. Pairing quiet or less confident students with more outgoing
students can often be beneficial to both parties, whereas putting all the outgoing,
34
confident students into one group may lead to conflict and a less than successful
outcome to the whole activity.
Time distribution
It is really important that teachers use the time they have in class wisely.we
normally have a lot of holidays and other interruptions that diminish the class of
the time. The following list provides tips and ideas to help teachers maximize their
time with students each day.
Punctuality
It is very important that class is started on time if you lose some minutes at
the beginning every day, the sum up a great quantity of time at the end of the
semester. First, make sure that you as a teacher are ready to start right away and
make sure that all required notes and handouts are ready to go. You can also
use daily warm ups to help get students started right away. They can take the form
of either questions or simply notes or an agenda that need to be copied down by
the students before the lesson begins. If you attach a small grade to this activity,
you can further ensure that students will get started right away.
Housekeeping
Every teacher has to deal with taking attendance, collecting student work,
managing resources and materials, grading and assigning grades, along with
additional teacher specific recordkeeping tasks. However, the time can be
minimized by creating efficient systems. Simple measures like enforcing assigned
35
seats and using the same method for assigning homework each day can really
help. Teachers should have systems in place for tasks such as taking roll, handing
out papers, getting books, and more.
Transitions
Similar to housekeeping routines, teachers need to set up transition routines
so that moving from one activity to another takes minimal time. You need to have a
system in place for students to quickly and efficiently retrieve their books. If you
often have classroom activities that require your students to move their desks, ask
students to do it quickly and efficiently, this movement can lead to five minutes or
more of wasted time if you are not careful.
Structured Activities
Students who finish their classwork early can become distracting to other
students. Therefore, it is a good idea to have an ongoing activity that students who
finish early participate in. This can be as simple as having a reading assignment
that the students return to when they have time. You could also consider having
students complete word origin activities, write summaries of newspaper articles, or
even create a classroom newspaper.
Controlled Interruptions
Many interruptions can be managed by the creation of simple classroom
routines. Restroom use or tardy students can make a lot of interruptions to the
class. Another example is dealing with students who do not come prepared for
class, they can also interrupt or distract other students. Having a system for
36
borrowing pens and paper can be key in helping you maximize your time actually
teaching students.
Teacher’s role
In a language class, a teacher should manage three things: the group, the
activities and the learning. The role of the teacher could be as facilitator of learning:
leading discussions, asking open-ended questions, guiding process and task, and
enabling active participation of learners and engagement with ideas. In some other
situations, teachers need to be able to adopt a range of roles and skills to suit
specific situations, often during the same teaching session.
Other roles that may be adopted include that of:
instructor, who imparts information to students
neutral chair
consultant, from whom learners can ask questions
commentator
wanderer, such as in a larger workshop
Effective teachers are essential to ensuring that groups work well. Any teaching
event will be more successful if the teacher:
is enthusiastic
has organised the session well
has a feeling for the subject
can conceptualise the topic
has empathy with the learners
understands how people learn
has skills in teaching and managing learning
37
is alert to context and ‘classroom’ events
is teaching with their preferred teaching style
has a wide range of skills in their teaching repertoire.
Being a facilitator instead of an authoritative teacher is sometimes seen as
diminishing a teacher’s power and authority, but this should not be the case.
Facilitating learning is empowering for both the learner and the teacher.
Student’s role
Traditionally, students’ role has been passive, but modern methodology
suggests that students should be active and involved in their learning process. The
focus on your teacher could be student-centered by providing information for
student, parent, teacher, principal and community decision-making. A teacher must
know how to identify engaged students and those who require assistance in
becoming more engaged. Engaged learners are responsible for their own learning,
are identified as those who are self-regulated and who define their own learning
goals, displaying the ability to evaluate their own achievements and challenges.
They are also identified as engaged students who appear energized by learning.
Students should be encouraged to take an active role in the classroom so that they
are engaging in learning at all of these levels, gaining the expertise on topics to
discuss with others and teach others to maximize retention and understanding.
Students should also be encouraged to take the role of explorer, interaction
with the physical world and with other people allows students to discover concepts
38
and apply skills. Students should be encouraged to consider and reflect upon their
discoveries, placing them also in the role of cognitive apprentice. Apprenticeship
occurs when students observe and apply demonstrated thinking processes.
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ss will be presented three or four situations in which their Ss have to perform certain types of activities and they have to discuss whether they have to be carried out individually or in pairs.
While Ss will read the information and brainstorm more activities that can be performed individually or in pairs and how to use class time better. Also, Ss have to specify the roles of the T and the Ss in every stage of the lesson –according to the type of activities.
Post Ss will design a class in which they use class time efficiently and perform individual and paired activities. For every activity being carried out, they have to specify the role of the T and the Ss.
39
3.3 Observation of learning, evidence of learning, students’ progress,
goal achievement
Observation of learning
Teachers use test scores to find a student's academic strengths and
weaknesses, these scores are used to judge the quality of the educational system.
Testing forms represent a commitment to high academic standards. The demands
of the today's academic standards require students learn many skills. Students
need to master higher-order thinking skills and to be able to see the relationships
among seemingly diverse concepts. These abilities -- recall, analysis, comparison,
inference, and evaluation -- will be the skills of a literate twenty-first-century citizen.
Typical multiple-choice and short-answer tests aren't the only way, or
necessarily the best way, to gauge a student's knowledge and abilities. Many
schools are incorporating performance-based assessments into their standardized
tests or using student portfolios and presentations as additional measures of
student understanding. These forms of assessment require students to apply what
they're learning to real world tasks. These include standards-based projects and
assignments that require students to apply their knowledge and skills.
These formative and summative types of assessment need to give students
immediate feedback. This also allows a teacher to immediately intervene and
change the course when assessments show that a particular lesson or strategy
isn't working for a student, or to offer new challenges for students who've mastered
a concept or skill.
40
Evidence of learning
To know if your students are learning, you need to gather evidence of it.
You can gather this evidence using exercises or quizzes. The exercises could
be multiple choice or open ended questions, depending on the subjects you are
teaching. There are direct and indirect methods to have evidence of learning.
The indirect methods are: course evaluations, outlines of concepts and skills
covered on tests, grade point averages or course grade distribution. The direct
methods are: exams and quizzes, research projects or class participation.
The direct methods can be used in everyday lessons, while indirect
methods can be used at the end of a semester, in a summative evaluation.
Students’ progress
For language teachers, it is important to track students’ progress. When
teaching languages, the contents are sequenced and you need to be sure that your
students had some progress before continuing with the next content. Teachers can
track students’ progress with the activities in class. Most language textbooks offer
controlled exercises for the practice stage. Using free or semi controlled exercises
in the production stage would be a good way of knowing the students’ progress.
Most evaluation forms only consider what students get on a final or partial
exam. Just considering these evaluations, do not give credit to the work students
do every day. It is common that students have several exams on the final days of
the semester; this can have a bad impact on their performance. Considering
41
students progress may help you evaluate your students on a daily basis. It is also
an evidence of goal achievement.
Goal achievement
Before every class, a teacher should design a lesson plan. This lesson plan
is an opportunity to write down what your students are going to do to achieve a
goal or an objective. Most of the times, goals are settled in your program of study.
The lesson plan is a tool to help students achieve goals. There are some ways to
evaluate if they are achieving the goals, like semi controlled and free activities.
A goal should have the following characteristics:
Specific : The goal is focused, for example, by content area, by learners’ needs.
Measurable : An appropriate instrument / measure is selected to assess the goal.
Appropriate : The goal is within the teacher’s control to effect change.
Realistic : The goal is feasible for the teacher.
Time limited : The goal is contained within a single school year or semester.
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Ss will mention possible ways of observing and gathering evidence of learning.
While Ss will read the topic information and explain which ways they have used and the results they have had with them.
Post Ss will choose one direct method and one indirect method to gather evidence of learning and develop them –i.e. research project, course evaluation, etc.
42
Unit IV Analyzing the class observation
4.1 Interview and feedback to the teacher Before observing a teacher’ class, you need to ask for his permission to do
so, as well as informing him what you want to observe. This is the first interview
you have with the teacher and it can be informal. After you observe the teacher,
you can have a second interview to understand what the teacher is doing and his
reasons. While you analyze the observations, you may not understand why the
teacher is using some kind of activities or techniques to discipline students. Having
an interview after the observations, will provide you the opportunity to get an
answer to all the questions you may have. This interview should be formal and
prepared in advanced, your questions should be already designed to get more
information about what the teacher is doing in the classroom and you didn’t
understand. In this interview you can ask some of the following questions:
• What and how the teacher is teaching (quality of content and process)
• How well the teacher think he is addressing the needs of the students and
why
• What have been the problems he has had and how he has solved them
• What students are learning and how he has evidence of knowledge and
progress
• What he is doing to help students who are having difficulty as well as support
students who should be further challenged
• How well the class is working toward achieving school goals and expectations
• How well the teacher is meeting standards/expectations for his profession
• What does he need to achieve those standards and expectations
43
Once you have this information, you may have the opportunity to understand
the teacher from his perspective. After the interview, you can provide the feedback,
present and communicate the strengths in the lesson as well as the needed areas
of improvement. Even if you can provide feedback using an email or a letter, there
are a number of advantages to providing face-to-face feedback:
• Teachers are more likely to be open to it because it’s informal and
unwritten
• You can get a sense of whether the teacher is open to critical feedback
and hold off if the teacher does not seem receptive, or the timing is off
• The teacher can supply additional information to put the lesson and unit in
perspective
• The teacher can push back if the observer misunderstood something
• The conversation can segue into a more general talk about how things are
going, questions the teacher might have, opportunities to suggest support or
resources
• There is not paperwork
• It is immediate
When you are holding a conversation with a teacher to provide feedback,
explain why you are holding the conversation and what you expect to be the
outcome. Encourage dialog and give the teacher the opportunity to share his
opinions and reasons for working the way he is doing. Much of what you want the
teacher to do may come directly from comments that the teacher makes. Help the
teacher express his thinking about the lesson and areas of potential improvement.
44
At the end of the conversation, determine with the teacher what next steps
are expected and the time to do these steps. Set a time for the next observation or
a timeline for expected outcomes.
Effective feedback is specific, not general. It’s sincerely and honestly
provided to help. People will know if they are receiving it for any other reason. It
also focuses on the most important pieces of information and suggestions for
improvement. If too much information is given, the person will feel overwhelmed
and will not know what steps he needs to take next. It involves what or how
something was done, not why. Asking why is asking people about their motivation
and that provokes defensiveness. When giving feedback, it is important to make
sure the other person understood what you communicated by using a feedback
loop, such as asking a question or asking them to tell you what it might look like if
done differently next time.
You should communicate to the teacher observed the effect his behavior is
having on his students or in the group. (“When there are not enough copies of the
article to be read, it makes it difficult for all students to participate in the lesson.”).
You should also alert the teacher to an area in which his performance could
improve; it is descriptive and should always be directed to the action. (“The lesson
would be more effective if you had students repeat the directions before they begin
to do the work.” You can also specifically state what you want the person to do in
45
the future. (“When you submit your next unit plan, please include two strategies to
modify the lesson for those students who are not showing mastery of the skill.”)
To avoid negative feedback, pick the time and place carefully- a good
feedback session should not be spur-of-the- moment; it requires privacy and
enough time to do justice to what’s being said. Don’t email your critics. This is not
an appropriate forum for difficult conversations, which require face-to-ace contact
and an opportunity for clarification and interaction. Don’t wait a long time after you
identify the problem. On the other hand, if you’re still emotional yourself, wait until
you’re calm and collected. Vague generalities will not help the teacher, the more
specific you are, the more push-back there may be, but also the more chance there
is for real learning and change on the teacher’s part.
Watch your body language, non-verbal cues can communicate as much as
words. You need to be sure that your eyes, face, and body are giving the same
message as your words.” For a particularly difficult conversation, it may help to role
play with a trusted assistant. The teacher needs to understand why this incident or
behavior is important to you- the implications and the context of your thinking by
providing a rationale.
Praise more of what you criticize, you should start with the positive and
emphasize it before mentioning the negative aspects. If you do it otherwise, the
teacher may feel it like a personal critic. Create a format that honestly lists areas of
strength and the specific areas to grow.
46
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre Reflect on how you would carry out an interview to a teacher you observed and what type of questions you would ask. Think of ways to providing effective feedback to a teacher.
While After reading the information presented, compare your answers to the information you just read and explain the differences and how the reading change the way you think.
Post Take your own ideas and ideas from the text and make an ideal way to carry out an interview and feedback to the teacher. If you exclude certain ideas/opinions from the text, explain why you did not add them to the final list.
47
4.2 Evaluating the observations If you used an observation sheet to register the information or
questionnaires for the students and the teacher, you are now going to use this
information. In the case of the checklists, some of them have numbers to evaluate
how well the teacher performed in the class. This may be helpful to analyze and
evaluate the observations. In the case of open questions and open observations,
you may need some time to classify and analyze the answers.
When designing questionnaires for the students, you could use numbers to
evaluate how well the teacher performed, which will be a time saver. In the case of
the interview for the teacher, it would be better to make open questions, which
would give the teacher the opportunity to express himself and explain his
performance and reasons to do so.
When asking people who were present while something happen, they may
give you a different version or point of view about an event. In classroom
observation, you can find the same case, certain aspects of what is going on are
not clear to the teacher in front of the class but can be noticed by an observer.
Having the opportunity to also interact with students will also give you other points
of view about what really happens in a language classroom.
There are some common forms to register the information, the most simple
is personal recall, this is when you try to remember what you observed and carry
out a reflection on that basis. The second one is document recall, which can
consist on field notes, teaching diaries, observation sheets, etc. Observations can
also be audio or video recorded, which allows you to focus on several aspects
48
while you watch or listen it afterwards. Some observers use the audio recordings
and transcript the dialogues, which is time consuming but helpful if you want to
measure the amount and kind of interaction between the teacher and the students.
Who can interpret the information? There are some candidates to interpret
data and the result may vary according to them. The interpretation may differ if it is
made by a peer student, a supervisor, or a trained teacher. This interpretation may
also vary depending on if it is structured or unstructured. A visitor asked to observe
a class in operation may not have a clear idea what to focus on, but he could have
expectations of what ought to be done in a classroom. In a structured observation,
the observer determines what he is going to focus on and prepares the instruments
to collect the appropriate data.
There are some aspects to consider before evaluating the observations:
1. Approach: system-based observation, ethnographic or ad-hoc.
2. Requiring learning time to develop the approach.
3. Analysis of information: global or specific.
4. Evaluative, formative or research-related.
5. Teacher-focused, learner-focused or neutral in focus.
6. Quantitative or qualitative.
There are system-based observation methods already developed. The
method developed by Bellack and other (1996) consisted on make recordings into
transcripts using a standardised way so the amount of interaction could be
measured by counting lines. The method by Flanders (1970) was intended to be
49
used while the class was actually in progress. This method has ten categories to
classify teacher and pupil talk, which are listed on a checklist. The observer seats
on the back of the class and categorizes the interaction he has just listened in one
of the categories in an observation sheet like this one:
Category
number
Completed tally marks
made by an observer
Total
tallies
Per cent
Teacher
(1) Accepting feelings or attitudes
(2) Praising or encouraging
(3) Accepting or using pupils’
(4) Asking questions
(5) Lecturing
(6) Giving directions, orders, commands
(7) Criticism or justifying authority
III IIII I IIII IIII II IIII IIII IIII IIII II IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII I IIII
3
6
12
22
130
16
4
0.8
2.5
5.0
9.2
54.2
6.7
1.6
Pupils (8) pupil-talk response
(9) pupil-talk initiation IIII IIII IIII IIII II IIII IIII II
22
12
9.2
5.0
Silence (10) Silence or confusion IIII IIII IIII
14 5.8
Total 241 100.0
Some other observation systems measure just how much of the target
language is used while others are multi-dimensional and include:
1.- Topic (civilization, general linguistic notions, etc.)
2.- Language activity (interpretation, drill, exercise, etc.)
3.- Teacher mode: instructing, working with group, etc.
4.- Student mode: listening, speaking, reading, etc.
50
5.- Class organization (whole class, individuals doing the same task, individuals
doing different tasks, etc.)
These multi-dimensional systems may be used to segments of a lesson
because they are flexible units of measurement. These systems have advantages
as well as disadvantages, as presented in the following comparative chart:
Systems Using Fixed
Observation Categories
Advantages Disadvantages
1. The teaching process
provides objective
data which a teacher
and a supervisor can
agree on.
1. Little discussion of
the physical setting.
2. Provide reliable
record: which
demonstrates
agreement.
2. Boundaries between
the categories may
be crude or ill-
defined.
3. Promote self-
awareness in the
teacher.
3. The emphasis on
quantification may
be excessive.
Teaching can
somehow be reduced
to a scalar value.
4. Provide a meta-
language, which
talks about their
profession in a more
appropriate way
using technical
language.
4. Systems use pre-
specified categories.
5. Makes teacher
training more
effective.
5. Social and
pedagogical
assumptions of the
designers are built
into the systems.
6. Systems do not
concern themselves
with the teacher’s
intentions.
7. Time-consuming.
51
If you decide to use an ethnographic approach, the observer participates
during an extended period of time, watches what happens, listens to what is said
and asks questions to collect data about the issue he is observing. For this
approach, it is important to define who is the best suited to conduct this
investigation, how much time would be necessary, what activities would be
necessary, what form of data as well as how it would be collected. Another option
would be the ad-hoc approach which is devised for a specific purpose. It would
give you the freedom to observe phenomena, but you won’t have the reliability of
working with an established system.
The approaches presented above can be useful to evaluate different
aspects of observation: classroom discourse analysis, categorize teacher and
students’ language, use of language or distinguish between mother tongue and
target language. An ethnographic approach is descriptive and flexible; an ad-hoc
approach can use both qualitative and quantitative or whatever is relevant to your
case of study. The decision about the approach to evaluate the observations is the
observer’s choice.
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre There are many ways to evaluate an observation. Some of those ways to evaluate observations are considered to be too precise, too scientific, and some are considered to be just perfect. What criteria do you think would be appropriate to evaluate an observation?
While Choose the criteria that you consider the most convenient for evaluating an observation in the teaching practice job field and explain why they are suitable for the teaching practice.
Post Compare your criteria with the rests of your group.
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4.3 Designing a lesson plan to improve the teaching practice
Designing a lesson plan helps you to reconsider what you are going to teach
and how you are going to do it. The main secret for lesson planning is organization.
The main objective is your students’ learning under the conditions you normally
work. You can find some examples in teachers’ books or in the internet, but you
should better design your own one according to your needs. Lesson plans help
new or inexperienced teachers to organize content, materials, and methods. You
need to include instructional activities regarding specific subject-matter, learning
objectives, instructional procedures, the required materials, and some written
description of how the students will be evaluated.
A lesson plan has three important functions:
1. Set up what you except students to be able to do at the end of the lesson
and think logically how to make it possible through the stages and time you
have available.
2. Keep you on the target of what you should do in the class.
3. A record of what has been done in the course and form the basis for future
lesson plans.
Many experienced teachers often reduce lesson plans to a mental map or
short outline. New teachers, however, usually find detailed lesson plans to be
indispensable. Learn to write good lesson plans - it is a skill that will serve you well
as a teacher. Some authors may present different aspects as the main elements of
a lesson plan. For some authors, the first step is to identify the learning objectives
53
for the class. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop
strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan
addresses and integrates these three key components. For others, a lesson plan is
based on the aims, the methods and the materials. If you are going to set the aims,
you need to ask yourself the following questions:
What do you expect the students to be able to do by the end of the time
available?
What will you do in order to make that possible?
How will you break up the time into main stages?
What will be the aim of each main stage?
How will the main stages be linked?
For the methods, you need to consider which overall method will you use
and what series of steps will implement it. The materials are tools to help you
achieve the aim of the class by using a method. Once you have established the
aims, you can design the materials. These materials can be conversations, videos,
visual aids, websites or textbooks. Tv shows, radio programs, brochures,
magazines or books are a great source to find materials or to give you ideas to
design your own.
54
1 Outline learning objectives
Determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of
class. The following questions can help you specify your objectives for student
learning:
What is the topic of the lesson?
What do I want students to learn?
What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of
class?
What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?
Rank them in terms of importance; this will prepare you for managing class
time and accomplishing the more important learning objectives in case you are
pressed for time. Consider the following:
What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills you want
students to be able to grasp and apply?
Why are they important?
If you ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?
Which ones could you skip if pressed for time?
2 Develop the introduction
Now, design the specific activities to get students understand and apply
what they have learned. Knowing your students background and ideas can help
55
shape your introduction, learning activities, etc. When you have an idea of the
students’ familiarity with the topic, you will also have a sense of what to focus on.
Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and
encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g.,
personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-world
example, short video clip, practical application, probing question, etc.). Consider
the following questions when planning your introduction:
How will you check whether students know anything about the topic
or have any preconceived notions about it?
What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions)
about this topic that students might be familiar with or might espouse?
What will you do to introduce the topic?
3 Plan the specific learning activities
Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples,
analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to
different learning styles. Estimate how much time you will spend on each and be
prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify
strategies that check for understanding. These questions would help you design
the learning activities you will use:
What will you do to explain the topic?
What will you do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
56
How can you engage students in the topic?
What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations
that can help students understand the topic?
What will students need to do to help them understand the topic
better?
4 Plan to check for understanding
In this stage you need to check for student understanding – how will you
know that students are learning? Think about specific questions you can ask
students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then
paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways.
Try to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you
want students to respond orally or in writing. To help you generate some ideas and
you can also ask yourself these questions:
What questions will you ask students to check for understanding?
What will you have students do to demonstrate that they are
following?
Going back to your list of learning objectives, what activity can you
have students do to check whether each of those has been accomplished?
5 Develop a conclusion and a preview
Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the
lesson. You can state the main points yourself or ask a student to help you
summarize them, or you can even ask all students to write down on a piece of
57
paper what they think were the main points of the lesson. You can review the
students’ answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then explain
anything unclear the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing
the main points, but also by previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate
to the one that’s coming? This preview will spur students’ interest and help them
connect the different ideas within a larger context.
6 Create a realistic timeline
Narrow down your list of objectives to the two or three key concepts, ideas,
or skills you want students to learn. Teachers often need to adjust their lesson plan
during class depending on what the students need. Your list of prioritized learning
objectives will help you make decisions on the moment and adjust your lesson plan
as needed. Having additional examples or alternative activities will also allow you
to be flexible. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan
some extra time for each
When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate
how much time you expect it will take
Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining
questions and to sum up key points
Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time
left
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Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs
and focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your
original plan
Any lesson plan should be divided or organized into five stages.
Warm up
This stage is composed with a simple activity to introduce the topic of the
class. This activity could consist on a game or questions to the students to set
them in the mood of the class and introduce the topic. In the warm up you can also
present the vocabulary related to the topic or grammar structure or something
related to the culture of the language you are teaching.
Presentation stage
This stage gives you the opportunity to explain the topic of the class to the
students; you can use the materials from a textbook or write on the board what the
topic is going to be. It consists on helping students understand the grammar,
syntax or pronunciation. The length depends on the level of the group, the aims of
the lesson, the long-term aims of the students and their ability to acquire
understanding for themselves.
Practice stage
This stage, as its name says it, gives students the opportunity to practice the
topic. In a grammar focused class, this is the time students spend answering
59
exercises with the grammar structure presented. In this stage, you can use
controlled or semi-controlled exercises. They may help students feel comfortable
with the degree of complexity. This stage takes more time than the presentation
because students have far more to do. It can start with repetition of the language
modeled by you, another student or a tape. Repetition helps students memorize
the form and the word order, get the right pronunciation and consolidate the
meaning of the item. Repetition helps to develop habits, which is part of learning to
communicate in a foreign language. After repetition, students will need to set the
structure in other contexts and have the opportunity to use it naturally.
Production stage
When teaching a grammar structure, you need students to practice it before
they produce their own sentences. In this stage, you can design free activities to
give students the opportunity to produce the structure presented. These activities
can consist on writing a composition or having a discussion about a topic that will
lead them to use the structured presented in the class.
Feedback or homework
This stage offers continuity to the class. You may have noticed that students
do not remember what they worked with in previous classes. Giving them
homework or feedback activities allows them to have the opportunity to continue
practicing the structure after the class, which contributes to remembering and
learning.
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A lesson plan may not work as well as you expected due to a number of
external circumstances. You should not get discouraged – it happens to even the
most experienced teachers! Take a few minutes after each class to reflect on what
worked well and why, and what you could have done differently. Identifying
successful and less successful organization of class time and activities would
make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the classroom. For additional
feedback on planning and managing class time, you can use the following
resources: student feedback, peer observation, viewing a videotape of your
teaching, and consultation with a staff member.
To be effective, the lesson plan does not have to be a long and detailed
document that describes each and every possible classroom scenario. Nor does it
have to anticipate each and every student’s response or question. It should only
provide you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and
means to accomplish them. It is a reminder of what you want to do and how you
want to do it. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as
planned, but one in which both students and instructor learn from each other.
What is included in a lesson plan is frequently decided by the syllabus or the
course book. If the item you are going to present is completely new to the students,
you need to concentrate on its form, meaning and use, which mean spending more
time on the presentation stage. If your students are already familiar with it, you can
decide if you omit this stage and go directly into practice. The approach of your
61
class will depend on your students’ level, depending if they are advanced or
beginners.
If you do not speak the students’ mother tongue, you can’t explain them
much, so they will have to learn how the form operates and its meaning from
examples. This is called the inductive approach. If you decide to use this approach,
you need to set the context through a dialogue, visual aids, mime, sound
sequences, a song, a text or a mixture of these. Verbs can better be presented
with mime, nouns with visual aids and structures by embedding them in a dialogue
or text. In this approach the teacher is the center of the class and should avoid
dominating it unnecessarily, to do so it is important to use eye contact and gesture.
Even during the presentation stage, the students’ participation is important to
activate what they know and realize if they are following you and at what pace you
should precede.
In contrast, in the deductive approach you explain the structure to your
students and then give them some time to practice it. In the deductive approach
you can explain students the associations between the two languages, the
problems they may encounter and how it is used. However, in this approach
students may tend to translate, which is dangerous. In many occasions, structures
may seem equivalent, but they are used differently in the other cultural context.
The continuous use of the mother tongue can inhibit students from thinking in
English and speaking it fluently in the future.
You can include the language you intend to present, the activities that
students will be involved in and reminders of what you need to do in every stage of
62
the class. Depending on what you are going to present, you need to preview if you
are going to need to refer to some materials. In the case of grammar, you may
need to consult a grammar book. For the functions, you may need to review what
the language actually does in terms of communication and for the vocabulary a
monolingual dictionary may be useful.
Some teachers prefer to write their lesson plans in a notebook, they have
one notebook for each class, and this allows them to have a sequence of what they
are doing in any course. Some others write them in separate sheets and then file
them. The sheets are easier to handle, but the risk of losing them or not filing them
in order is greater. To avoid confusion, you should write on the top the date, the
level, the course book and the size of the class; this information may help you if
next year you are going to teach the same topic, you can reuse the lesson plan. In
some cases, at the end of the class, you can add notes for next time. Some
teachers even include the seating arrangements needed for the activities, if they
have some problems with language or discipline.
63
Extra activity
STAGE PROCEDURE
Pre For every class that is given, one should have a lesson plan, but in some cases, classes are given without a lesson plan. Answer the following questions. Are lesson plans mandatory in every class you give? Do you have to follow everything that a lesson plan has? If things do not happen according to the lesson plan, what has happened? Have you ever given a class without a lesson plan and if so, what was the result?
While Choose a topic for a class you are giving and design a lesson plan, you can use one of the samples at the end of this book and adapt it to your needs.
Post Present your lesson plan to your classmates and ask them to analyze it. Use their comments to make adjustments or improvements; the purpose of doing this is to improve the teaching practice by designing a lesson plan.
64
Annex Observer: _________________________
Time/date: _____________________________________________
Teacher: _____________________________________________
1. How much time was devoted to each of the following?
Teacher talk: _____________________________________________
Exercises: _____________________________________________
Questions and answers: _____________________________________
2. Did the teacher
Yes Somehow No
Know the subject matter
_____ _____ _____
Implement feedback activities
_____ _____ _____
Monitor students’ activity
_____ _____ _____
Correct students _____ _____ _____
Take notes on students performance
_____
_____
_____
Participate in the activities implemented
_____
_____
_____
3. Did the students
Yes Somehow No
Listen attentively
_____ _____ _____
Work alone
_____ _____ _____
Work in trios, pairs or teams
_____ _____ _____
Deliver an evidence of learning collaboratively
_____ _____ _____
Make physical movements
_____ _____ _____
Classroom Observation Form
65
Open Ended – (Form A)
Faculty________________________
Date of observation________________
Peer Observer__________________
1. Development of learning objectives:
Are objectives for the class given verbally, written, or not at all?
Are specific instructional outcomes used?
Are objectives discussed at the end of class?
2. Selection and use of instructional materials:
Do films, websites, and other audiovisual materials have a clear purpose?
Are handouts appropriate in number and subject?
Since the text may be pre-selected, does instructor give help with reading or using the text, if necessary?
3. Educational climate for learning:
Are students AND teacher interested and enthusiastic?
Does the instructor use student names?
Is humor used appropriately?
Does instructor not embarrass or belittle students in any way?
Is the atmosphere of the classroom participative?
Did the instructor have eye contact with students?
4. Variety of instructional activities:
Does timing of classroom activities consider attention spans?
Does instructor involve students in deciding what issues to discuss?
5. Preparation for class session:
Provide examples that show preparation by instructor.
Do students know what preparation (reading or other assignments) they should have completed prior to class?
6. Instructional methods:
List instructor activities.
Did the opening gain the class’s attention? Did it establish rapport?
Did the opening outline the topic and purpose of the lecture?
Is the delivery paced to students’ needs?
66
Does the instructor introduce topic, state goals, present material or activity effectively, summarize, and give assignment or suggest an idea to consider before the next class?
Could the instructor be seen and heard?
Were key points emphasized?
Were explanations clear to students?
Were examples, metaphors, and analogies appropriate?
Was the lecture stimulating and thought provoking?
7. Opportunity for student participation:
List students’ activities.
Does instructor encourage students to summarize and add to other’ summaries?
Does instructor help quieter students interact with others?
8. Individualization of instruction:
Are the emotional, physical, and intellectual needs of students met?
Does the instructor prompt awareness of students’ prior learning and experiences?
Does the instructor offer “real world” application?
Is the instructor available before or after class?
Does the instructor relate class to course goals, students’ personal goals, or societal concerns?
9. Responsiveness to student feedback:
Is the instructor paying attention to cues of boredom and confusion?
Does the instructor encourage or discourage questions (dissension)?
Does the instructor provide students opportunity to mention problems/concerns with the class, either verbally or in writing?
10. Learning difficulties:
Does a student need assistance for a temporary or permanent disability?
Are one or more students not motivated or unable to follow the class?
Does the instructor show favoritism?
Are students able to see visual aids?
Does one group dominate discussion and hinder others’ participation?
Taken from: Classroom observation instruments. (n.d.). Retrieved April 16, 2013, from University of
Minnesota website: http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/resources/peer/instruments/
Classroom Observation Form
67
Scale — (Form C)
Faculty_________________________ Date of Observation_________________
Peer Observer___________________
Development of learning objectives:
Are objectives for the class given verbally, written, or not at all?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Are specific instructional outcomes used?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Are objectives discussed at the end of class?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Selection and use of instructional materials:
Do films, websites, and other audiovisual materials have a clear purpose?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Are handouts appropriate in number and subject?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Since the text may be pre-selected, does instructor give help with reading or using the text if
necessary?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Educational climate for learning:
Are students AND teacher interested and enthusiastic?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Does the instructor use student names?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Is humor used appropriately?
68
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Does instructor not embarrass or belittle students in any way?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Is the atmosphere of the classroom participative?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Did the instructor have eye contact with students?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Variety of instructional activities:
Does timing of classroom activities consider attention spans?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Does instructor involve students in deciding what issues to discuss?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Preparation for class session:
Provide examples that show preparation by instructor:
Do students know what preparation (reading or other assignments they should have completed
prior to class?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Instructional methods:
List instructor activities:
Did the opening gain the class’ attention? Did it establish rapport?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Did the opening outline the topic and purpose of the lecture?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Is the delivery paced to students’ needs?
69
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Does the instructor introduce topic, state goals, present material or activity effectively, summarize,
and give assignment or suggest an idea to consider before next class?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Could the instructor be seen and heard?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Were key points emphasized?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Were explanations clear to students?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Were examples, metaphors, and analogies appropriate?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Was the lecture stimulating and thought provoking?
Not Demonstrated Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding N/A
Opportunity for student participation:
List students’ activities:
Taken from: Classroom observation instruments. (n.d.). Retrieved April 16, 2013, from University of
Minnesota website: http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/resources/peer/instruments/
Check List and Report on Teaching Practice
70
Teacher to be Observed
Place of Examination Primary Secondary Further
Level of Class Elementary Intermediate Advanced
Average Age Number of years of study of English
Number in Class Date Time
Any further relevant information about type, size, etc., of class and local conditions, e.g., aids and materials available.
Aim of Lesson
Personal Qualities *Grade Comments
Personality – ‘Presence’ general style
Ability to establish rapport
Voice-Audibility, ability to project
Command of Language *Grade Comments
Correctness of Structure Vocabulary Register
General Intelligibility including adequacy of pronunciation
Fluency
Sensitivity to pupils’ level of language
Preparation *Grade Comments
Lesson plan, balance and variety of activities, Timing
Clarity, limitation and specification of aim
Suitability of materials and methods for level and type of class
Execution *Grade Comments
Techniques of class management
Progress through the lesson, changes in activity, pace, etc.
Presentation of materials; Meaningful, motivated, contextualized, appropriately staged
Questioning: graded, directed appropriate
Controlled practice: choral-individual
Ability to foster genuine language use
71
Awareness and correction of errors
Use of blackboard or equivalent
Use of other aids
Maintenance of interest
Involvement and encouragement of learners
Checking of learning
Achievement of aims
Ability to adapts and extemporize (if necessary)
Structure and handling of: Understanding Lexis Phonology
Handling of text, dialogue, etc., if presented
Summarizing Comments
Overall Assessment (Write A, B, C, or D)*
Examiner´s signature and name Name:
Signed: Date:
Taken from: Wallace, Michael. (1991). Training Foreign Language Teachers. A reflective approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Teacher to be observed: ___________________________________
72
Place of examination – School:
______________________________________________________________
Address: ______________________________________
Date: ____________________________ Time:____________________________
SECTION 1
Using the notes provided by the candidate comment below on his/her preparation with reference to:
S* Comments
a) the relevance to the school
curriculum and to the social/
cultural needs of the learners
b) the degree of integration with
ongoing work
c) the analysis of the learning
demands of the lesson
d) the learning objectives for
this lesson
e) the analysis of the English
language demands of the lesson
f) the linguistic objectives for
this lesson and their relevance
to the linguistic level of
English language competence and
needs of individual learners/
groups of learners
g) the appropriateness of the
selection of materials
h) the appropriateness of
planning of activities
i) the appropriateness of
the organisation of the class
j) an overall anti-racist perspective
73
SECTION 2
Comment on the candidate´s ability to support the English language development of bilingual
learners by providing: S* Comments
a) clear instructions and models
of English language usage
b) effective teacher/pupil interaction
c) effective organisation and
management of the whole class
d) a variety of activities
e) effective materials
f) support for understanding
g) opportunities for learners to
apply their existing skills
and knowledge
h) opportunities for developing
English language use
i) opportunities for peer group
interaction
j) effective monitoring of learning
k) a sensitive environment for
individual learners and their
communicative needs
Taken from: Wallace, Michael. (1991). Training Foreign Language Teachers. A reflective approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
74
Trainee´s name: _________________________ Class: _______________________
Observer’s name: ________________________ School: ______________________
Date: ________________________
Time: ________________________
Summary grades
Outs
tandin
g
Com
pete
nt
Inadequate
Insuff
icie
nt
info
rmation
Trainee´s familiarity with class:
FURTHER COMMENT
PERSONAL QUALITIES
1. Presence/style
2. Voice
3. Rapport
PLANNING
4. Shape and balance of activities
5. Aims and objectives: specification
6. Aids/materials/methods: suitability
7. Anticipation of difficulties
IMPLEMENTATION
8. General class management
9. Introduction and Presentation techniques
10. Questioning techniques
11. Language skills development
12. Teaching aids
13. Teaching materials
14. Awareness/treatment of error
15. Smoothness of flow
16. Ability to adapt/extemporise
17. T´s language: model/level
18. Achievement of aims/objectives
EVALUATION
19. Ability to evaluate own performance
20. Ability to respond constructively to evaluation from others
OVERALL GRADE (D/P/F)
Taken from: Wallace, Michael. (1991). Training Foreign Language Teachers. A reflective approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
75
Example of a lesson plan format
Date: Grade Level:
Unit: Lesson:
Ressources and materials:
Stages Learning objectives and activities Strategies
Warm up
Presentation
Practice
Production
Feedback
Forms of assessment:
76
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