A survey of prehistoric southwestern architecture

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Authors Aldrich, Richard Lewis, 1897-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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A SURVEY OF PREHISTORIC SOUTHWESTERN

ARCHITECTURE

by

R ich ard A ld rich

A T h esis

su b m itted to th e f a c u l ty o f th e

D epartm ent o f A rchaeology

In p a r t i a l f u l f i l lm e n t o f

th e req u irem en ts f o r th e degree o f

M aster o f A rts

in th e G raduate C o llege

U n iv e r s ity o f A rizona

1936

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I In tro d u c t io n

I I S tag es o f Development

I I I The In f lu e n c e o f A rc h ite c tu re Upon th e C u ltu re

IV Summary

B ib lio g rap h y

P la te s

Maps

The E a s te rn Colorado D rainage

The C e n tra l M iddle G ila Region

The K ayenta Region

V estib u le ,G ro u p I South E n trance .T he back w a ll o f a sm all room b es id e i t i s broken th ro u g h .

. A SURVEY OP.PREHISTORIC SOUTHWESTERN

ARCHITECTURE

In tro d u c tio n

The h e a r t o f th e Southw est i s th e re g io n d ra in e d by th e

Colorado R iver and i t s so u th e rn t r i b u t a r i e s . These r iv e r s

a re th e San Juan and th e fo u r o r f iv e stream s th a t flow in to

i t . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t as th e scene o f an im p o rtan t

phase o f so u th w este rn c u ltu re i s one o f th e se s tream s, th e

Chaco, f low ing n o r th w e s t, in n o r th w e s te rn New Mexico; th en

th e L i t t l e . Colorado th a t r i s e s n ea r th e source o f th e so u th -

flow ing White R iv e r , th e Snowstake G la c ie r on Ord Peak; th en

th e G ila R iv er w ith I t s b ran ch e s , one o f w hich i s th e S a l t

R iv e r , w ith th e Verde R iv e r , and th e White and B lack R iv e r ,

r i s i n g in th e White M ountains in e a s t c e n t r a l A rizona, flow ing

in to i t .

But th e re a re p h y s io g rap h ic f e a tu r e s o f th e la n d th a t

overawe th e s e r i v e r system s, however, and th a t a f f o rd , in

t h e i r la rg e d im ensions, th e s ta g e , as i t w ere, o f th e e ro s io n

a c t i v i t y . These f e a t u r e s a re f i r s t , th e g r e a t p la te a u o f

A rizona, a c ro ss w hich, q u ite to th e n o r th o f i t , th e San

Juan R iver cu ts w est by so u th to jo in w ith th e Colorado

R iv e r , flow ing southw ard th ro u g h t h i s h ig h la n d . At th e

so u th e rn edge o f th e p la te a u o f A rizona, th e San F ran c isco

- 2 -

M ountain p la te a u l i e s ac ro ss th e re g io n from th e upper l e f t

to th e low er r i g h t l i k e a d ex te r hand a c ro ss a s h ie ld . At

th e ed.ge o f th e p la te a u , th e f o r e s t la n d s b reak in to ran g es

and long escarpm ents tow ard th e so u th w est, and g ive r i s e to

th e many stream s th a t meet th e G ila . The h i l l s co n tin u e in

s e r ie s o f n e a r ly p a r a l l e l fo ld s th a t have g r e a te r and g r e a te r

d is ta n c e s betw een them u n t i l long s t r e tc h e s o f d e s e r t f i n ­

a l l y s e p a ra te th e ra n g e s .

Thus one goes from th e a r id p la te a u re g io n o f long r a t i ­

f i e d d is ta n c e s down th ro u g h th e fo re s t- c o v e re d ra n g e s , over

tu m u lts o f m esas and sm a ll system s o f h i l l s to th e compara­

t i v e l y d e s e r t la n d th a t opens away tow ard Mexico l ik e a, ' ' ' • - '

brown sea , in which one i s never o u t o f s ig h t o f dim b lu e

is la n d s o f th e p eak s . ' .

I t i s on th e s e p la te a u x , m ountain ra n g e s , and d e s e r t s ,

and along th e se r i v e r v a l le y s th a t p r e h i s t o r i c p eo p le s

g a th e re d , a f t e r p r im o rd ia l ag es , in to a communal l i f e th a t

we can s tu d y , to some e x te n t , by th e exam ination o f t h e i r

a r c h i te c tu r e .

To o f f e r a s h o r t d e s c r ip t io n o f th a t a r c h i te c tu r e i s

th e en d eav o r.o f t h i s paper* *

When a c o n ta c t w ith t h i s a r c h i te c tu r e i s f i r s t e s ­

ta b l i s h e d i t i s p a s s in g th rough a lo n g dependence on th e

cave . I t re a c h e s an E a r ly Pueblo P e r io d abou t th e b e ­

- 3 -

g in n in g o f t h i s E r a . th a t c o n tin u e s th ro u g h about i t s Second

C en tu ry . In th i s .p e r io d th e re ta k e s p la c e a t r a n s i t i o n

th ro u g h th e form s o f th e p ith o u s e and an approach to th e

c l i f f , mesa, v a l le y , and compound communal d w e llin g o f th e

g re a t p e r io d , th ro u g h th e sm all s u rfa c e house, th e u n i t ty p e ,

and th e ram bling p u e b lo .

I t i s n o t p o s s ib le to ta k e up an account o f e a r ly p r e ­

h i s t o r i c a r c h i te c tu r e . I t i s known, because th e re a re stone

im plem ents l e f t o f th e t im e , th a t men fa sh io n e d w o rk -a id s in

th e form o f to o l s in th e Old Stone Age. I t i s re a so n a b le

to suppose t h a t th e n , to o , he l iv e d in some k in d o f s h e l t e r ,

f o r an Old Stone Age camp s i t e has been found in Gypsum

Cave in Nevada w ith v e s t ig e s o f th e once p re v a le n t ground-

s lo th . And we know t h a t as th e New Stone Age advanced,

a d a p ta b i l i ty to w orking w ith to o l s in shap ing m a te r ia l s w ith

them became more m arked. Somehow in th e New Stone Age th e

p a t t e r n o f co n cep t, a c t io n , to o ls and p ro d u c t become c l e a r

to u s . T h i s i f r e n t i e r ru n s f a r down in to our own m easurab le

co n cep tio n o f tim e . F a i r ly sa fe s p e c u la tio n o f e a r ly c u t-

tu re i s made by some on th e b a s is o f G ila V alley ce ram ics.

But ou r f i r s t d e f in i t e p o in t o f tim e in a r c h i te c tu r e i s

a s c e r ta in e d in th e b y - th a t- t im e immemorial town o f Pueblo

B o n ito . The y ea r i s 919. D atin g from t h i s tim e o n ,''c e ram ic s

become more and more common in so u th w este rn a r c h i te c tu r e ,

and we observe by them how r a p id ly th e b u ild in g a r t s made

advance.

- 4 -

Long b e fo re t h i s d a t in g o f one p a r t o f Pueblo B onito

th e t r a d i t io n - fo r m o f so u th w este rn a r c h i te c tu r e had become

s e t . That i s what a r c h i te c tu r e i s : form a r r iv e d a t th ro u g h

th e t r a d i t i o n o f need , m a te r ia l s , and m ethod. A rc h ite c tu re

i s never m ere ly s h e l t e r .

But i t b eg in s w ith s h e l t e r , and in th e Southw est th e

e a r ly s h e l te r s were in cav es .

I I

STAGES OP DEVELOPMENT

; S ince th e g l a c i a l ages e a r ly man has had two re so u rc e s

f o r s h e l t e r : th e b u sh and th e cav e . S h e l te r in th e b u sh ,

w hether a b ru sh t e n t o r a w indbreak, or. o n ly a t r e e , p e r i s h e s .

In e i th e r p la c e , th e bush o r th e cave, he had th e same d ev ice

f o r com fort in in c lem en t w ea th e r, th a t o f d ig g in g in . In

th e cave some o f th e s e very e a r ly s h e l te r s have s u r v iv e d ,-

and along w ith t h i s form o f s h e l t e r c e r t a i n ev id en ces o f

sen tim en t l i f e , v e s t ig e s o f c r a f t s and p ro d u c ts , t h a t i s ,

o f dependable to o ls and fo o d , th a t c r e a te th e s e d e n ta ry l i f e

o u t o f w hich c o n d itio n a lo n e may an a r c h i te c tu r e em erge.

T his i s th e Cave P e r io d . In d ia n c o rn , the fo u n d a tio n

o f a l l th e so u th w este rn c u l tu r a l economies comes in to e v i­

dence. In t h i s e a r ly s ta g e appear th e ham m er-stone, th e

f l i n t k n i f e , th e s a n d a l, th e b a s k e t , th e b la n k e t, in a

word, o f th e l a s t th r e e ite m s , an i n i t i a l p o in t o f de­

p a r tu r e f o r th e e n t i r e l i f e o f t e c h n o l o g i e s , - - t e x t i l e s .

These have come to us n o t co n fin ed to any one l o c a l i t y ,

f o r re c o u rs e to th e cave was once w id esp read . Many caves

a re found in th e San Juan a re a , in th e K ayenta Wash, in

th e Sagie-C anyons, i n Monument V a lley .

The cave in Monument V a lley has fo u r concave de-

p re s s io n s in i t s r e a r w a l l . Around th e se ro o m -lik e

c a v i t i e s p o le s were l a i d , and a covering o f b ru sh was p u t

upon them. . These s h e l te r s were found to be s ix to e ig h t

f e e t a c ro s s . They a re h a rd ly s t r u c tu r e s b u t r a th e r n e s t s ,

l in e d w ith c e d a r-b a rk , and g ra s s t h a t was found un d er th e

f i r s t s tra tu m o f d e b r is l e f t th e re by subsequen t tim e .

Beyond Monument V a lley to th e w est th e re are found cave

’ s i t e s in P a iu te 'C an y o n , Cottonwood Canyon, and in Grand

G ulch, to th e n o r th o f th e San Juan R iv e r . To th e e a s t ,

in th e Lukachukai H i l l s , a v e ry e a r ly cave d w e llin g o f some

i n t e r e s t has been exam ined. In th e f lo o r o f t h i s cave

were found d e p re s s io n s some f iv e f e e t a c ro ss th a t had

o r ig in a l ly been tw e n ty -s ix in ch es in d ep th . The su p er­

s t r u c tu r e was s a id to have been covered w ith b ru s h and i t

had a framework o f p o le s t h a t i s o f some i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s

e a r ly s i t e . The p o le s had been p la n te d a t i n t e r v a l s around

th e c ircu m feren ce , and i t seems p ro b ab le th a t th e y were1

b e n t inw ard ly and jo in e d a t th e end. Two p ie c e s were found

in th e d e b r is o f th e ex c a v a tio n th a t seemed to conform to

an a r t i f i c i a l c u rv a tu re . M oreover, c la y t h a t had been

s tre n g th e n e d w ith ced a r b a rk was found in th e same p la c e

b e a r in g im p ress io n s o f th e b ru sh p la c e d over th e o u ts id e

o f th e fram ework. In a d d i t io n , a long w ith two gourd v e s -

1 . The U n iv e r s i ty o f A rizona. Haury, E m il. p . 27. The S u ccessio n o f House Types in th e Pueblo A rea. P ho tograph : D r. Byron Cummings C o l le c t io n . ™ ~ ~ *

I

-1-

s e l s , a f u r ro b e , b reech c lo th e s , and "basket, m a te r ia l s ,

some x m f ire d -p o tte ry was found th a t showed im p ress io n s o f 1

b a s k e t w are . Thus in th e rem ains o f t h i s e a r ly s i t e were

found two experim en ts under way th a t some tim e were to have

im p o rtan t r e s u l t s f o r so u th w estern l i f e : one le d to f i r e d

c la y ; one to p l a s t e r s u r fa c e s . The house; i f t h i s d e s c r ip t io n

i s f a c tu a l , employed our e a r l i e s t example o f a r c h i t e c tu r a l

m echanics in ' th e s t r u c tu r e ,above th e g ro u n d ,. and i t m ight

have w ith s to o d exposure on an open t e r r a i n .

: ■'

. The K iva. V ol. I , No. 6, Haury, E m il. Vandal Gave.

1

- S '

Form less as th e b u i ld in g o f th e cave d w ellin g seems to

b e , i t gave way to a v e ry d e f in i t e k ind o f d w e llin g house,

s to ra g e room and co u n c il chamber in th e f i r s t o f th e th re e

p ith o u s e p e r io d s , th a t o f th e C irc u la r P ith o u s e . T his round

house s to o d over an ex c av a tio n th a t i t was custom ary to s in k

to hardpan , u s u a l ly about e ig h te e n in c h e s , and n o t more th an

fo u r f e e t below th e s u r fa c e . I f th e s o i l in which th e house

was dug was lo o s e , th e exposed w a ll was covered w ith c la y ,

o r l in e d w ith f l a t s to n e s . The f i r e p la c e was in a d e p re s s io n

in th e c e n te r o f t h i s l i v in g room. S u p e rs tru c tu re s v a r ie d

in form . In one form , th e p o le s were se t in th e ground around

th e c ircu m feren ce o f th e p i t and s la n te d in w ard ly to m eet a t

a c e n t r a l p o in t . T his form has been found in San Juan s i t e s .

Another usage s e t th e p o le s around th e c ircu m fe ren ce o f th e

p i t in a v e r t i c a l p o s i t io n about s ix in ch es a p a r t ; th e n b en t

th e tops over and t i e d them w ith b a rk o r w ith e s . B rush o r

ced ar b a rk was th e n woven in and o u t over t h i s fram ework,

and e a r th o r c la y was th e n l a i d o v er th e fo rm . This type

o f s u p e rs t ru c tu re was known in th e San Juan a r e a . The

t h i r d type p r e v a i le d in th e d ra in ag e o f the; G ila R iv e r ,,

and i t was th e m ost g e n e ra l o f a l l th re e o f th ese u sa g e s .

I t.em p lo y ed fo u r v e r t i c a l p o s ts r i s i n g .n o t on th e circum ­

fe re n c e o f th e e x c a v a tio n , b u t from w ith in i t . The

h e ig h t u s u a l ly found was p ro b ab ly s ix f e e t o r a l i t t l e l e s s .

In th e c ro tc h e s th a t th e s e p o s ts v e ry l i k e l y b o re , p o le s

were l a i d from one co rner to th e o th e r . These s t r in g e r s

~ 1*

c a r r ie d r a f t e r s a c ro ss t h i s r a i s e d sq u a re , and on th e s e

r a f t e r s cedar b a rk , b ru sh , o r ru sh es were p la c e d to h o ld

up th e to p la y e r o f e a r th . P o les h e ld b ru sh p la c e d around

th e s id e s and th e d i r t p i l e d on th e whole s t r u c tu r e in th e

f i r s t type made i t an e a r th lo d g e . The t h i r d type had s to n e s ,

b o u ld e rs , o r c la y p i l e d up from th e edge o f th e p i t to th e

eav es, making in one case p r a c t i c a l l y v e r t i c a l s id e s .

Another usage was to le a n p o le s a g a in s t th e edge o f th e

ro o f , cover them w ith b ru sh , and to in s u la te th e e n t i r e

b u ild in g w ith e a r th . E n tran ce to th e s e homes was from th e

s id e , by means o f an i n c l in e , and as developm ent went on ,

.by s te p s . Of th e s e c i r c u l a r p ith o u se towns th e re i s one

im p o rtan t example s t i l l to be found in n o r th e rn A rizona

a t Ju n ip e r Cove, e ig h t m ile s w est o f K ayenta. N oth ing , o f

co u rse , rem ains o f any o f th e s u p e r s t ru c tu r e s , b u t th e ex­

c a v a tio n s o f one hundred and th re e houses rem ain , w ith

s to ra g e p i t s and a c o u n c il chamber t h i r t y - s i x f e e t in

d ia m e te r . Save in one m inor c a se , a l l o f th e b u ild in g s

are d i s t i n c t l y s e p a ra te . The s to ra g e p i t s were 5 to 6

f e e t a c ro s s ; th e l iv in g rooms 12 to 20 f e e t . Most o f th e

s to ra g e p i t s and o f th e l iv in g rooms have a s la b l in in g and

t h e i r f lo o rs a re from 1 .5 to 3 .5 f e e t in d ep th .

The co u n c il chamber was l in e d w ith la rg e sandstone

s la b s , and th e re i s a c i r c u l a r , s l a b - l i n e d f i r e p i t . T h is

b u ild in g r e v e a ls c l e a r ly t h a t an a b l e . and d i r e c t u se o f

s to n e had been a r r iv e d a t . The s to n e i s w e l l trimmed o r

s e le c te d , A p a r t o f th e bench along th e c ircum ference

rem ains b u t n o t much e l s e . S ide doorways gave en tra n ce to

th e se b u i ld in g s . .

N e ll Judd has d e s c r ib e d one o f th e p ith o u s e s a t

Chaco Canyon. He says t h a t th e re a re g r e a t numbers o f un­

ex p lo red s t r u c tu r e s in t h i s re g io n o f th e e a r ly p e r io d .

One th a t he examined in 1920 was sev en teen f e e t in d iam eter

and th re e f e e t deep . No t r a c e o f a p p lie d p l a s t e r was

p r e s e n t , b u t th e s id e s o f t h i s l iv in g room had been ro u g h ly

f in is h e d by dampening th e p l a s t e r , b e a tin g i t ; th en smooth­

in g i t down. In th e K ayenta r e g io n , D r. Byron Cummings has

made p io n e e r s tu d ie s o f cave s i t e s c o n ta in in g c i r c u l a r p i t

d w e llin g s and s to ra g e rooms. There a re numerous caves w ith

th e se rem nants in S a g io ts o s ie , a b ranch o f M oonlight Canyon,

and in W a te r - l i ly , a b ran ch o f th e main S a g ie . Around some

o f th e e x c a v a tio n s , f l a t s to n e s s to o d on edge b race d w ith

o c c a s io n a l p o s ts and p o le s , and hav ing th e in te rv e n in g ap e r-2

tu r e s s tu f f e d w ith c la y and g r a s s . P la te 3 i l l u s t r a t e s a

cave p a r t i t i o n w a ll t h a t was developed from th e se m a te r ia l s .

These d w e llin g s were a ls o ro o fe d over w ith p o le s , b ru sh ,

ced ar b a rk , and c l a y . Some' o f th e se h o u ses , he has su g g ested

1 . Sm ithson ian R eport f o r 1922, 2740, 399, Judd, N.M;> ~Two Chaco Canyon P i th o u s e s .

2 . American A n th ro p o lo g is t, V ol. XVII, N .S . 272, Cummings, Byron. The K ivas o f th e San Juan D ra in ag e .

I

Ml-

se rv ed as cerem onia l cham bers. T his c i r c u l a r p ith o u s e i s

th e o r ig in o f th e k iv a form o f th e cerem onia l cham ber, and

i t c a r r i e s th e memory o f th e c i r c u la r p i t home th ro u g h o u t

th e h i s to r y o f so u th w este rn a r c h i t e c tu r e . Thus, th e s e l i t ­

t l e e a r th -c o v e re d d w e llin g s a re th e more i n t e r e s t i n g to u s ,

n o t o n ly b ecause th e y a re a u n iv e r s a l form o f n e o l i t h i c

b u i ld in g , b u t because th e y become in tim e th e tem ple form

th a t has so much o f i n t e r e s t to us to -d a y .

The T ra n s i t io n a l P ith o u se rem ained p a r t l y below th e

su rfa c e o f the ground b u t a change came in th e co n to u r o f

th e e x c a v a tio n . T h is con tour began to conform to th e

shape su g g ested by th e fo u r c o rn e r p o s ts . So th a t the

s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e t r a n s i t i o n a l p ith o u s e i s

th a t i t s s t r a i g h t s id e s meet in rounded c o rn e r s . The en­

tra n c e rem ained a t th e c e n te r o f th e s id e , and a t one end

a k in d o f s la b -c o v e re d s to ra g e chamber c o n jo in e d . The

diagram o f P la te 2 i s a map o f a to w n s ite o f a t r a n s i t i o n a l

p ith o u s e v i l l a g e on th e so u th bank o f th e S a l t R iv e r ,

th i r ty - o n e m ile s n o r th o f G lobe, A rizona. I t l i e s , as th e se

towns so o f te n do, c lo s e to th e ru in s o f a l a t e r community.

A stone su r fa c e pueblo l i e s one hundred f e e t to th e e a s t o f

i t . The t r a n s i t i o n a l v i l l a g e c o n s is ts o f f i f t e e n h o u ses ,

some o u ts id e f i r e p i t s , tw en ty -n in e b u r i a l s , a b ru sh k itc h e n ,

and two m iddens. I t i s one o f th e many w idesp read s e t t l e ­

m ents common in the e a r ly tim es o f th e se so u th e rn p e o p le .

T h is d i f f u s io n i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e e a r ly d e s e r t

-11'

c u l t u r e . The houses o f th e town a re w ith o u t any s e t d i ­

r e c t io n a l r e l a t i o n to each o th e r . The e n tra n c e s , th e n ,

a lso face In v a r io u s d i r e c t io n s . In le n g th , th e houses

v a r ie d from tw e n ty -s ix f e e t to seven f e e t , and in f lo o r

a re a from 364 square f e e t to 49 square f e e t . T his la rg e

f lo o r space was in House X I. Each house had , as i t s p rim ary

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , a - f lo o r about e ig h te e n In ch es below th e su r­

fa c e o f th e ground . T h is sunken f lo o r l e v e l ex tended to

in c lu d e th e v e s t ib u le f l o o r . S tep s deem rio t to have appeared

in any o f th e se h o u ses . In th e case o f House X II, th e one

s te p to th e su rfa c e was p ro te c te d on th e r i s e r by two v e r­

t i c a l s la b s o f s to n e . Some f a c t s about House IV w i l l se rv e

f o r th e e n t i r e g roup . House IV was 20 f e e t long and 12 f e e t

w ide. The p o s ts fo r th e c e n t r a l r id g e beam were abou t f iv e

f e e t from th e ends o f th e e x c a v a tio n in h o le s 3 f e e t in d ep th

and 8 in ch es in w id th . T his house which i s f r e e ly i l l u s ­

t r a t e d in P la te 4 had round c o rn e r s . T his a p p l ie s to a l l

th e houses save f o r House XV. Arourid th e in s id e o f th e

p i t , and s e t in no p a r t i c u l a r manner ex cep t t h a t th e y were a l l

l a i d two f e e t o u t from th e w a ll , were th e tw elve p o s ts t h a t

su p p o rted th e s t r i n g e r s . From th e r id g e beam in th e c ro tc h e s

o f th e two c e n t r a l p o le s , r a f t e r s were l a i d o u t to th e

s t r i n g e r s . The s k e le t a l p a r t o f th e s e houses was e la b o ra te d

by th e a d d i t io n o f b u t t r e s s p o s ts d r iv e n a fo o t in th e ground,

and le a n in g , o r r a th e r wedged, a g a in s t th e s t r i n g e r s . On th e

r a f t e r s and on th e s id e s , b ru sh was l a id , and over the en-

- re ­

t i r e work, c la y . In House XI, th e se w illow and ju n ip e r b ra c e s

were p la n te d in s id e th e p i t a t the base o f i t s w a ll, and

s la n te d up to th e s t r i n g e r s . One th in g more c h a ra c te r iz e d

House IV— around th e p e r im e te r o f th e f lo o r th e re was a

sm all t r e n c h two in ch es deep and two in ch es wide in which

th e ends o f w ater re e d s th a t grew a few ro d s o f f were p la c e d .

They were c lo se to g e th e r , and bound p ro b ab ly a g a in s t c ro s s -

p ie c e s , and formed a k in d o f w a in sco tin g around th e e n t i r e

room, c o n tin u in g a long th e v e s t ib u le to th e two p o s ts o f

i t s door.

In a l l th e houses th e f l r e p l t i s d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f

th e d o o r, abou t tw e n ty -fo u r in c h es in tow ard th e c e n te r .

T h is m ight a llo w fo r th e su p p o s itio n th a t th e re was no smoke

h o le .

For Houses I I , I I I , VI, XI, X II, and X II I , seepage

problem s fo rc e d th e r a i s i n g o f a secondard f lo o r in th e

e x c a v a tio n . T h is was accom plished by s e t t in g b lo ck s o f

s to n e under p o le s th a t were th e n covered w ith s le n d e r s t i c k s

to h o ld in tu rn a m a ttin g " o f re e d s over which c la y was

sp rea d , A p la c e was l e f t open in t h i s r a i s e d f lo o r f o r

th e u se o f th e f l r e p l t in th e ground below. P la te 5 i s

an unm easured draw ing o f House X I.

Four th in g s d i s t in g u is h th e r e c ta n g u la r p ith o u s e from

th e t r a n s i t i o n a l house . The ex c av a tio n i s a l t e r e d in shape

so t h a t th e c o rn e rs become rounded. The fo u r co rn e r p o s ts

-I'l-

I

a re th e norm al su p p o rts f o r t t h e ro o f , as in th e r e c ta n g u la r

p ith o u s e s a t Tanque V erde. The r id g e beam ty p e seems to have

been more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t r a n s i t i o n a l s i t e s l ik e th e S a l t

R iv er v i l l a g e j u s t d e s c r ib e d . P la s te r in g seems to have be­

come more p r e v a le n t , and th e rooms in th e r e c ta n g u la r s i t e

are sometimes co n tig u o u s in sm all g ro u p s . Tanque Verde i s

a t r a n s i t i o n a l and r e c ta n g u la r p ith o u s e s i t e tw e n ty - th re e

m ile s e a s t o f Tucson, A rizona th a t has been d e s c r ib e d some­

what f u l l y in ”The S u ccessio n o f House Types in th e Pueblo

A rea," and w ith t h i s s i t e th e s to r y o f th e P ith o u se P e r io d

i s c a r r ie d th ro u g h some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h ases from th e

n o r th e rn to th e s o u th e rn p a r t o f th e pueblo c u l tu re a re a .

W ithin th e developm ent o f th e R ec tan g u la r P ith o u se

th e s id e s o f th e s t r u c tu r e become s t r a i g h t as th e i n t r o ­

d u c tio n o f adobe around s tre n g th e n in g p o s t o f wood le a d s

to th e developm ent o f m asonry. R igh t an g le s ta k e th e

p la c e o f th e cu rved c o rn e r s . The p ro p o r tio n s o f th e r e c ­

ta n g u la r house ta k e on th e long sh a p e . The w id th i s about

h a l f th e le n g th . , Communities c o n t r a c t , and as th e y do,

houses become s e p a ra te d by a common w a ll . E xperim en ta l

s tre n g th e n in g o f t h i s w a ll may have le d to th e f i n a l

b u ild in g o f w a lls on th e u n d is tu rb e d su rfa c e o f th e ground.

A s e c t io n o f a n o r th e rn r e c ta n g u la r p ith o u s e i s shown on

P la te 1 . At Tanque V erde, th e r e c ta n g u la r p ith o u s e a had

s t r a i g h t s id e s , some p l a s t e r in g , s te p s , and c o n t ig u i ty .

In th e con tiguous room, th e w a ll f r e e in g i t s e l f from con­

ce a le d r e in fo rc e m e n ts , in th e r ig h t an g le c o rn e rs , in th e

a c c e le r a te d u se o f s to n e , th e r e c ta n g u la r p ith o u s e ach iev es

some o f th e im p o rtan t f e a tu r e s o f th e s t r u c tu r e u n i t o f

so u th w este rn a r c h i t e c t u r e , - - t h e s in g le room home.

The su rfa ce pueblo s t r u c tu r e in tro d u c e s th e l a s t

c r e a t iv e phase o f so u th w estern a r c h i t e c tu r e . In th e su r fa c e

pueblo p e r io d one th in g t h a t l i b e r a t e s a r c h i t e c tu r a l te c h ­

n iq u es fo r th e developm ent o f v a r i e ty iti. form i s th e c h a ra c te r

i s t i c m a te r ia l : b u ild in g s to n e . Wood, b ru sh , and e a r th

have l im i ta t io n s f o r s t r u c tu r e th a t a re soon a r r iv e d a t .

The use o f th e w a ll o f mud has l i t t l e s t r u c t u r a l v a lu e ;

adobe o r c la y ov er in terw oven s t ic k s such as in P la te 4 has

no s t r u c t u r a l v a lu e a t a l l . B u ild in g s to n e , how ever, can

be u sed to c o n s id e ra b le h e ig h t i f i t i s even c a s u a l ly t i e d .

E xam ination o f many k in d s o f e a r ly pueb lo b u ild in g le a d to

th e su g g e s tio n th a t in many com m unities th e in c re a s e in th e

use o f b u ild in g s to n e grew , p e rh ap s , o u t o f th e u se o f s to n e

to s tre n g th e n adobe, o r mud, o r c la y . As th e c r a f t became

a secu re t r a d i t i o n l e s s and l e s s o f e a r th was made use o f

where s to n e was v e ry p l e n t i f u l ; and where s to n e was none

too p l e n t i f u l , b u t - s t i l l a v a i la b le , th e use o f e a r th .a s a

b in d in g agen t began to be u n d e rs to o d . Thus, th e pueblo

b u i ld in g o f any p e r io d .o r g eo g rap h ic lo c a t io n ta k e s i t s

c h a ra c te r from m a te r ia l s found a v a i la b le fo r i t . Stone and

c la y were used commonly. R iv er b o u ld e rs , la v a , th e la y e r s

in which sandstone i s o f te n found were a ls o u s e d . Then

th e re d eve lops a p ro g re s s io n in q u a l i ty o f s to n e work.

Crude Cyclopean m asonry i s c h a ra c te r iz e d by la rg e b lo ck s

th a t a re l a i d up in an a ttem p t a t c o u rse s . O ften Cyclopean

- 11-

masonry i s made o f w a te r b o u ld e rs as in th e G ila and L i t t l e

Colorado B asin where p e b b le s , c la y , and I r r e g u la r b o u ld e rs

were u s e d . In Improved cyc lopean m asonry b lo ck s a re b e t t e r

s e le c te d f o r shape and c o n fo rm ity in s i z e , and th e y are

fa c e d . In t r u e a s h la r , th e b lo ck s have g r e a te r u n i ty o f

s iz e and shape, a re n e a r ly a l ik e in h e ig h t , a t l e a s t , so

th a t co u rse s co n tin u e as much as p o s s ib le on th e same h o r i ­

z o n ta l p la n e . True a s h la r and a s h la r have c a r e fu l u se o f

c la y m o r ta r . A sh lar has even cou rses though th e b lo c k s a re

v a r ie d in shape a t th e fa c in g s id e . At K in ish b a , a mesa

p u eb lo , and a t Chaco Canyon, a s h la r i s u sed in d e c o ra tiv e

v a r i a t io n . At th e one p la c e , th e courses v a ry in th ic k n e s s

and in th e u se o f s p a l l s in l in e a r p a t t e r n s ; a t th e o th e r ,

a te x tu re o f s to n e su rfa c e i s ach iev ed by v a r i a t io n co u rses

over la rg e s u r f a c e s .

As one le a v e s th e c o n s id e ra t io n o f p ith o u s e b u ild in g

th e s e a r c h .f o r form i s s t i l l i n p ro g re s s . When one comes

upon e a r ly b u t w e ll-d e fin e d * sm a ll h o u se* su rface p u eb lo , th e

form has been fo u n d . For th e Rsm all house* o f s u rfa c e pueb lo

b u i ld in g , w hile e a r ly , i s n o t p r im i t iv e . In the San Juan

re g io n th e s e e a r ly b u ild in g s a re f r e q u e n t ly met w ith . * I t

i s g e n e ra l ly supposed th a t a ty p e o f room c a l le d "sm all house*

was th e p re d e c e sso r o f th e m u lt ip le community d w e llin g

th ro u g h o u t th e S ou thw est. T h is ty p e d e f in e d as a s im ple ,

fo u r-w a lle d , o n e - s to ry b u i ld in g w ith a f l a t ro o f , i s w id e ly

sp read in Hew Mexico and A riz o n a ." !1 . S m ithson ian I n s t i t u t e , Bureau o f American E thno logy ,

-IV-

These s t r u c tu r e s a re seen o f te n in th e canyons w est o f th e

Mesa Verde: co u n try in McElmo Canyon and o th e r canyons tow ard

th e C olorado R iv e r . Very soon th e " sm a ll house” developed

in to th e " u n i t - ty p e ” . T his " u n i t - ty p e ” i s v e ry w idely d i s ­

t r ib u te d in th e n o r th e rn and e a s te rn p a r t o f th e San Juan

d ra in a g e .

The e s s e n t i a l s o f th e " u n i t - ty p e ” o f pueb lo a r c h i te c tu r e

are a sm all house , e lo n g a te d , and a su b te rra n e a n ce rem on ia l

chamber th a t a re co n n ec ted . P ar more common th a n t h i s a r ­

rangem ent i s th e c o n ju n c tio n o f th e su b te rra n e a n cerem on ia l

chamber w ith a n u c le u s o f rooms th a t a re c o n tig u o u s . The

u n i t - ty p e may appear in a cav e . In Sand Canyon, a sm all

cave i s f i l l e d w ith a ce rem on ia l room and one sm all ho u se .

They a re found, n o t on ly in c a v es , b u t on le d g e s on th e rim

o f canyons. One f a v o u r i te s i t e seems to be a t th e head o f

canyons. A c l a s s i c example o f th e unitL .type i s fu rn is h e d

by P rudden . There a re two rows o f con tiguous room s, th e

l a r g e s t room b e in g abou t s ix f e e t in le n g th . In th e f lo o r

o f th e c e n te r room o f one row th e re i s a manhole t h a t d es­

cends about fo u r f e e t to a h o r iz o n ta l p assag e th a t le a d s to

th e cerem onia l cham ber. (T h is may have been an In s ta n c e a t

p r iv i le g e o r p e r o g a t iv e j , N early u n iv e r s a l ly , k iv a s were

e n te re d from th e c e n te r o f th e ro o f by means o f a l a d d e r . )

B u l le t in 70 , W ash., 1919. Pewkes, W a lte r. P r e h i s t o r i c ...V il la g e s , C a s t le s , and Towns in S ou thw estern Colorado.* p .7 0

The- f lo o r d iam ete r o f t h i s chamber i s seven f e e t . W ith a*

v e r t i c a l r i s e o f a b o u t tw o f e e t th e re i s a bench fo llo w in g

th e c ircu m feren ce o f t h i s room. The b en c h e n la rg e s on th e

n o r th to r e c e iv e th e passagew ay from th e house , and a t th e

so u th s id e o f th e room to a dep th o f th r e e f e e t and a t th e

g r e a te s t w id th o f a l i t t l e ov er fo u r f e e t . The so u th w a ll

o f t h i s secondary room i s cu rv ed , i t b e in g c o n c e n tr ic w ith

th e bench o f th e ce rem on ia l cham ber. On th e k iv a f lo o r a t

th e opening c e n te r o f t h i s so u th en larg em en t, th e re i s a

passagew ay about tw elve in ch es in d ia m e te r , le a d in g about

f iv e f e e t sou th from which p o in t i t ascends v e r t i c a l l y to

th e su r fa c e o f th e ground . In th e so u th chamber, des­

c r ib e d as an en largem ent o f th e bench, th e re i s a f i l l i n g

o f e a r th above t h i s p assag e to th e le v e l o f th e bench . On

th e bench around a g a in s t th e cerem onia l chamber w a lls a re

p i l a s t e r s about th r e e f e e t h ig h . These mark th e an g les o f

a hexagon d e s c r ib e d by lo g s l a i d from p i l a s t e r to p i l a s t e r

Above th ese lo g s , o th e r s a re l a i d in th e manner o f a c r ib ­

b in g w ith a d e c re a s in g d ia m e te r . On th e in s id e co n to u r o f

th e k iv a , th e n , t h i s in w ard ly p ro g re s s in g c o r b e l l in g form s

a k in d o f dome in w hich, a t th e to p , th e re i s a smoke h o le

The p i l a s t e r s a re a l i t t l e o v er tw elve in c h es w ide, and

b e in g about e ig h te e n in ch es d eep , ex ten d f a r th e r in to th e

e a r th su rro u n d in g th a n does th e tw elve in c h b en ch . There

i s a f l r e p i t in th e c e n te r o f th e room on th e l i n e o f th e

h o r iz o n ta l passag e on th e f lo o r and o f th e h o r iz o n ta l p a s -

sage to th e r e s id e n c e . ' ‘

The r e c e s s e s betw een th e p i l a s t e r s a re w a lle d to th e

h e ig h t o f th e p i l a s t e r s . Logs, a t th e h e ig h t o f th e re c e s s

w a ll , cover th e sh a llo w so u th chamber. The e n t i r e b u i ld ­

in g , excep t f o r t he smoke h o le and th e o r i f i c e o f th e v e r­

t i c a l passage^ i s covered w ith e a r th . Save th en f o r th e se

two a p e r tu re s , th e b u i ld in g i s i n v i s ib l e and t a c i t l y s e c r e t

s in ce th e e a r th co v e rin g i s a t th e same le v e l as th e t e r ­

r a in where t h i s i s p o s s ib le ( in a cave i t i s sometimes n o t ) ,

save where a s l i g h t s lo p e d r a in s w ater away from th e smoke

h o le . Both th e o r i f i c e s have a s l i g h t l y p r o je c t in g crown

o f s to n e .

As f o r the house i t s e l f , th e re i s , f i r s t , s to n e w a lls ,

w ith o u t s e p a ra te fo u n d a tio n , r i s i n g d i r e c t l y from th e ground

a t r i g h t an g les to each o th e r . The m asonry i s a s h la r w ith

much m o rta r ju d g in g a ty p ic a l house from Prudden*s draw ing.

At th e c e l l i n g l e v e l , a c e n t r a l beam c ro s s e s - th e room p a ra ­

l l e l to two w a lls ; r e s t i n g on i t and ex ten d in g th rough th e

w a lls a re beams th a t c a r ry th e b ru sh and e a r th r o o f . Above

th e r o o f ; th e w a ll ex tends in a low p a ra p e t . Doors a re

about two f e e t o f f th e f l o o r , which i s e a r th e n . In th e

n e a r ly square door th e re i s a s in g le s to n e fo r a s i l l , and

stone l i n t e l . T h is may be one la rg e s to n e , o r two long

s to n e s s id e by s id e , o r s t i c k s w ith th e ends ex ten d in g

over th e w a il in to th e jam bs. In t h i s r e g io n , though

p o s s ib ly n o t a t an e a r ly p e r io d , th e d o o r - s i l l descends to

th e f l o o r .

P la s t e r was, to some e x te n t , employed in f in i s h in g th e s e

cerem onia l cham bers.o f t h e . San Juan re g io n . While i t was

n o t p u t on a s .a com plete, co v e rin g i t was u sed in cerem on ia l

chambers on th e fa c e o f th e b a n q u e tte . P i a s t e r appears

sometimes in p i l a s t e r s . S uccessive , c o a tin g s o f_ .it a re fou n d .

S p a r in g ly , co lo r was u sed— a re d band th r e e o r fo u r in c h es

wide on th e b a n q u e tte ex tended c l e a r around i t . Red and

w hite has been fo u n d . Sometimes on house w a lls th e ce ra m ic sf

geom etric p a t t e r n s can be fo u n d ,"an d v e ry r a r e l y , c o lo r .

T h is i s th e b a re fo rm u la o f th e .u n i t - ty p e house . I t

expands a t once in th e number o f rooms about th e c e re m o n ia l .

chamber. . The p rim ary s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h i s room i s r e l i g i o u s .

The more men th a t r e s o r te d to i t , the more e f f ic a c io u s i t s

fu n c tio n in g shou ld b e . , As th e c la n in c re a s e s , th e r e s id e n c e -

u n i t s expand around th e cerem on ia l chamber keep ing as c lo se

to i t as th e s i t u a t i o n a llo w ed . In th e San Juan a r e a , ex­

c e p tin g f o r th e f a c t t h a t th e cerem onia l chamber i s so u th

o f th e house u n i t , and th e b u r i a l s so u th o f th e ce rem o n ia l

chamber, a t f i r s t anyway, th e re i s no p r e s c r ib e d o r i e n t a t i o n .

What seem ingly d e te rm in es th e manner o f expansion in th e San

Juan co u n try i s topog raphy . At A ste r S p r in g s , th e two p r in ­

c ip a l cerem onia l chambers a re in a b lo c o f t h i r t y - s i x rooms

around th e head o f the s p r in g ’ s w ash. At one r u in on th e

N orth Fork ( s i t e 10) in Hovenweep, th e cerem on ia l chamber i s

embedded in a group o f e ig h t rooms. At every s i t e in th e San

Juan co u n try th e s i t u a t i o n d e te rm in es th e form o f th e d ev e lo p ­

m ent. And h e n c e fo r th , in th e e n t i r e p ic tu r e o f so u th w estern

b u i ld in g , th e number o f needAd cerem on ia l chambers and th e

p o p u la tio n b e lo n g in g to them determ ine th e s iz e o f th e deve lop ­

ment In d ic a te d by th e s i t e and, in some cases as in th e com­

p a c t pueb lo o f a somewhat l a t e r p e r io d , th e p la n .

The ce rem o n ia l chamber fu n c tio n s as a c o u n c il house,

and a s a m eeting and w orking p la c e f o r men. I n o rd e r to be

th e lo c u s f o r th e r e l ig io u s l i f e , how ever, th e ce rem on ia l

chamber m ust have c e r t a in a d d i t io n a l sym bolic f e a tu r e s . I t

has th e c e n t r a l f i r e p l a c e . I t h a s , in th e f l o o r , th e en­

tra n c e from th e n e th e r w orld ; t h i s i s c a l le d th e s ip a p u . I t

has th e sac red p assag e d e s c r ib e d in th e u n i t - ty p e house o f

th e San Ju an . I n l i n e w ith th e f i r e p la c e o r p i t th e re i s a

v e r t i c a l s la b o f s to n e b e fo re th e e n tra n c e to th e sa c re d

passagew ay. T h is s to n e v a r ie s in s i z e . I t i s c a l le d an

a l t a r s to n e .

The s ipapu may be a h o le about fou r in ch es a c ro s s . In

g e n e ra l i t was n e a r th e f i r e p la c e a lth o u g h th e r e a re c a ses

where i t i s n e a r th e w a l l . I t i s l in e d w ith c la y ; i t h as a

h o le in th e bo ttom and has no s e t d e p th . I f , as happens in

I

1 . Fewkes. Above, p . 50.

some l o c a l i t i e s in th e n o r th , an o l l a i s u se d , "buried to th e

rim , as a s ip a p u , i t i s l in e d w ith c la y , and a h o le i s made

in th e bottom o f i t . From th e sac red p assag e th a t h a s been

d e s c r ib e d th e re a re v a r ia t io n s in Mesa V erde, th e K ayenta

a t Chaco, and in th e Hopi w orld , b u t th e sym bolic e lem en ts

o b ta in in a l l k iv a s excep t c e r t a in ones in th e K ayenta.

In a manner t h a t i s in no sense com plete , th e sym bolic

id eo lo g y can b r i e f l y be in d ic a te d . The k iv a i s a passagew ay

fo r th e s p i r i t t h a t i s to be b o rn . Being such , i t i s , a t

th e same tim e , a r e c a p i tu la t io n o f th e e n t i r e drama o f na­

t i v i t y , n o t as a p h y s ic a l , b u t as a p sy ch ic h i s to r y . The

e a r th i s th e u n iv e r s a l m o th e r. Through th e sipapu th e s p i r i t

p a s se s from th e m a te rn a l e a r th in to th e k iv a . I t i s a t t r a c t e d

th e re in to t h i s sym bolic womb by th e p re sen ce o f th e f i r e ,

th e sym bolic s u n - f a th e r . In o rd e r to ach iev e th e l i g h t -

w o rld , th e f o u r th phase o f l i f e , i t p a s s e s in to th e sac red

p assag e and r i s e s to th e l i g h t w o rld . To e n te r th e sa c red

p assag e i t m ust p a ss around th e a l t a r s to n e . As a sym bolic

a c t , a t l e a s t , t h i s i s an acknowledgment o f th e Gods. T his

meagre o u t l in e does n o t in d ic a te an y th in g o f th e sym bolic

w ea lth , and n o th in g o f th e s p e c u la tiv e w e a lth , o f a b o r ig in a l

th eo lo g y in th e American S outhw est.

The town o f two sco re k iv a s a t A lk a li Ridge i s tho u g h t

to in d ic a te a g e n e ra l movement t h a t took p la c e in th e e a r ly

p a r t o f th e L ate P u e b lo .P e r io d . I t was a c o n tra c t io n o f

p o p u la tio n e v id e n t th ro u g h o u t th e San Juan re g io n . The p r i ­

mary rea so n f o r th e c o n t r a c t io n i s d e fe n s e . The movement

seems to . have le d a t once to th e e x p lo i ta t io n o f cave s i t e s

and to a f u l l e la b o ra t io n o f th e u n i t - ty p e in a complex

s o c ia l o rg a n iz a t io n . T h is movement c o n c e n tra te d i t s e l f in

m o stly so u th w este rn C o lorado . J u s t w est o f th e La P la t a

Range i s th e re g io n now c a l le d ,th e Mesa V erde. Here among

th e more d efen d ab le canyons a re th o se in th e Rio Marcos

D ra inage . The thousand f e e t o f d ep th o f th e Rio Marcos

d ra in s many l a t e r a l canyons. S everal- hundred f e e t from th e

f lo o r o f one o f them . C l i f f Canyon, in a cave one hundred

f e e t h ig h and th re e hundred f e e t lo n g , i s C l i f f P a la c e .

T his c i t y i s one o f th e g r e a t works o f p r e h i s t o r i c man.

I t h as l e f t two hundred rooms of which tw e n ty - th re e

a re cerem on ia l cham bers. Of th e two hundred room s, tw en ty -

n in e a re second s t o r y . Houses and th e ta p e r in g to w ers a re

b u i l t on ro ck s too la r g e f o r p r e h i s t o r i c en g in ee rs to move.

They were used as fo u n d a tio n s , o r rooms and k iv a s were

b u i l t betw een them. These ro ck s d e te rm in ed p la z a l e v e l s .

D eb ris was te r r a c e d down, and r e ta in in g w a lls were b u i l t .

There were th r e e d i s t i n c t t e r r a c e s . Three le v e ls were

in d ic a te d by rows o f k iv a s w hich s k i r t th e m iddle s e c t io n o f

th e a n c ie n t v i l l a g e , At th e so u th e rn end th e te r r a c e and sub­

te r ra n e a n room in on th e f lo o r l e v e l . At th e w es te rn end o f

th e c r e s c e n t th e re i s a r i s e o f the whole c i t y l e v e l on th e

f a l l e n ro ck s from th e ro o f . The lo w est l e v e l i s a long the

m iddle s e c t io n o f th e cave . From W alter Fewkes1 r e p o r t on

th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f C l i f f P a la c e , from w hich a l l o f t h i s de­

s c r ip t io n i s ta k e n , we le a r n t h a t th e re a re c i r c u la r k iv a s

o f two k in d s , round to w ers , square to w ers , c i r c u l a r and r e c -

ta n g u la r s e c u la r rooms o f a l l k in d s , t e r r a c e s , and r e ta in in g

w a l l s , The unknown main e n tra n c e was found, and i t s p assag e

by k iv a 0 th ro u g h a narrow c o u r t betw een h ig h w a l ls , was

opened. E n tran ce from t h i s m ain c o u r t to th e l e v e l o f th e

cave f lo o r was by a moveable la d d e r . T h is highway le d to

th e sp rin g below , now d ry , in th e canyon.

The g e n e ra l p la n i s t h a t o f th e c re s c e n t shape o f th e

cave . There i s som ething o f r e g u la r i t y , b u t t h i s i s ap p a ren t

o n ly from th e ground p la n ; shown on P la te 6 . The one h ig h ­

way was b o rd e red by h ig h w a lls over which one co u ld n o t se e .

The k iv a s a re f o r th e m ost p a r t on t e r r a c e s in f r o n t o f t h e i r

r e s p e c t iv e h o u ses . W alter Fewkes d iv id e s th e town in to fo u r

q u a r t e r s . -' - " : : - :: - ■

The n o r th e rn q u a r te r has fo u r cerem onia l rooms: one o f; ; ' ■ ' : : ■ .r:_: , , : - ' : .■ ; ■ ■ ;■ „

them was s e t a p a r t from any room s. The low er le v e l o f th e

N o rth ern Q u arte r a d jo in s th e Old Q u a r te r . The upper t e r ­

ra c e o f th e N o rth ern Q u arte r has a la rg e k iv a , U, b eh in d

-2L*

f a l l e n ro c k s ; i t has a lso th e un ique k iv a , V. T his k iv a i s

w ith o u t th e sou th chamber th a t was d e s c r ib e d as b e in g a

prim e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e u n i t - ty p e cerem onia l house . In

f a c t , t h i s f e a tu r e i s ab sen t from some f i f t e e n k iv a s in th e

C l i f f P a la c e . But f o r o th e r rea so n s k iv a V i s u n iq u e . I t

has th e f i r e p i t , th e s ip a p u , th e a l t a r s to n e , th e sa c re d

p a s sa g e . Under th e sa c red passag e th e re i s an o th e r p a s s a g e .

I t ru n s from th e f i r e p i t to th e o u te r w a ll o f th e k iv a , th en

beyond th e v e n t i l a t o r w all i t tu r n s to th e v e r t i c a l . In th e

f lo o r a t th e w est end o f th e a l t a r s to n e th e re i s a manhole

t h a t g iv e s in to t h i s unnamed and u n ac co u n te d -fo r passagew ay.

K iva V l i k e K iva W, and l i k e K iva E and Kiva D in th e Tower

Q u arte r a re b u i l t back a g a in s t th e v i r g in ro c k . The Old

Q u a r te r , e n te re d th rough the m ain e n tra n c e , has an open

c o u r t on th e f o u r th t e r r a c e , and a sm all s t r e e t in f r o n t o f

rooms 63, 62, 61, 60; t h i s i s r e a l l y a b l in d c o u r t . Rooms

around k iv a P a re low s to n e s in h e ig h t . S ecu la r rooms 78,

77, 76, 75, 68, 66, a re round . The q u a r te r has a h ig h r e ­

ta in in g w a ll in f r o n t o f k iv a Q and P . In t h i s q u a r te r

o ccu rs th e Speaker C h ie f 's house . W alls a re hewn sto n e

c a r e f u l ly l a i d , sm oothly p la s t e r e d . The c a s t e l l a t e d tow er

i s th re e s to r ie s h ig h . The e n t i r e c i ty i s in f u l l view

from th e bench on th e so u th s id e o f Speaker C h ie f 's h o u se .

The P la z a Q u arte r c o n tin u e s th e Old Q u arte r f o u r th t e r r a c e

c o u r t in to th e Main P la z a o f C l i f f P a la c e . I t p a s se s in a

s inuous curve betw een k iv a M and k iv a N; th e n betw een k iv a L

- n -

and k iv a K. The f o u r th te r r a c e co n tin u es on in to Tower

Q u arte r around k iv a J ; th e n c e a s e s . On te r r a c e s 2 and 3"

are a group o f cerem on ia l cham bers. Kiva I i s D -shaped.

So was k iv a T, end t e r r a c e . N orth ern Q u a r te r . Though la rg e

and c i r c u la r , 0 i s a s e c u la r chamber faced by a s t r a i g h t

r e ta in in g w a ll . K ivas I and H, L, M, and K, have a u x i l ia r y

w a lls . In t h i s q u a r te r , h ig h in th e back o f th e cave ,

rooms 47, 48, 40; 39 , 38 , 37, a re two s to r i e s h ig h . Be­

h in d th e whole q u a r te r i s r e fu s e sp ace under the cave ro o f

where b u r i a l s were found , and a group o f r i g h t s n a i l room s.

Tower Q u arte r i s w e ll d iv id e d betw een th e second^ t h i r d , and

f o u r th t e r r a c e s . I t has e lev en tw o -s to ry room s, and two

th r e e - s to r y room s. K ivas A and B a re connected by a p a s ­

sag e . E and G a re ce rem o n ia l room s. F and G are a t a

low er l e v e l , G on te r r a c e 2 , F on te r r a c e 3 . From te r r a c e 3

a la d d e r le a d s to t e r r a c e 4 in f r o n t o f a tow er fb u n d a tio n .

The w a lls o f k iv a D a re among the f i r s t known o f a l l th e s e

r u in s . They a re p a in te d y e llo w , arid have th e s u p e r f ic i a l

p l a s t e r in g w e ll p re s e rv e d . The square to w er, fo u r s t o r i e s

h ig h , betw een k iv a 0 and k iv a E h as f iv e m ural d e c o ra tio n s

in r e d and w h ite on th e in n e r w a lls o f th e t h i r d s to r y .

Pho tographs o f th e s i t e u s u a l ly in c lu d e too much and a re

m is le a d in g . A house n ea rb y . B alcony House, P la te 7, under

a s im ila r cave , shows two h o u ses , th e r u in s o f s e v e ra l

o th e r s , and tw ok ivas w ith o u t r o o f s . The r e ta in in g w a ll

shown to h o ld th e k iv a s i s a v e ry im p o rtan t f e a tu r e o f

- i r -

i

C l i f f P a la c e , as a t a l l cave p u e b lo s . W alter Fewkes t h i n k s .

t h a t th e C l i f f P a la ce k iv a s t h a t a re w ithou t benches and

p i l a s t e r s were r o o f le s s , and had h ig h su rround ing w a l l s .

T h is c a te g o ry would apply to round chambers M, I , R, V,

and W. Some o f th e se C l i f f P a la c e k iv a s a re n e a r ly square

w ith round c o rn e r s . One k iv a , D, i s p a in te d yellow ; th e

low er p a r t o f an o th e r i s r e d . As to th e o rthodox k iv a ,

th e re i s th e sac red p a s sa g e , th e f i r e b o x , th e a l t a r s to n e ,

in a l l c a s e s . Some o f th e se rooms a re in s o l id ro c k , in

p a r t . K iva K i s a com plete ro ck e x c a v a tio n . The number

o f p i l a s t e r s v a r i e s . Some o f th e " d e f le c to r s " a re a rc s o f

stone w a l l around th e r a p e r tu r e o f th e sac red p a s sa g e .

T his a p p l ie s to cerem onia l rooms V and H. R a re ly i s a

aipapu a b se n t, b u t i t s p o s i t io n in th e f l o o r , o f te n s o l id

ro ck , does v ary a g r e a t d e a l . Of th e d im ensions g iv en

k iv a J h as th e g r e a t e s t d ia m e te r- -14 f e e t .

The s e c u la r rooms are l iv in g room s, s to ra g e rooms,

g r a n a r ie s , m i l l room s, d a rk rooms o f unknown p u rp o se , to w ers ,

round and sq u a re , round rooms and to w e rs . The Round Tower

i s c a l l e d th e f i n e s t m asonry n o r th o f M exico. For th e

whole o f C l i f f P a la c e q u a l i ty o f m asonry v a r i e s . I t was

c l e a r ly a p r a c t i c e to smooth m asonry by ru b b in g i t a f t e r

i t was l a i d . C orners a re n o t banded. I f b u ild in g was

e x c lu s iv e ly a c la n a f f a i r , some c la n s had e x tra o rd in a ry

m asons, o th e r s w retched o n es , by com parison . The found­

a t io n o f many w a lls was weak; th e h ig h w a lls s ta n d in g on

them were n o t th e o r ig in a l in te n t io n . W alls v a ry in th ic k ­

n e s s . Adobe, in some c a s e s , i s h a rd e r th a n th e san d s to n e .

Some w a lls were p la s te r e d in s id e , some on th e o u ts id e . Few

o f th e rooms would conform e x a c tly to our d e s c r ip t io n as th e y

are c i r c u l a r , sq u a re , o r r e c ta n g u la r . T h re sh o ld s , l i n t e l s ,

and jambs were hewn and rubbed in to shape .

Tau doors abounded, and some doors were v ery w id e . Few

were a t f lo o r l e v e l , and many had a p ro je c t in g s to n e f o r a

s te p . S la b - l in e d f i r e p la c e s abounded. They were f r e q u e n t ly

in th e p la z a s / and ap p eared a t d i f f e r e n t p la c e s in th e room s,

g e n e ra l ly n ea r a c o rn e r .

The pueblo th a t h a s . j u s t been b r i e f l y d e s c r ib e d i s a

compact pueblo in a cav e . A compact pueblo in a v a l le y i s

Pueblo B onito in Chaco Canyon, n o rth w es te rn New M exico.

The Rio Chaco, a t r i b u t a r y o f th e San Juan system ,

r i s e s a t Seven Lakes c lo se to th e C o n tin e n ta l D iv id e , flow s

th ro u g h Chaco Canyon b e fo re ta k in g to th e open co u n try t h a t

le a d s to th e San Juan a t S h ip ro ck . A com mercial map re c o rd s

th e s i t e s , K in - k la - tz ln , k lm -m e -n i-o li , k in - y a i , Casa Moreno,

P in ta d o , w ith in a range o f f o r t y m ile s , o f Pueblo B o n ito . In

l e s s o f a range th e re a re num berless, s i t e s and some n in e te e n

tow ns; some o f th e more im p o rtan t ones a re —Pueblo del Arroyo

Chetko K e tl , Yellow House, R inconada, Hungo P a v i.

Pueblo B on ito has been made a household word by p h o to ­

g rap h s , p o p u la r a r t i c l e s , and n o t l e a s t , by J a c k s o n 's l i t h o -

g raph o f a r e s to r a t i o n p r o je c t io n . T his p r o je c t io n r e t a in s

i t s i n t e r e s t , b u t so much has been done in th e n earb y a re a

t h a t i t now has more h i s t o r i c a l th a n s c i e n t i f i c v a lu e .

J u d d 's ground p la n , rep ro d u ced on P la te 8 , d e s c r ib e s i t s

s iz e and i n t r i c a t e o rg a n iz a t io n in th e f i n a l m anner, f o r

w ith o u t i t th e p a t t e r n o f change th a t accrued in a d d i t io n s

in th e grow th o f th e town cou ld n ev er be apprehended. No

c r o s s - s e c t io n , no e le v a t io n , cou ld show i t .

1 . K idder, A lf re d . An In tro d u c tio n to th e S tudy o f S outh­w este rn A rchaeology . :

' 3 1 -

Th© moat s a l i e n t f e a tu r e i s th e D -shaped p e r im e te r th a t1

marks th e ground p la n o f th e communal house o f Tyuoni in

Mew M ex ico ,a t Mesa Verde, and in o th e r p a r t s o f th e San Ju an .

The bowed s id e o f t h i s p e r im e te r i s 550 f e e t in le n g th . A

l i n e a long a curved w a ll a t th e g r e a t e s t p a r t o f th e curve

i s about 340 f e e t lo n g . The s t r a i g h t s id e o f t h i s b u ild in g

i s th e low s id e . I t may r e p re s e n t a f ro n ta g e on a form er

channel o f th e Rio Chaco. Between th e 1 1 th and 1 2 th room

from th e l e f t end i s th e one en tra n ce to th e e n t i r e town;

th e co n tin u ed e le v a t io n co n ta in e d 18 more rooms to th e r ig h t*

Rooms 12, 13, 14 , 15 , and 16, covered th e sou th s id e o f a

m inor, o r a t l e a s t , a sm a lle r k iv a . Around i t , p o s s ib ly to

keep w ith in th e t r a d i t i o n a l demands o f su b te rra n e a n lo c u s

o f t h i s r e l ig io u s s t r u c tu r e , houses a re p i l e d u p . The k iv a

co n to u r, th e n , i s i n v i s ib le from th e o u ts id e . I t i s re a so n ­

ab le to c o n je c tu re t h a t t h i s in c lu s io n had r e c o g n i t io n a l l

th ro u g h th e n o r th e rn pueblo c u l tu r e . For ov er in th e K a ib ito

canyons th e re were sm all c l i f f - s h e l t e r e d k iv a s th a t a re round ,

in c lo s e d in a ca rto u ch e o f w a lls th a t approach tangency to

i t , and a re b u i l t up to v e ry n ea r i t s h e ig h t . At th e c o r - , . 1

n e rs l e f t open, w aste m a te r ia l s were p u t i n . In Chaco Can­

yon a v ery f in e example o f t h i s type o f k iv a was b e in g ex­

cav a ted n ea r C hetro K e tl in th e summer o f 1935, a t T a lu s ,

U n it No. 1 . W alls around la r g e r k iv a s , how ever, le av e space

1 . Peabody Museum o f American A rchaeology and E thno logy , V ol, X II, No. 2 , p . 11, M orse, N otes on th e A rchaeology o f K a ib ito and Rainbow P la te a u , 1927.

n o t to be n e g le c te d ; fo u r sm all rooms a re In th e group around

t h i s o u te r cerem on ia l chamber, a d ja c e n t to th e minor k lv a .

Ten rooms are b u i l t up a g a in s t I t . Between th e group o f

b u i ld in g s on th e chord o f rooms ac ro ss th e c e n te r o f Pueblo

B onlto and th e l e f t p a r t o f th e c re s c e n t as one fa c e s n o r th ,

th e re I s a c o u r t o f abou t tw en ty -th o u san d square f e e t . The

open a re a on th e r i g h t s id e o f the chord ofrroom s I s l a r g e r ,

and o f even g r e a te r I r r e g u l a r i t y . M oreover, I t I s d iv id e d

by a chord c o n ta in in g two k lv a s sm a lle r th a n th e one j u s t

m entioned in th e f i r s t ch o rd . I t h as become c le a r th a t a f t e r

th e o r ig in a l D -shaped p la n was expanded as f a r as i t would

s ta n d p re s s u re o f p o p u la t io n , a d d i t io n s were to grow, tum or­

l i k e around new k lv a s e s ta b l i s h e d in th e p r o te c te d sp ace .

B efore th e p re s s u re ex ac ted t h i s d e v ic e , k lv a s were in ­

te g r a te d in to th e c i r c u l a r w a l l - s e c t io n s th em se lv es , in th e

upper s t o r i e s . • These w a lls t h a t swing around a r a d iu s o f

350 f e e t ro se up to a h e ig h t o f f i v e s to r ie s on th e o u te r

row. On th e w est end , th e rows ru n In some p la c e s to s ix

c o n c e n tr ic l i n e s o f room s, a lth o u g h a t no p la c e a re any o f

th e a lig n m en ts o f rooms co n tin u o u s th ro u g h o u t th e semi­

c ircum ference . Toward th e c e n te r th e rows were lo w er, so

t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y th e e ta g e s s tep p ed up one a d d i t io n a l

h e ig h t as th e y approached th e back w a ll . But to th in k th a t

t h i s seeming r e g u la r i t y o f form can o n ly b r in g s u rp r is e

when th e s t r u c tu r e i t s e l f i s seen , f o r g e t t in g p la n . Then

i t s a c c re t iv e o rg a n ic c h a ra c te r becomes ap p a ren t from th e

-3 3 -

h e ig h t o f th e mesa b eh in d i t . The manner in w hich s e c t io n s

c o n jo in , w ith what seems a t f i r s t , d is r e g a rd f o r fu n c tio n

and space economy, can h a rd ly be o th e rw ise a p p re c ia te d . ,

The view from above shows how w e ll some o f th e p re v io u s

o rg a n iz a t io n has been b u i l t o v e r . For some f o r t y rooms in

an arrangem ent l ik e th e * chords9 t h a t have been m entioned =

l i e s alm ost in d is c e rn a b le under th e k iv a s and the p la n -

s ta g e o f subsequen t b u i ld in g . Adding a few p o s s i b i l i t i e s

f o r c e r t a in supposed room s, th e ground p la n shows n e a r ly

two hundred and s e v e n ty - f iv e room s. P robab ly th e re a re more

In th e e n t i r e s t r u c tu r e th e re a re 800 rooms.

' Pueblo B on ito h as one g r e a t k iv a . The ground f lo o r

shows n in e te e n sm all o n es; th o se seen in th e a e re a l view

do rio t co in c id e w ith th o se in d ic a te d in th e p la n . The g r e a t

k iv a m easures about f i f t y - s i x f e e t on th e in s id e d ia m e te r .

I t shows a double r in g o f m asonry around th e low er p a r t o f

th e c ircu m fe ren ce l ik e a b a n q u e tte , and a s te p b e fo re i t .

T his i s c a l le d a double b a n q u e tte . Above th e b an q u e tte

a re th e n ic h e s . There a re no p i l a s t e r s . The antecham ber,

so prom inen t in m ost g r e a t k iv a s , i s n o t so ap p a ren t in

th e g r e a t k iv a a t Pueblo B o n ito . On th e so u th p a r t o f th e

p la n a x is i s th e (square f i r e p la c e o r a l t a r . P a r a l l e l to

th e same a x i s , e q u i - d i s ta n t on e i t h e r s id e i s th e p ro ­

b le m a tic a l " f i r e v a u l t? t h a t c o n ta in s a ls o so c k e ts f o r

th e fo u r ro o f p ie c e s .

The sm a lle r k iv a s v a ry , as th e y d id in the K ayenta, in

d ia m e te r . They have th e b a n q u e tte , th e h o r iz o n ta l w a ll p o s t -

socketed in masonry on th e b a n q u e tte , th e c e n t r a l f i r e p i t , .

and th e sa c re d p assag e under th e so u th w a ll t h a t opens th ro u g h

th e f lo o r n e a r the f i r e p i t , th e f e a tu re t h a t co n n ec ts th e se

s t r u c tu r e s in th e eyes o f Noel Morsa to l a t e r K ayenta k iv a s .

In fo u r c a s e s , t h e r e i s , i n th e sm a lle r Chaco Canyon k iv a s ,

a sm all v a u l t o f m asonry to th e w est o f th e f i r e p i t .

. That th e fu n c tio n o f th e g r e a t k iv a i s th a t o f a com­

munal g a th e r in g p la c e a t l e a s t in p a r t f o r r e l ig io u s ob­

se rv an ce , and th a t o f th e sm all k iv a i s th a t o f a g a th e r in g

p la c e fo r a sm a ll, and p ro b ab ly e x c lu s iv e group , a re p o in ts

o f g e n e ra l agreem ent. For th e s e k iv a s t h a t accommodated

sm all groups a re b u i l t , f r e q u e n t ly e n la rg e d , and a l t e r e d .

O ften th ey a re r e b u i l t on th e same s i t e o r w ith in th e same

form . Such a case i s t h a t o f th e sm all k iv a on P la te 9 .

H ere, what, must have been th e f i r s t b a n q u e tte de term ined

th e le v e l o f th e f lo o r o f th e r e b u i ld in g . In . th e ir ; a d ju s t ­

m en ts, d i f f e r e n t ; s ty l e s o f s to n e work ap p ea r, and th e y can

be tr a c e d a t Pueblo B onito and a t Chetko K e tl , a town about

900 y a rd s away th a t may prove to be very much c lo s e r to

Pueblo B onito th a n i t now ap p ea rs , when e x c a v a tio n s g e t be­

low th e p r e s e n t l e v e l . The e a r l i e s t o f th e s e s ty l e s r e v e a ls

w e l l - s e le c te d sm all p ie c e s o f stone s tu ck in to , r a th e r th an

l a i d up in , what seems to be a w a ll o f adobe. These s p a l l s

a re in t h in and d if fu s e courses and are p ro b ab ly s o le ly

o rn am en ta l. S ty le I I seems, on th e o th e r hand, to be devoid

-of a l l m o r ta r . Large s to n es a re l a i d up in b lo ck c o u rse s ,

n o t always h o r iz o n ta l , b u t n e a r ly enough so to g iv e s t r e n g th

to a f in e p a t t e r n in t e x tu r e . Between th e s e la r g e r b lo ck s

th a t must .be s ix o r e ig h t in c h es long th e re a re c o u rse s o f

s p a l l s ; These vary in number o f grouped co u rse s , th e range

i s two co u rse s to e ig h t co u rse s betw een th e la rg e b lo c k s .

That r e l a t i o n o f sm all and la r g e b lo ck s occur in a much

c o a rs e r r a t i o a lso in th e r u in . Type I I I i s l a i d up w ith

th in co u rse s and m o rta r w ith a p reponderance o f la rg e stoner

co u rses in one c a s e . In an o th e r c a se , i t has la r g e r s p a l l s

f in e ly c u t and m atched betw een cou rses o f w e l l - c u t l a r g e r

b lo c k s . H ere, th e re seems to be no m o rta r a t a l l . S ty le IV

employs th e l a r g e r sm all b lo c k s in le s s e n e d p ro p o r t io n .

Type V i s composed e n t i r e l y o f sm all b lo c k s .

The w a lls made o f sm all s p a l l s "have l e s s e r r i g i d i t y

th an th o se made o f b lo c k s , and th ey had to be b u t t r e s s e d in

p la c e s . Doors in th e s e c t io n n e a r th e Museum a t Pueblo

B onito w ere, in some c a s e s , f lu s h w ith th e f l o o r . Tau doors

were seen . F ire p la c e s were n o t so common, and p ro b ab ly were

o u t-o f -d o o rs on ro o f to p s .

In Pueblo B o n ito , c e r t a in rooms seem in th e curved

w a ll facad e to have had c e i l i n g s . W illow, asp en , c e d a r ,

and p in e were u s e d . U su a lly th e p in e fu rn is h e d th e beams,

and s p l i t cedar o r aspen was l a i d on th e p in e , w ith b a rk

- S t ­

and c la y over th e wood. Sometimes, th e w illow s were t i e d .

Sometimes, beam ends banded in to th e w a lls were wrapped in

b a rk . S h e lf - s c a f fo ld in g was f re q u e n t ly em ployed, s le n d e r

p o le s a c ro s s th e narrow end o f a room. Loops o f w ith es

were found . These rooms were v ery d a rk . Many in n e r rooms

had no l i g h t , no v e n t i l a t i o n . There were a few windows,

and some rooms had s e v e ra l e n tra n c e s .

•" '? •

- 3 1 -1

The p i c t o r i a l c r o s s - s e c t io n o f the S anctuary a t C hetro

K e tl, P la te 10, shows two s ta g e s f o r t h i s k lv a . In th e f i r s t

s ta g e i t i s s a id to have fu n c tio n e d as an am p ith e a tre o r gen­

e r a l m eeting p la c e . The ex c av a tio n d e p ic te d a t th e l e f t o f

th e c r o s s - s e c t io n shows th e f i r s t l e v e l as i t now ap p ea rs .

On t h i s f l o o r , one sees th e square a l t a r , a p a r t o f th e f i r e -

v a u l t w ith one o f th e h y p o th e t ic a l p o s ts (o r p ie r s ? ) in i t

b u i l t up to th e second l e v e l . The r i g h t s id e shows th e

le v e l employed, • and one p ie r , a t th e second s ta g e o f th e

S a n c tu a ry 1s h i s to r y , th a t o f th e g r e a t k lv a . The drum has a

d iam ete r o f 64 f e e t . The n o r th sa n c tu a ry w ith i t s s te p s a t

th e r i g h t could b e lo n g o n ly to th e second p e r io d . The d a te -

range f o r Chetro K e tl a t p r e s e n t re a d s 900-1125; f o r Pueblo

B onito i t re a d s f iv e y e a rs l a t e r .

W ith in a s h o r t d is ta n c e o f th e source o f th e L i t t l e

C olorado, th e White R iv er r i s e s to flow southw est in to th e

S a l t R iv e r . About halfw ay down i t s c o u rse , in a s h e l te r e d

p la in , l i e s th e pueb lo o f K in ish b a . K in istiba , because i t

has s ix c la n houses and s e v e ra l p ith o u s e s around i t , and b e -

cause i t i s cu t in h a l f by an a rroyo , i s c a l le d a semi-com- .

p a c t p u eb lo . I t b e lo n g s to th e M esa.Type. I t i s n o t de­

fend ab le as Casa Grande was by i t s w a l ls , o r some o f th e

Chaco p u eb lo s may have b een , i f we can judge from th e w a lle d -

up "loggia"* th a t once, in th e e a r ly p e r io d , f i l l e d p a r t o f

th e C hetro K e tl on th e low o r so u th s id e . But K in ish b a lo o k s

f a r more tow ard th e G ila th a n i t does to the n o r th . There

a re two c o u r ts t h a t a re ex cav a ted and a t l e a s t one t h a t i s

n o t , a t K in ish b a ,an d no d e fen se o f e n try way seems very

l i k e l y save one on th e so u th s id e o f group 1 , where th e en­

tra n c e i s a passage-w ay th a t g iv e s on to a sm all v e s t ib u le ,

th e e a s t s id e o f which i s i l l u s t r a t e d in P la te s 11 and 12 .

The p la n seems to be th a t o f th e a d d i t io n o f c o u r ts and

th e i r su rro u n d in g b u i ld in g s a long th e a r ro y o . P o s s ib ly a

m utual e x te n s io n would have grown up betw een th e two la rg e

groups and th e c la n h o u se s . I t seems th a t t h i s r u in would

average a c o u r t about ev ery one hundred f e e t a t i t s p re s e n t

p la n . The second la rg e b lo c k i s 149 f e e t wide a t th e g r e a t ­

e s t p o in t . I t was 435 f e e t in le n g th , and th e n e ig h b o rin g

a rc a c ro s s th e work was 348 f e e t .

The rooms l i e in v a r io u s d e p th o f t i e r s around th e

c o u r ts . To th e f i r s t c o u r t one p a s se s s ix t i e r s on th e

so u th s id e o f Group 1 . P a r t o f th e s e a re shown r e s to r e d

on P la te 15 . There were th re e t i e r s to th e w est o f t h i s

c o u r t to th e r i g h t , none to th e n o r th . In room 71 and room

59, th e re a re rem nant w a lls o f s u p e r io r m asonry th a t in ­

d ic a te d e b r is ramps a t a low er l e v e l . Along w ith th e se e a r ly

w a l ls , i t i s to be n o ted th a t th e re i s a p ith o u s e v e ry n ea r

Group 2 . As th e se p re v io u s , covered w a lls a re s e v e ra l f e e t

h ig h ,a t l e a s t in th e case o f room 71, t h i s in d ic a te s th a t

th e le v e l o f th e f i r s t o cc u p a tio n m ust have been c o n s id e ra b ly

lo w er. A cross room 72 th e re was a p o s t and e a r th w a l l .

P o s ts were found u sed o c c a s io n a lly w ith crude a s h la r m asonry.

One was in th e co rn e r o f room 62; b u t p o s t h o le s f o r v a r io u s

p u rp o ses were found in m ost o f th e rooms.

I t i s q u i te c l e a r t h a t two s to r i e s were over a good

d ea l o f th e so u th p a r t o f Group 1 , and i t has been su g g ested

th a t th e re may have been th r e e around a p a r t o f the c o u r t in

th e second la rg e g ro u p . For su p p o rt o f ro o f beams, p o s ts a re

no t in f r e q u e n t ly u se d . S tone , l e f t o u t o f th e s tu rd y a s h la r ,

u s u a l ly was about la rg e enough f o r the beam end, and th r e e. ; • ; , . . . < : ' - ■ •• - . ' . ' .

beams u s u a l ly were u se d . . There was some u se o f s la b s and

cedar b a rk over c ro s s beam s, th e n w illow f o l ia g e and mud.

U su a lly w illow s were p la c e d d i r e c t l y on th e secondary c ro s s ­

beams, and on them, heavy mud. Almost a l l rooms a re l iv in g

room s. There a re a few s to ra g e room s,and fo r cerem on ia l

rooms i t seems c l e a r t h a t th e f i r s t c o u r t was employed.

There i s an a l t a r - l i k e c o n s tru c t io n o f m asonry a t th e so u th

s id e o f th e c o u r t . A bench ru n s a l l th e way around th e

c o u r t . P o s ts su rv iv e ,a n d i t m ight be t h a t from them an

awning covered a p a r t o f t h i s open sp ace . There were fo u r ­

te e n o f them.

L i t t l e o f th e s tu rd y s to n e work o f th e K ayenta, n o r

o f th e b r i l l i a n t l y te x tu re d m asonry o f Chaco Canyon o b ta in s

a t K in ish b a . A g r e a t d e a l o f mud, o r adobe, was u sed and

th e use o f ru b b le f a c in g b eh in d an a s h la r f a c in g i s v e ry

common. I t becomes a k in d o f an i n t e r i o r f i n i s h to many

rooms, and i t i s n o t in f r e q u e n t ly found under a c o a tin g o f

m o r ta r . The a s h la r was u se d w ith s p a l l s ru n n in g in v e r t i c a l

and in h o r iz o n ta l p a t t e r n i z a t i o n .

To th e n o r th o f th e f i r s t c o u r t l i e s a second, sm a lle r

one ru n n in g th e whole w id th o f th e f i r s t . A su b te rra n e a n

chamber found h e re in th e summer o f 1935 had a c e n t r a l f i r e ­

p la c e and a secondary cham ber, A draw ing o f t h i s chamber,

when h a l f r e c o n s tru c te d , i s on P la te 13 . The draw ing o f k iv a

R-4 a t Kokopnyama, P la te 14, and Old Hop! s i t e in Leroux

Wash in th e Hopi p e r ip h e r y . to K in ish b a , shows a p ro b ab lp

p ro to - ty p e from w hich t h i s d im in u tiv e ce rem on ia l chamber

may have v e ry i n d i r e c t l y been d e r iv e d .

-y i-

. inARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCE ON THE CULTURE *

The c o n d itio n in g s tim u lu s t h a t s e t s th e h is to r y o f an

a r c h i te c tu r e in m otion i s env ironm ent. P o s t - g la c ia l man,

a t a n y .r a te , had re c o u rse to th e cave in th e S ou thw est.

In warmer c lim a te s th e e a r ly s h e l te r t h a t i s r e s o r te d to r e ­

t a in s lo n g e r i t s s u f f i c i e n t c h a r a c te r . But in th e San Juan

c o u n try , where g r e a t in c lem en c ies a re a f a c to r in the ex­

posed l iv e s o f e a r ly in h a b i ta n ts , s h e l te r o f some k in d was

im p e ra tiv e . The ev id en ce th a t the . cave served th is .p u rp o s e

i s e n d le s s .

In i t s r e l a t i v e e f f e c t iv e n e s s as s h e l t e r , th e cave d id ,

in two ways, g iv e a r c h i te c tu r e a pause t h a t c o s t i t , p ro b ab ly ,

th e f i r s t p la c e in th e h i s to r y o f so u th w este rn te c h n iq u e s .

The cave and th e led g e a f fo rd e d a s a t i s f a c to r y r e s t i n g

p la c e f o r th e p o p u la tio n was was sm all and so r e c e n t ly no­

m adic. Even p la n ts m ig ra te on our e a r th ,a n d th e a n c ie n ts

o f man found i t n o t too d i f f i c u l t to s eek a new l iv i n g p la c e .

And d o u b tle s s , f o r th o se in t h e i r c a v e s ; s h e l te r ceased to be

th e m ost p re s s in g o f a l l t h e i r p rob lem s, u n so lv ed as i t m ight

be from any p o in t o f view t h a t i s su b seq u en t. L iv in g in a

b u ild in g i s an o r i e n ta t io n in th e n a tu r a l w orld ; ta k in g r e s i ­

dence in a cave i s an e q u iv a le n t change. For a tim e i t i s

one th a t i s s u f f i c i e n t . Accomplishment in im proving t h i s

n e w lliv ln g c o n d itio n d id n o t , th e n , go beyond a c e r t a in

p o in t o f obvious and minimum e f f o r t . But though th e en­

deavor to keep warm went on, i t went on in a d i f f e r e n t

d i r e c t io n . In r e s o r t in g to th e always i n s u f f i c i e n t supp ly

o f f u r f o r warmth th e d e s i r e f o r more o f i t le d , among o th e r

a g e n c ie s , to th e developm ent o f th e t e x t i l e a r t s . These

a r t s p ro g re sse d r a p id ly , and i t i s th e se h a n d ic r a f t te c h n iq u e s ,

i t has seemed to me, t h a t have re c e iv e d e a r ly , though n o t

e x c lu s iv e a t t e n t io n in th e S ou thw estern c u l tu re g ro u p s .

The cave fu n c tio n e d in th e in n e r h i s to r y o f th e c u l tu r e

ag a in f o r a r c h i te c tu r e b ro u g h t in to b e in g by an en v iro n ­

m ent, c r e a te s a n e w env ironm ent. "Prom w ith in i t , c r a f t s ,

a s id e from r e l i g i o n , th e n become th e f u l l o rd e r o f th e l i f e .

They assume a p redom inan t r o le in th e summarized n a tu re -

knowledge, th a t i s , th e sc ie n c e o f the c u l tu r e .

T echno log ies o f h a n d i c r a f t , s e t th e d i r e c t io n o f c u l­

tu re - te n d e n c y , th e n , in th e S ou thw est. T h is c u l tu r e -

tendency ach iev ed i t s f i n a l phase in a r c h i t e c t u r e . A rch i­

t e c tu r e i s n o t on ly a prim e form o f s o c ia l s u r p lu s . I t i s

th e a r t i c u l a t i o n fo r r e l i g i o n o f th e s p i r i t u a l in te n t io n o f

th e g ro u p . In th e S ou thw est, i t i s th e te m p o ra r i ly

s o l i d i f i e d c la n -g ro u p , h e ld to g e th e r by th e one a l l - a b s o r b ­

in g a c t i v i t y o f th e g roup , th e tech n iq u e and th e c r a f t o f

r a i s i n g c o rn . The works th a t a re p i l e d u p , from th e p e r -

- i n ­

f e c t ly d es ig n ed and b e a u t i f u l l y adequate u n i t - ty p e e s ta b ­

lish m en t to th e g r e a t a c c re tiv e ,c o m p a c t h o u se s , a re th e

work o f p eo p le f o r whom th e h a n d ic r a f ts , and n o t e n g in e e r-

in g as a te ch n iq u e o r g r e a t p la n n in g as s t y l e , i s th e

h o r iz o n . There has o f te n been much f in e r sp a ce -d e s ig n in

w a ll s u r f a c e , .b u t n o t o f te n , anyw here, such e f f e c t iv e

t e x tu r e . But long b e fo re ex p re ss io n -fo rm h as ta k en p la c e

th e s to ra g e o f food and p o s s ib ly th e c a re o f th e dead have

c o n tr ib u te d som ething to th e growth o f fu n c tio n -fo rm . For

as f a r as b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s a re concerned . S ou thw estern

man seems to have had a c o n ta in e r fo r h i s co rn , and a mar­

v e lous, w inding sh e e t o f f u r o r f e a th e r t e x t i l e s f o r h i s

d e a th , a lm ost b e fo re he had a house f o r h is l i f e . T h is

seeming p r i o r i t y i s p e rh ap s v e r i f i e d by th e e v a lu a tio n

th a th h i s t o r i c g e n e ra tio n s have p la c e d on t h e i r own c u l­

t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s w eaving, b read-m ak ing , and p o t­

t e r y , th a t i s , f a b r i c , co rn , and c la y . H unting p a ra ­

p h e rn a l ia s ta n d b e fo re a l l th r e e , and the stone w a ll , l a s t .

Were e x ig e n c ie s to compel them to move f o r a n y .re a so n

th a t made th e r a i s i n g o f co rn more d i f f i c u l t , th e bad

f lo o d s , th e l a t e s i l t i n g , i t was always p o s s ib le to b u i ld

a new home.

P e r f e c t io n o f one form s tim u la te an o th e r s ta g e o f

th e form . In th e so u th , an In c l in e p ro te c te d w ith b ru sh ,

f o r how many g e n e ra t io n s , le d to th e house d o o r. Then

h e r e , i n th e n e x t v i l l a g e , houses appear w ith a s te p l e t t i n g

down in to a s h e l te r e d v e s t ib u le , t h a t le a d s in to a ho u se .

In th e n o r th , th e co rn i s kep t c le a n in a s to n e - l in e d cone-

shaped e x c a v a tio n . I t can be covered over w ith b ru sh and

d e b r is . You would n o t know th a t i t i s th e r e . Someone wi­

dened one ou t a few f e e t and p u t more s to n es around i t .

The p o le s le a n in g a g a in s t th e c l i f f were p u t over i t and

b ru sh p i l e d on them, and mud p i l e d on th e b ru sh , and i t

looked n o t much d i f f e r e n t from th e ro ck s around i t a f t e r

th e mud d r ie d , and i t was seen from th e sp r in g below . Then,

when someone in th e n ex t canyon wove mud, ced a r b a rk , s t i c k s ,

around th e se same p o le s s e t u p r ig h t , and th e overhanging ro ck

c lo se above was a lre a d y th e co v e rin g , th e problem had a lre a d y

been s ta te d ^ and in th e s ta tem en t o f i t , had become c l e a r e r .

Development became r a p id . In th e o ld round house n ea r th e

new one, th a t o ld , o ld house f a r t h e r in th e g ro u n d ,th e one

where th e m a tr ia rc h d ie d , th e p la c e where v a lu a b le th in g s

are p u t away q u ic k ly , and one s l i p s o u t, where th e o ld men

go when th e r a i n does n o t come, to ask h e r to send i t . . . t h i s

i s th e t h i r d o f th e s t r u c tu r e s o f so u th w este rn b u i ld in g , th e

fa n e . The form o f p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h i te c tu r e a t once becomes

o f moment, and i t a lm ost v i s i b ly h u r r ie s onto p e r f e c t io n o f

th e sim ple ty p e . The house m ight fo llo w in developm ent, and

th e s to ra g e c i s t s ta y on, o r even become a house i t s e l f , b u t

th e dynamic f a c t o r in t h i s c r a f t - r i c h s o c ie ty h e n c e fo r th b e­

comes th e ce rem o n ia l cham ber. Some p la c e a long th e l i n e i t s

fu n c tio n and r e a l i z a t i o n m ust have been r e l a t i v e l y sudden.

very c o n c re te , and g r e a t . For in th e San Juan re g io n , where

th e u n i t - ty p e house , th a t i s r e s id e n c e , i s com plete as a

f a b r ic and has no subsequen t h i s to r y beyond th a t o f e n la rg e ­

m ent, i t s a t te n d a n t cerem onia l cham ber, under th e power o f

r i t u a l and th e c la n , th a t i s r e l ig i o n and p o l i t i c s , becomes

th e prim e symbol th a t was im p lied in co rn . More th a n one

o b se rv e r has f e l t th a t th e cerem onia l chamber f o r th e u n i t -

type s t r u c tu r e appears in an a p p re c ia b ly s w if t developm ent

on th e canyon rim s th a t a re i t s e a r ly s i t e s . T his m ight be

t r u e . But i t i s even more s t a r t l i n g t h a t th e ro o f , th e

p i l a s t e r s , th e bench , th e sac red p assag e appear in such

f i n a l s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n . In a l l a r c h i t e c tu r e s , in t im a t io n s

o f e f f e c t iv e form a c c e le r a te from t h i s p o in t on to f u l f i l l ­

m ent. • In t h i s k iv a th e re i s a v e ry p re s e n t f u l f i l lm e n t , fo r

i t has been o b se rv ed how p rep o n d e ran t the b u i ld in g and i t s

fu n c tio n s were a t C l i f f P a la c e . The k iv a approaches th e

p o in t o f g iv in g s t y l e , t h a t ’ i s , in n e r r e a l i z a t i o n , to- th e

whole s o c ie ty . : v

Like most h i s t o r i c a r c h i t e c tu r a l forms i t s subsequent

c o u rse , when l i b e r a t e d from te c h n ic a l l im i t a t io n s such as

th e cave f lo o r s o f c l i f f c i t i e s , i s th a t o f en la rg em e n t.

I t s mere r a d iu s soon, as b u ild in g g e n e ra tio n s go becomes

more th a n tw ice th e le n g th o f a g o o d -s ized r e s id e n c e .

P o s s ib le i t s r e l ig i o u s c h a ra c te r b reak s down, to o . For

i t i s a f a r c ry indeed from th e secu re co n se rv a tism o f

th e l o c a l l y m o d if ie d , r e l ig i o u s a r c h i te c tu r e a t ,B e ta ta k in ,

l a s t i n g on an a d d i t io n a l c e n tu ry to . th e g r e a t sa n c tu a ry

k iv a s a t Chaco Canyon. For w hether th e se , g r e a t chambers

in d ic a te la r g e , r i c h , dom inating c la n s , o r w hether th ey

in d ic a te a n t i - c la n o r c r o s s - c la n in f lu e n c e s , th e y a re p ro ­

b ab ly no a s s e t to th e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l ig i o u s l i f e . T heir

very e x is te n c e seem srto mean th a t th e o ld co h esio n s a re

broken down. For a common m eeting p la c e means a c o u n c il ,

and .a c o u n c il may .mean d is c u s s io n . And in a s o c ie ty th a t

had so lo n g ago ceased to be p r im i t iv e , p o l ic y and r e l ig io u s

co n se rv a tism each h as a fo llo w in g .

Thus a r c h i te c tu r e as s t r u c t u r e , as d e s ig n , as te c h ­

n ique i s a co n flu en ce o f many f a c e ts o f s o c ia l l i f e , so i t s

ach ievem ents, t h a t a re in th em se lv es , a convergen t ex p res­

s io n o f g ro u p s, have su b seq u en tly a p la c e in m oulding so­

c i e ty . A rc h i te c tu r a l form i s a v ic a r io u s n a tu re -w o rld fo r

human b e in g s , a l l human b e in g s who a re n o t sh ep h erd s, o r

who do n o t l i v e a t s e a . And because i t i s a co n cep tu a l

w orld i t h o ld s f o r t h a c o n s ta n t and m igh ty i n v i t a t i o n f o r

r e c r e a t io n o f i t s e l f . To th e p re s e n t w r i te r th e whole o f

th e Chaco phase o f San Juan c u l tu re i s p e rh ap s o f some

l e s s im portance th a n th e K ayenta. But th e e f f lo re s c e n c e

th a t to o k p la c e a t Pueblo B onito in two hundred d a ta b le

y e a rs i s a c u l tu re -m ira c le w ith o u t p a r a l l e l . Any ach iev e­

ment o f g ran d s ty l e i s an o cc a s io n fo r m a rv e l. At S an tiag o

in th e I s le -d e -F ra n c e , among th e C is te r c ia n s , o r in Athens

1

in th e l i f e t im e o f one i n f l u e n t i a l man, t h i s s o r t o f th in g

happened, as i t w ere, o v e rn ig h t . But th e r e , alw ays, were

m i l le n ia o f c o n tr ib u to ry c u l tu r a l in f lu e n c e s w ork ing . But

in Chaco Canyon what was th e re o f th i s ? Not f a r away some

dogs, s a id to be from M exico, and s a c re d , have been found,

and p a r r o t s , a ls o mummified, t h a t N e il Judd says may have

been b ro u g h t a l iv e from Oaxaca, have come to l i g h t . But

th e se r e p re s e n t no in f lu e n c e s t h a t leav en ed th e dense popu­

l a t i o n on th e m eagrely i r r i g a t e d la n d s o f th e e a s te rn San

Juan D ra in ag e .

- Hi -

The pueh lo a r c h i te c tu r e t h a t has su rv iv ed th e th re a te n e d

economic e x t in c t io n o f th e pueblo n a t io n s r e t a i n s i t s o u t­

ward form . Some o f th e p u eb lo s a re ram b lin g , l i k e S ia , and

S an ta C la ra ; o th e rs a re com pact, l i k e Taos. In th e L i t t l e

Colorado towns th e k iv a i s sh rin k in g as an in f lu e n c e , b u t i t

r e t a i n s i t s s ig n if ic a n c e by i t s underground p o s i t io n . In

m ost o th e r towns In th e Rio Grande V alley th e k iv a I s now on

th e s u r fa c e . T his i s a m ajor v io la t io n o f in n e r form , and i t

i s a f a t a l adm ission on th e p a r t o f th e p r i e s t s . Some b u i ld ­

in g s rem ain , and do rem ain sym bolic c a v e rn s . Any B yzan tine

chu rch , b u i l t b e fo re th o se e re c te d and l in e d w ith l i g h t

P e r s ia n t i l e s by pro-M oslem a r c h i t e c t s , shows t h i s . But a

su b te rra n e a n p la c e f o r w orship t h a t em erges from th e ground

in d ic a te s t h a t i t s s o c ie ty has o th e r p rim ary v a lu e s . The

form s th a t a re b e in g now e la b o ra te d by th e p ro sp e ro u s pueblo

a t Taos sim ply fo llo w th e a c c r e t iv e p a t te r n s th a t one may

see in th e two la rg e compact u n i t s a t K in istib a . Taos

ach iev es h e ig h t r a th e r c o n f id e n tly , how ever, and i t may be

th a t a l i e n m a te r ia l can be found in i t . Given very l i t t l e

economic s t a b i l i t y , th e co n se rv a tism o f th e se pueblo groups

may r e t a i n much o f t h e i r outw ard s im i l a r i t y to a n c ie n t form -

l i f e . A rc h i te c tu r a l form s u s u a l ly soon lo s e t h e i r e s s e n t i a l

m eaning, b u t th e y seldom , w ith th a t ', g iv e up t h e i r f l e x i ­

b i l i t y . Because a b o r ig in a l a r c h i te c tu r e grew up in th e

Southw est, a p p a re n tly f r e e from a l l o u ts id e m o d if ic a tio n ,

i

-Y?-

i t i s in d ig e n o u s , a p p ro p r ia te , and, as i t happens, e n d le s s ly

v a r ia b le and a d a p ta b le f o r the needs o f th o se who sup­

p la n te d a b o r ig in a l b u i ld e r s . In a very h ig h c u l tu r e , where

b u ild in g rem ains in th e hands o f c r a f t - c o n t r o l , th e s e r i c h

p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c l im a tic ad ju s tm en t, h e a l th , d e s ig n , and

b eau ty co u ld be a t ta c k e d ,a n d developed f o r a l l a r c h i t e c tu r a l

need . In a s o c ie ty s t i f f e n e d by r i g i d economic r a th e r th a n

g u ild c o n t ro l , such a m odu la tion o f l iv in g i s n o t p o s s ib le .

For t h i s re a so n , p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h i te c tu r e , where i t i s a

com plete enough s tu d y , sh ou ld be r e ta in e d . As a d a p ta t io n s

fo r u s , O ra ib i and p a r t i c u l a r l y Walpi may have a f u t u r e .—

Pueblo B onito has n o t .

I

Young s o c i e t i e s , when th e y have ach ieved an a r c h i t e c tu r a l

form th a t s a t i s f i e s t h e i r in te n t io n , p ro ceed s w if t ly to make

over t h e i r e n t i r e w o rld . E v ery th in g g o es , and th e f i r s t

th in g to go i s th e o ld b u i ld in g . But s in ce th e o ld b u i ld in g s

were them selves a form o f th e s e a rc h , som ething o f them su r­

v iv e s . In p r im it iv e s o c ie t i e s th e s e p a ra tio n o f th e q u a r te r s

f o r women i s o f te n met w ith ,, even among th e nomads. The

se p a ra te work -room and. r e t i r i n g p la c e fo r men in th e South-

w est may p o s s ib ly be a con fo rm ation to t h i s p a t t e r n . In th e

c o n t in e n ta l M ed ite rran ean house th e p r a c t ic e was m arked, and

m a in ta in ed i t s e l f in v e s t i g i a l form fo r lo n g a f t e r th e sym­

bo lism o f th e use was f o r g o t t e n . The women's q u a r te r becomes

th e c e l l a t h a t d isa p p e a rs in tim e in th e t r ib u n a . Thus, ag a in ,

th e e a r ly home h e lp ed to shape th e a r c h i te c tu r e o f h i s t o r i c

form . In th e Mayan descendance, th e sequence i s more d i f f i c u l t

to fo llo w . But I th in k th a t more v e s t i g i a l wood form s u r ­

v iv a ls m ight be found in l a t e Mayan a r c h i t e c tu r a l d e c o ra tio n

th a n have su rv iv ed in th e c o n v e n tio n a l p ic tu r e o f fu n c t io n a l

d e c o ra t io n . Thetwood t h a t was u sed fo r th e Mayan home i s

p l e n t i f u l , v a r ie d , m a lle a b le and capab le o f e x tra o rd in a ry

f i n i s h e s . The wood c a rv in g o f th e lo c a le , a n c ie n t and m odern,

shows t h a t . The use o f s t r u c t u r a l wood by th e peop le o f the

p re s e n t tim e m ight p e rm it o f th e ana logy . The d e c o ra tiv e

p a l is a d in g and th e d e c o ra tiv e l a t t i c e s th a t appear in Mayan

s to n e work on l a t e b u ild in g s can be seen in som ething th a t

s tro n g ly su g g e s ts them in so u th e rn San L u is P o to s i in

modern tim e s . T his i s a u n iv e r s a l r e s u l t o f th e u se o f

s im ila r m a te r ia l .

The aim o f t h i s p ap e r looked more to th e developm ent

th an to th e sou rces o f p r e h i s t o r i c so u th w este rn a r c h i ­

t e c t u r e . The problem o f i t s so u rce s l i e in th e f i e l d

o f e x c a v a tio n , r a th e r th an in th e f i e l d o f ana logy .

But R oberts can s t i l l p o in t ou t "unm istakab le" r e l a t i o n s

o f th e e a r ly p i t house to p ith o u s e s t h a t have been ex­

amined in S ib e r ia . These a s s e v e ra t io n s w i l l p ro b ab ly

grow to be o f l e s s moment as th e c la im s f o r d i s t r i b u t i v e ,

o r fo re ig n o r ig in s f o r th e p r e h i s t o r i c so u th w este rn f o lk

su b s id e .

1In t h i s s tu d y we have v ery b r i e f l y seen som ething o f

th e a r c h i t e c tu r a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e p r e h i s t o r i c c u l tu re o f

th e S ou thw est. There has been a g lance a t th e ad ju stm en ts

fo llo w in g coming o f a se d en ta ry l i f e t h a t g ra d u a l ly en­

croached on th e m ig ra tio n s around communal co rn p la n t in g .

T his ad ju stm en t to o k p la c e c l e a r ly in th e caves o f th e San

Juan R iver D ra inage , a lth o u g h i t can now be fo llo w ed w ith

in c re a s in g accuracy in th e G ila V a lley , and e lsew h ere .

G radual improvement in th e m echanics o f b u ild in g to o k p la c e

long b e fo re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c form o f th e e s s e n t i a l u n i t , th e

r e c ta n g u la r su rfa ce room was ach iev ed . .This ad ju stm en t

p assed th ro u g h th e s ta g e s o f th e c i r c u l a r , th e t r a n s i t i o n a l

and th e r e c ta n g u la r p i th o u s e , to th e su rfa c e s t r u c t u r e .

The sm all house i s always th e -p r im i t iv e home, b u t in th e

Southw est th e sm all house em erges from i t s developm ent in

th e n o r th e a s te rn San Juan co u n try in perm anent a s s o c ia t io n

w ith a d e f i n i t e l y form ed cerem onial, chamber t h a t rem ains in

most a r e a s , b u t n o t in a l l a r e a s , c i r c u l a r . I t fu n c tio n s

as an e s o te r ic r e l ig i o u s m eeting p la c e , as a c o u n c il

chamber, as a p la c e o f co n tem p la tiv e and r e c r e a t io n a l r e ­

t r e a t , and fo r some c r a f t s , as a w orkshop. As a r e l ig io u s

b u ild in g i t has an e la b o ra te symbolism t h a t rem ains f a i r l y

c o n s ta n t, a lth o u g h th e re a re c la n v a r i a t io n s in p o s i t io n ,

shape, p u rp o se , and f i n i s h o f th e form , e s p e c ia l ly in th e

K ayenta. T h is symbolism and th e l i t u r g i c a l fu n c tio n o f

th e b u ild in g o b ta in th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e h i s t o r y , and e x i s t

today in c e r t a in e s s e n t ia l . f o r m s . When, a f t e r th e house ac­

q u ired form in th e u n i t ty p e house, i t was ta k e n up and

adap ted to c o n d i t io n s o f g r e a te r p o p u la tio n . For the s e c u la r

b u ild in g t h i s le d to no g r e a t m o d if ic a t io n , b u t fo r the k iv a

i t le d to a m o d if ic a tio n o f th e e s o te r ic c la n r e l ig io u s

fu n c tio n in th e sm all b u i ld in g . The k iv a form was e n la rg e d ,

in some p la c e s v ery g r e a t ly e n la rg e d , to what appears to have

been a p u b lic m eeting p la c e . At th e same tim e the s e c u la r

s t r u c tu r e s were m assed, p o s s ib le in some p la c e s f o r d e fe n se ,

to house p o p u la tio n s o f about two thousand th e u n i t . The

p e r io d o f in te n s e b u ild in g seems to have a r i s e n s w if t ly ,

developed r a p id ly , and ended sudden ly . I t was in a l l p la c e s

on a d e c lin e by th e C onquest. There were p e r ip h e ra l f l o t ­

a t io n s , some in th e L i t t l e C olorado , th e Mimbres, th e Rio

Grande, th e G ila d ra in ag e th a t were rem ark ab le , and a l l a re

o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t . But th e c e n t r a l th e a t r e o f th e whole

t r a g i c drama i s th e d ra in a g e o f th e San Juan R iv e r .

A Survey o f P r e h i s to r i c S ou thw estern A rc h ite c tu re .

B ib lio g rap h y

I Books.

I I Museum and U n iv e r s i ty P u b l ic a t io n s .

American Museum o f N a tu ra l H is to ry , New York. C arnegie I n s t i t u t e , W ashington.F ie ld Columbian Museum, C hicago.G ila P u eb lo , Globe.Museum o f th e American In d ia n , Heye F oundation The N a tio n a l Museum, W ashington.Peabody Museum o f American A rchaeology and E thno logy , Cambridge.The U n iv e r s ity o f A rizona B u l le t in .

I l l The A rch aeo lo g ica l I n s t i t u t e o f Am erica.

The American Jo u rn a l o f A rchaeology. The School o f American R esea rch .

IV J o u rn a ls .

V M agazines.

VI C o n s u lta t io n s .

V II F ie ld and L ec tu re N o te s .

V III Maps

I Books

B e n ed ic t, Ruths P a t te r n s o f C u ltu re .B oston , Houghton, M if f l in Company, 1934.

B o lto n , H e rb e r t, E ugene: O utpost o f Em pire.Hew York, A lfre d A. Knopf, 1931.

Caywood, L o u is:S p ic e r , Edward: The E x cav atio n and R ep a ir o f a Ruin on

th e Verde R iv er n ea r C la rk d a le , A rizona. Works P ro g re ss A d m in is tra tio n , Mimeograph.

Prudden, M itc h e l l : On th e G reat American P la te a u .New York, G. P u tnam 's Sons, 1907.

K idder, A lfred^ V in cen t, An In tro d u c tio n to th e S tudyo f Sou thw estern A rchaeology.New Haven, Y ale U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1924.

H ew ett, Edgar Lee: A ncien t L ife in th e American S outhw est.I n d ia n a p o l is , Bohbs, M e r r i l l Company, 1930

S p ie r , L e s l ie : Yum an T rib e s on th e G ila R iv e r .C hicago, U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P re s s ,1933.

I I Books

A. The American Museum o f N a tu ra l H is to ry , New York. 1 . A n th ro p o lo g ica l P a p e rs .

V ol. XVII, p a r t 3 . S p ie r , L e s l ie .An O u tlin e fo r th e Chronology o f th e Zuni R u in s.P a r t 4 . S p ie r , L e s l ie .N otes on Some L i t t l e Colorado R u in s.

B. The C arnegie I n s t i t u t e , W ashington.

C. The F ie ld Columban Museum, W ashington. '1 . A n th ro p o lo g ica l S e r ie s .

V ol. VI, No. 1 , V oth, H. R.The Stanley-M cCorm ick Hop! E x p e d itio n .

D. G ila P ueb lo , G lobe, A rizona.The M ed a llio n .

1928 The Use o f P o tsh e rd s in an A rch aeo lo g ica l Survey,A Method f o r th e D es ig n a tio n o f R uins in th e S ou thw est.

1929 The R ed-on -bu ff C u ltu re o f th e G ila B as in .1930 An A rch aeo lo g ica l Survey o f th e Verde V a lle y .

The R ed-on -bu ff C u ltu re o f th e P ap ag u e ria .1931 The W estern Range o f the R ed -o n -b u ff C u ltu re .

R o o sev e lt 9:6* -Some S ou thw este rn P o t te ry Types, S e r ie s I I .K ivas o f th e Tusayan R uin, Grand Canyon.

1934 The Canyon Creek Ruin and th e C l i f f D w ellings o f th e S ie r r a Ancha.

1935 An A rc h ae o lo g ica l Survey o f Texas.

E . Museum o f th e American In d ia n , Heye F o u n d atio n .1 . In d ia n N o tes .

V ol. I I , No. 2 , 125 , 1925. H a rrin g to n , Mr. M. RA rch aeo lo g ica l Re­sea rch es in Nevada.

V ol. I l l , No. 4 , 172 1926. H a rrin g to n , M. R.P r e h i s to r i c Pueblo R uins in A rizona. H arring ton ,M . R. Another A ncient S a l t Mine in Nevada.

V ol. I l l , No. 4 , 231 ,

V ol. IV, No. 3 , 232 , 1927. S c h e llb a o t , L ou is ,Ancient Bundle of Snares from Nevada.

F. T h e ,N a tio n a l Museum.1 . Annual R e p o rts , The Bureau of. American

E th n o lo g y .-X II I , 1896. M in d e le ff , Cosmo, Casa Grand© R uin. XXVII, 1907. Fewkes, W alte r, T h e .A n tiq u itie s

o f th e Upper Verde R iver; and Wal­n u t Creek. V a lle y s , A rizona.

2 . B u l le t in s32 .1906 . H ew ett, E dgar, A n t iq u i t ie s o f th e Jemez ■;;; : : P la te a u . ; .. . ■ . .65 .1919 . K idder, A lfre d V in c e n t.

G uernsey, Samuel: A rch aeo lo g ica l Ex­p lo r a t io n in N o rth e a s te rn A rizona, 1914- 1915.

70 .1919 . Fewkes, W. J . , P r e h i s to r ic V il la g e s , C a s t le s , and Towers o f S ou thw estern C olorado .

81 .1923 . Jeancon , J . A. E x cav atio n in th e Chama V a lley , New-Mexico . :

96 .1930 . R o b e rts , F . H. H. E a r ly Pueblo R uins in th e P ie d ra D i s t r i c t , S ou thw estern Colorado

3 . P ro ceed in g s o f th e U n ited S ta te s N a tio n a l Museum.V ol. 55, No; 2280, 409 , Nought W a lte r.

E x p lo ra tio n o f a P ith d u se V illa g e a t • Luna, New M exico.

V ol. 70 , No. 2740, 399 , 1922, Judd, N. M., .... The Chama Canyon P ith o u s e s . ‘

V ol. 72 , No. 2609, 421 , 1919. Fewkes, W alter J .Two Types o f S ou thw estern P ith o u s e s .

V ol. 78 , 2865, 106 ,1 9 2 6 . H a rrin g to n , M: R. R esea rch es in th e A rchaeology o f S ou thern C a l i f o rn ia , 1925.

V ol. 78 , No. 2865, 1 , 1930, Hough, W a lte r.The E x p lo ra tio n o f R uins in th e White M ountain Apache In d ia n R e s e rv a tio n .

V ol. 78 , No ; , 2 0 7 ,, 1930. Judd, N. M. \ I n v e s t ig a t io n s in th e Chaco Canyon,New M exico.

4 . .Annual R e p o rts .1. R eport to th e Board o f Regents o f th e

Sm ithson ian I n s t i t u t i o n , 1903, Hough, W. A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work in n o r th e a s te rn A rizona, The Museum G ates E x p e d itio n , 1901.

2. R eport to th e S e c re ta ry o f th e I n t e r i o r , 1909 Fewkes, W a lte r, Randolph, H. M.The R e s to ra t io n o f C l i f f P a la c e .

5 . The S m ithson ian I n s t i t u t i o n M isce llan eo u s C o l le c t io n s .1921, V ol. 70, No. 3 ,-2 5 3 6 , Judd , N. M. '

A rch aeo lo g ica l I n v e s t ig a t io n a t Paragonah , U tah , 1919.No. 2 , 2536, Fewkes, W a lte r.A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work in S ou thw estern

- Colorado and U tah, 1918.: _ . • - - - - . . . '

1921, V ol. 72, No 1 , 2706, Judd ,IN . M.A rch aeo lo g ica l I n v e s t ig a t io n in U tah and A rizona, 1922.No. ,2 7 0 6 , Fewkes, W alte r. .A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work on th e Mesa Verde N a tio n a l P a rk , C olorado , 1922.No. 1 , 2706, Hough, W a lte r. •A rch aeo lo g ica l E x cav atio n in A rizona, 1922.No. 6, 2619, 1922, Fewkes, W alte r.F ie ld Work in th e Mesa Verde N a tio n a l P ark , 1920.No. 6, 2619, Judd, N. M.A rch aeo lo g ica l I n v e s t ig a t io n in U tah , New M exico, and A rizona, 1920.No. 15, 2669, 1922, Fewkes, W alte r. A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work on th e Mesa Verde N a tio n a l P a rk , 1921.

1925, V ol. 74, No. 5, 2821, 1922, Fewkes, W alte r.A rc h ae o lo g ica l F ie ld Work on. th e Mesa Verde N a tio n a l P a rk , 1922.

192 , V ol. 77, No. 5 , , Judd, N. M.The E xcavation and R ep a ir o f B e ta ta k in , 1930.

192 , V ol. 78, No. , 2865, 1927, Judd, N.M.A rc h aeo lo g ica l I n v e s t ig a t io n a t Pueblo B onito and* Pueblo d e l A rroyo, New M exico, 1926 No. , 2912, Judd , N.M.A rch aeo lo g ica l I n v e s t ig a t io n in Chaco Canyon, 1926.

192 , V o l. 82, No. 11, 3069, 1931, Haury, Em il, and H arg raves, L. L . , R ecen tly D ated Pueblo Ruins in A rizona.

G. H arvard U n iv e r s i ty .1 . P apers o f th e Peabody Museum o f American

A rchaeology and E thno logy , Cambridge.

V ol. X II , No. 1 , 122 , 1931, G uernsey, SamuelE x p lo ra tio n s in N o rth e a s te rn A rizona.

_ , V ol. X II , No. 2 , 1931, M orss, N oel,N otes on th e A rchaeology o f

- : . - . ' th e K a ib ito and Rainbow P la te a uin A rizona, R eport o f th e E x p e d itio n , 1927.

V ol. XV, No. 1 , 170, , 1932, Cosgrove, H. S. and • ' 1 . . C. B. , The Sw artz R uin . A

T yp ica l Mimbres S i t e , 1924-27.- V- • • • ' - : . • , ' -• r- - . - . _ .• . . i . , ,

H. U n iv e r s i ty o f A rizona B u l le t in .1 . G eo lo g ica l Survey S e r ie s .'

B u l le t in No. 3 , B arto n , N. H. ,J A Resume o f A rizona Geology.

2 . T h esis .. , .Haury, a n i l . . House Types in th e Pueblo A rea,

V ■ 1928.

I l l The A rch aeo lo g ica l I n s t i t u t e o f Am erica.A. The American Jo u rn a l o f A rchaeology.

B. Annual R e p o r ts .V. 1880- , B a n d e lie r , A. F . , R eports f o r

1882-1883; 1883-1884.

C. The School o f American A rchaeology.1 . A rch aeo lo g ica l P a p e rs .

No. I l l , R e p rin t from th e A. J . A ., V ol. X III , 334-344, 1909.H ew ett, E dgar.The P a ja r i t a n C u ltu re .

No. IV, R ep rin ted from Out West, 1909.H ew ett, E dgar.The Puye.

No. V, Hew ett, E dgar. -The E x cav a tio n o f Tyuoni, New M exico, in 1908.

No. X, R e p rin t from th e A .A ., V ol. I I , No. 4 , ......... 651-673,

The E x cav a tio n o f E l R ito de lo s F r i j o l e s , 1909.

2 . E l P a la c io .V ol. XXXIX, Nos. 16, 17, 18 , Fossnock, A rn e tte ,

P ic to g ra p h s and M urals in th e S outhw est. V ol. XXXII, No. 9 , Cummings, Byron,

Three Types o f C u ltu re in One P u eb lo .

IV Jo u rn a lsA. The American A n th ro p o lo g is t.

1 . M emoirs.V ol. 1 , 104 , C o lto n , R. F . and H. S.

The L ittle -k n o w n Small House R uins in th e Coconino F o re s t , 1906.

3 , P rudden, M itc h e l l ,A F u r th e r S tudy in th e P r e h i s to r ic Small House R uins in th e San Juan W atershed. ;

2 . New S e r ie s . 1 * . . ,. V ol. v , 224 , 1903V Prudden, M itc h e l l .

• • The P r e h i s to r ic R uins in th eSan Juan W atershed.

V ol. XVI, 33 ,' 1914, P rudden, M itc h e l l .The C irc u la r House Kiva in th e Small House Ruins in th e San Juan W atershed.

V ol. XVII, 272 -, 1917, Cummings,Byron,K ivas o f th e San Juan D ra in ag e .

V ol. XXXI, 213 , , S p ie r , L e s l ie ,Problem s A ris in g from th e C u ltu ra l P o s i t io n o f th e H avasupai.

V ol. XXXII, , 1930, Hawley, F lo re n c e ,P r e h i s to r ic P o t te ry and C u ltu re Areas in th e M iddle G ila .

V ol. XXXVII, 1 , 1934, R o b e rts , F . H. H. J r . ,A Survey o f S ou thw estern A rchaeology.

547 , 1935, E ro eb e r,H is to ry and S cience in A nthropology.

B. American A n tiq u ity .V ol. 1 , No. 1 , 1935, A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work in

N orth America in 1934. I .V ol. 1, No. 2 , A rch aeo lo g ica l F ie ld Work in

N o rth America in 1934, I I .V ol. 1, No. 3 , 1936, C lem ents, F o r r e s t ,

N otes on A rch aeo lo g ica l M ethods.

V. M agazines.

A. The N a tio n a l G eographic .V ol. X L III, No. 2 , 210 , 1923, B ernheim er, C h arles

C irc l in g Navajo M ountain w ith a Pack T ra in .

V ol. XLIV, No. 1, 99 , 1923, Judd , N. M.Pueblo B o n ito , th e A ncien t.

V ol. XLV, No. 3 , 275 , 1924, Judd , N. M.Beyond the C lay H i l l s .

V ol. XLVIII, No. 3 , 263 , , M o rris , E a r l H.E x p lo rin g th e Canyon o f D eath .

V ol. LVI, No. 6, 737, 1929, D ouglas, A. E.The S e c re t o f th e Southw est Told in T a lk a tiv e Tree R in g s.

B. A rt and A rchaeology.

V ol. IX, No. 1 , 27 , , Cummings, Byron.The N a tio n a l Monuments o f A rizona

VI C o n s u lta t io n s .

V II F ie ld T rip s

V III Maps

B a s a l t f r a g m e n t o f a n o l d w a l l , l a r g r e b l o c k s a n d s m a l l s t o n e s i n a p o o r l y c o n s t r u c t ­e d c o u r s e .

S m i t h s o n i a n M i s c e l l a n e o u s C o l l e c t i o n Y o l 8 2 , 3 0 6 9 , M o . 1 1 H a u r y - H a r g r a v e s R e c e n t l y D a t e d P u e b l o R u i n s i n A r i z o n a

T a k e n f r o m " R o o s e v e l t 9 : 6 " . The M e d a l l i o n P u b l i c a t i o n s , G i l a P u e b l o .

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A W a l l o f W a t t l e a n d M u d . F o r b i d d i n g C a n y o n , S i t e XIX

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