a study on distribution, relative abundance and food
TRANSCRIPT
A STUDY ON DISTRIBUTION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND FOOD HABITS OF
LEOPARD (Panthera pardus) IN GARHWAL HIMALAYAS.
TECHNICAL REPORT
(December 1999–July 2000)
A study on distribution, relative abundance and food
habits of leopard (Panthera pardus ) in Garhwal Himalayas.
Technical Report
(December 1999–July 2000)
Researcher Principal Investigator
Devendra Singh Chauhan Dr. S. P. Goyal
RS & GIS Personnel
Dr. Manoj K. Agrawal
Rajesh Thapa
Other Collaborator:
Forest Department
Uttar Pradesh
POST BOX #18, CHANDRABANI
DEHRADUN -248001
September 2000
Contact for suggestions and comments [email protected]
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
2. OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................. 2
4. METHODS...................................................................................................................... 3
4.1. Major habitat assessment................................................................................ 3
4.2. To determine the pattern of leopard deaths
in Pauri Garhwal district ................................................................................... 4
4.3. To determine the extent and severity of leopard-man conflict in
Pauri tehsil ........................................................................................................ 4
4.4. To determine the age & sex ratio of leopard's victims and seasonal ....
pattern of leopard attacks on human in Pauri Garhwal district ................... 4
4.5.Quantifying the situations under which leopard attacks made...................... 4
4.6. Food habit of leopard across the forest in Pauri Garhwal district ................ 5
4.7. To know the local people view on leopard-human conflict problem ............ 5
5. PROJECT ACTIVITIES................................................................................................. 5
6. FINDINGS
6.1. Habit characterizations in Pauri tehsil ........................................................... 6
6.2. Analysis of leopard deaths ............................................................................. 6
6.3. Leopard predation on human ......................................................................... 7
6.3.1.The rate of predation on human........................................................7
6.3.2. Extent and severity of predation on human in Pauri tehsil............. 8
6.3.3.Relationship between leopard predation on human and
number of animal killed ......................................................................8
6.3.4. Variation in sex and age of leopard victims ...................................11
6.3.5 Leopard attack in relation to season & day of the time..................13
6.3.6.Leopard attack in relation to habitat condition and
location of house ...............................................................................16
6.3.7. Leopard attack in relation to other condition..................................18
6.4.Analysis of leopard-livestockconflict ...............................................................19
7. FUTURE PLAN............................................................................................................20
1
1. INTRODUCTION
“The real king of the beast “ states Jean Pierre Hallet in Animal Kitabu “is the
leopard” not as thoroughly studied as the lions, man’s fascination with leopard may
spring from it elusive habit, its air of mystery and its aura of danger. The most
adaptable and hence widely distributed of all the big cats, the leopard has habituated
to live near human due to changes in land use pattern. Leopard is found throughout
sub–Saharan Africa and Southern Asia with scattered populations in China and
North Africa. Its habitat requirement is few: some cover and enough of prey.
Temperature, terrain, flora and other predator are of little concern. Leopard is
adapted to live well in savannah, rain forest, mountain elevation, dense vegetation,
low scrub and thickets and even quite close to city. Things which make leopard most
successful predator is (i) ability to adapt and remain elusive and unseen in most
adverse of habitat, and (ii) flexibility of behavior with respect to boldness and timidity
(Daniel, 1996).
The most conspicuous attributes of leopards are their flexible diets, they are known
as ecological generalists rather then specialist. They are not specialized like tiger,
cheetah and lion. Leopard can survive by feeding on large and small prey species.
Leopard as a species is classified by IUCN (1978) as vulnerable because of threats
it is facing: (i) the leopard is killed for its valuable skin. (ii) it is killed because its
conflict with human and his domestic interest. (iii) it is threatened by ever diminishing
available wild habitat. These threats have increased recently. An interesting point in
leopard conservation policy is that a large numbers of leopard are inhabiting in those
unprotected areas where there is no clear-cut management objectives as well as
lack of protection. Among a few detailed studies in Asia, species has been studied
by direct observation or by monitoring radio collared animals in Wilpattu National
Park, Ceylon (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972), dry tropical forest of Thailand
(Rabinowitz, 1989), Chitawan National Park, Nepal (Seidensticker et al., 1990) and
Sanjaya Gandhi National Park, India (Edgaonkar and Chellam, 1998).
People find leopard an intolerable nuisance in Garhwal hills in Uttar Predesh, India.
Leopard-man conflict has been reported from all over the Garhwal hills. Pauri
Garhwal is one of the worst affected (Negi, 1996). Alone in Pauri district, leopards
have killed 141 human since 1988 to August 2000. Although leopard attacks on
human are not new in the Garhwal, legendary hunter Jim Corbett killed a dozen of
2
leopards as a man-eater in Garhwal and Kumaon but problem was not panic at that
time. In the past, leopards rarely turned man-eater but now situation is different as
they are killing human throughout the year. Increase in higher frequencies of
leopard-human conflicts during last decade may be due to accelerating trends in
habitat fragmentation, decline in potential habitats, scarcity of wild prey base,
predominantly feeding on domestic species leads to come more closely to human
and to some extent may be due to increase of local leopard population.
Leopard is not a man-eater by the nature, logically leopards turn man-eater due to
some physical fitness problem, which make them uncomfortable to kill wild animals,
and they find human beings easier. But this hypothesis is not seems to be true in
present context, leopards which were killed officially as a man-eater in Pauri
Garhwal, most of them were not having any abnormalities. Local villagers opined
that in the past, leopards were timid by nature but now they are frequently roaming in
the area even in during day time and often stray into villages and towns in the search
of prey. A change in leopard behavior to become extremely bold has been noticed
due to habitat disturbance and loss of prey species. Leopards are also killed by
poison. Alone in Pauri, 93 leopards were killed in past 12 years, unofficial numbers
could be high. Its difficult to apprehend the villagers who are motivated by the belief
that leopards are regularly attacking and killing livestock and human. Among
Garhwal peoples opinion, increasing leopard-human conflict is being presented as
justification for the elimination of the cat. Leopard–human conflict cases have
increased in recent past, but it does not mean to wage a war against a whole
species. Corresponding killing of leopards has lead to another fear that species
might be entirely wiped out from these hills. But what needed is to look at the causes
behind these incidents.
Leopards are not uncommon in the forest across the Pauri, their food consist of wild
prey species such as goral, barking deer, wild boar, jungle fowl and monkey but due
to severe human pressure mainly hunting, cattle grazing, fire wood collection, forest
fire, deforestation and habitat alteration, most of these prey species are either locally
extinct or their numbers are too low to sustain the existing number of leopards. All
these and other factors have put animal like leopards under pressure to survive.
Unable to find their natural prey in diminishing forest, leopards have been making
regular visit in the villages and town to prey upon domestic animals and often
3
encountered with man. There have been instances where people were injured during
defend their livestock from leopard.
This Project is proposed to understand leopard status in Pauri Garhwal by collecting
information on distribution, relative abundance and food habit in relation to land use
patterns and human disturbance.
2. OBJECTIVES
The aims of the proposed study on leopard in Garhwal Himalayas are:
1. To study current status, distribution and relative abundance in relation to habitat
characteristics (terrain and vegetation).
2. To study food habits in relation to prey (wild and domestic).
3. To prepare long-term research project to study behaviour and ecology of leopard
in order to suggest measures to reduce leopard-man conflicts.
3. STUDY AREA
Pauri Garhwal District (29° 20’ N-30° 15' N and 78°10' E -79°20' E) of 5444 km2 is
selected for the present study (Fig.1). Pauri Garhwal ranges between lower to middle
Himalayan ranges and elevation reaches up to 3200 m. Politically it has been divided
into 15 administrative blocks.
There is great variation in nature of soul, precipitation, rocks, topography, climate
and corresponding vegetation features. Gaur and Bartwal (1993) classified forests of
a Pauri Garhwal in to Sub –Montane (Tropical & Subtropical), Montane (Temperate)
broad leaves, and Gymnospermous. Each forest was further sub divided into five to
twelve sub – forest types.
Climatically the area is divided into three distinct season viz. rainy season (June to
September), winter (October to February), summer (March to May).
4
5
4. METHODS
4.1. Major habitat assessment
Habitat condition assessment done through ground truthing on Remote Sensing
Data Imageries and then coincided with grids survey records. A broad vegetation
types map with status of leopard problem was generated.
4.2. To determine the pattern of leopard deaths in Pauri Garhwal District
We collected data on leopard deaths from Forest Department records, and death
patterns was quantified by two ways: (i) leopards killed officially as man-eater, and
(ii) leopards killed by villagers/found dead around man-eating areas. Data were
interpreted with respect to season and sex.
4.3. To determine extent and severity of leopard-man conflict problems
We planned to survey 6 blocks (Pauri, Kot, Khirsu, Pabau, Kalgikhal and Thalisain)
in Pauri tehsil and 9 blocks (Dhugadda, Yamkeshwar, Jahrikhal, Bironkhal,
Ekeshwar, Nanidanda Pokhra Dwarikhal and Rikhnikhal) in Lansdown tehsil of Pauri
Garhwal district.
Leopard being, solitary, nocturnal and elusive, it is difficult to obtain direct
information. Therefore village survey was found to be best ways and cost effective to
get information on leopard distribution and extent of severity of leopard-man
conflicts. Pauri Garhwal district was d
done in three or four villages from each grid forming > 50 % villages.
Questionnaires were designed to obtain information on all aspects related to
leopard-man conflict (Annexure-I), including habitat assessment for leopard and prey
species. Habitat data were also obtained through observations and interviews with
local residents. We noted major threats and included as evidence of hunting,
deforestation and relative abundance of guns among villagers. If haunting is factor,
we also tried to learn how wide spread the problem.
4.4. To determine the age and sex ratio of leopard's victims and seasonal
pattern of leopard attacks on human
Leopard’s victims data were taken from Forest Department records and interpreted
with respect to sex and age and to different seasons. Severity of problem for each
season was quantified and Chi Square Test was used for statistical significance.
6
4.5. Quantifying the situations under which leopard attacks made
All places where leopards attacked on human during our project survey work were
visited and details of each incident were obtained. A search operation was
conducted around each incident spot for the knowing of responsible leopard’s sex
and other biological conditions. We made tracings of pugmarks.
4.6. Food habit of leopard across the forest in Pauri Garhwal District
Scats were collected from each surveyed grid. Scats will be examined in reference to
wild and domestic prey species. Prey species will be identified based on the
microscopic hair analysis, and presence of bone fragments, teeth nails and other
hard parts as described by Grobler & Wilson (1972) and Mukherjee et al.(1994).
Species diversity in scats will be determined by Simpson's diversity index as follows:
S =1/ Ó pi2
where pi is the portion of pray species found in scats.
4.7. To know the local people view on leopard-human conflict problems
During our survey work, we talked many persons including local villagers, forest
official, hunters and social workers and tried to know their opinion on increasing
leopard-human conflict problems in hills. Their suggestions for overcome the
problems were also noted.
5. PROJECT ACTIVITIES
The report is based on six months of the project and details are as follows:
Activities
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
ch
Apr
il
May
June
July
Collection of information on leopard-man conflict from published data and review literature on leopard
Orientation in Rajaji National Park
Arrangement of equipment
Questionnaires formation for survey work
Field work
Habitat assessment
7
6. FINDINGS
6.1. Habitat characterization in Pauri tehsil
Based on dominating plant species, we broadly classified vegetation in Pauri
Garhwal as follows:
Vegetation type Characteristics
1. Pine forest. Dominating by pine.(Pinus roxburghii and Pinus wallichiana)
2. Pine + oak. Dominating by pine along with oak.
3. Degraded pine forest Degraded pine along with scrub.
4. Pine + conifer forest Pine along with conifers.
5.Devdar forest Dominating by devdar (Cedrus deodara)
6. Oak forest Dominating by oak mainly, Quercus leucotrichophora and Q. incana
7. Oak + pine Oak along with pine.
8. Scrub. Dominating by many shrub species viz. Lantana Eupatorium and Xanthium etc.
During our survey, we did ground truthing of 60 points for vegetation characteristics
and latitude-longitudes were noted by GPS. Extent and distribution of leopard-human
conflict problems have coincided with different habitat in False color composite
image, and low and high infected zone were detected (Fig. 2).
6.2. Analysis of leopard deaths
Leopard deaths in Pauri Garhwal have been either killed as man-eater declared
officially or found dead/ killed by villagers around man-eating areas. Since 1987,
ninety leopards have been reported either killed as man-eater or found dead/ killed
by villagers (Fig. 3). During last five years, 12-15 leopards have been killed or found
8
dead in each year alone in Pauri Garhwal. It is difficult to ascertain, whether there
was less problems before 1995 or information was not recorded.
9
Figure 3. Numbers of leopards killed as man-eater or found dead/ killed.
6.3. Leopard predation on human
6.3.1. Rate of predation on human
Based on Forest Department information, 140 human have been killed by leopards
alone in Pauri Garhwal since 1988.Over the years, number of leopard victims ranged
2 to 22 per year. During last couple of years number of such incidences have
increased and ranged from 12 to 22, human per year (Fig.4).
Figure 4. Number of human killed by leopards since 1988 in Pauri Garhwal
n = 9 0
0123456789
1 087 89 91 93 95 97 99
Y e a r s
Num
ber o
f leo
pard
dea
ths
M a n - e a t e r k i l l e d
F o u n d d e a d / k i l l e d
n=140
0
5
10
15
20
25
19
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
20
00
Year
Hu
ma
n b
ein
gs
kille
d b
y le
op
ard
10
6.3.2. Extent and severity of leopard predation on human in Pauri tehsil
We surveyed 554 villages (large and small) in Pauri tehsil. Among the surveyed
villages, 17% are affected as leopard predation on human, where Pabau block was
reported to be severely affected by such problems (Fig.5).
n=554
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Pau
ri
Pab
au
Khi
rsu
Ko
t
The
lisai
n
Kal
gikh
alBlocks in Pauri tehsil
Num
ber
of v
illag
e af
fect
ed
Figure 5. Extent of leopard predation on human in Pauri tehsil
6.3.3. Relationship between predation on human and number of leopard killed
Severity of leopard-man conflict problem as predation on human based on Forest
Department data is not uniform among the blocks (Fig.6). Blocks Pabau and Pauri
are severely affected. Alone in Pabau, leopards killed 28 human between 1996 and
1997. Presently, problem is panic in the Pauri block. Leopard has killed 6 human and
injured 2 with in last ten months. Forest Department has killed 4 leopards as a man-
eater in the same area but incidents are still happening there. There is trend in
increase in human death in Pauri (Fig.6). A large number of leopards (50%) have
been killed alone in Pabau where as remaining 50% have been killed in other blocks.
There is recent increase man-eater killed in Pauri block (Fig.7).
11
n=64
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
Num
ber o
f hum
an
deat
hs
Pauri
Pabau
khirsu
kot
Thelisain
Kalgikhal
Figure 6. Distribution of human death in Pauri tehsil
Figure 7. Distribution of leopard deaths in Pauri tehsil
n=58
01
23
456
789
10
1989
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
Pauri
Pabau
khirsu
kot
Thelisain
Kalgikhal
12
A close analysis of number leopards and human beings killed in Pauri block
indicates severity of leopard predation on human during 1995-1997 (Fig. 8). It
appears that around Pabau, there could be high survival rate of cubs and acquired
hunting behaviour by mother could be one of the reasons of high incidences of
human predation. Pabau area is surrounded by relatively good forest and provided
good cover to increase in leopard population ( Fig.2 ). Once the majority of man-
eating leopards in that area were killed by 1998, there are no recent reports of
leopard predation on human. In other areas, probably one or two leopards are
predating on human and conflict is being checked by killing them as man-eater. We
suspect that there is probably increase in leopard population around Pauri block.
Thus , there is a strong need to understand predation and social behaviour of
leopard which will be undertaken during long term study.
Figure 8. Relationship between human and leopard deaths in Pabau block
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
human
leopard
13
6.4.4. Variation in sex and age of leopard victims
Of the 126 leopard victims (based on Forest Department record), 66% were females.
In the hills, females have responsibility to do all the work, thus there is high
probability of encountering with leopard then males (Fig.9).
Figure 9. Proportion of male and female in leopard victims
(Source: Forest Department).
Based on 19 victims observed during my survey, this also corroborates with forest
department data that females are always more victims (58%) then males (42%).
Figure 10. Sex ratio of leopard victims (Based on survey work.).
65.9
34.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Male Female
Sex
Pro
port
ion
of m
ale
and
fem
ale,
%
n=19
42.1
57.9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
male female
Sex of person
inci
dent
,%
14
Forest Department data indicates that 68% victims were children below 15 year
where as cases have been reported in all age groups (Fig.11). In all age groups
predation on females is relatively high in comparison to males (Table 1). Unlike the
male, female children are not getting proper parental care in hills, which probably
make them more vulnerable to leopard. Another reason is that female child share a
large work with her mother so her probability of encountering with leopard is
relatively high then the male child.
Figure 11. Leopards victims in respect to age (Source: Forest Department).
Table 1. Relationship between age and sex of leopard victims.
Age-group Male Female Total
1-20 40(44.94%) 49(55.05%) 89
21-50 3(12.5%) 21(87.5%) 24
51-80 - 13(100%) 13
05
101520253035
1-5
11-1
5
21-2
5
31-3
5
41-4
5
51-5
5
61-6
5
71-7
5
Age group
Num
ber
of d
eath
s ,%
15
Data on incidents, which happened during survey also, revealed that leopards
perdation is more prominent on children as all killed person were below 15 years.
Figure 12. Numbers of human killed or injured due to leopard attack during
present survey.
6.3.5. Leopard attack in respect to season and time of the day
Leopard attacks on human is significantly (χ2 =24.37; df =2; p <.001) vary across
seasons. 45.2% and 42.1% cases occurred during rainy and in winter season
respectively (Fig 13). This could be due to weeds growing in rainy season and
remained during winter and provide suitable habitat cover for leopards. Leopards
inhabit more close to human settlement during these seasons.
12.7% cases occurred in summer, reason could be that permanent water channel in
the jungle have blocked and then redirected to villages for drinking purpose. During
summer, when temporary water channels dried up leopards stray towards human
settlement in search of water and some time encountered with human, leads to
conflict.
n=19
01234567
1-5
6-10
11-1
5
16-2
0
21-2
5
26-3
0
31-3
5
Age group
Num
ber
of in
cide
nts killed
injured
16
Figure 13. Variation in leopard predation on human during various seasons.
Frequencies of leopard attacks are relatively high during evening time (Fig.14). 54%
cases occurred between 5-8 p. m., this is very crucial time when many things
happened together viz. children return from school, women return from jungle,
workers return from working places, this is also coincided with their timing of toilet as
in hills most families do not have toilet facilities (Table 2.). and 11% cases occurred
between 3-8 a.m., which is also coincided with respect to toilet time.19% cases
occurred between 8-10 a.m. which is a specific time when children go to school,
people go to working places and women go to cultivated field or jungle. 8% cases
occurred between 1-3 p.m., this is the time when women work in field or in jungle. It
appears leopard is familiar with all these habits of people.
12.7
42.145.2
05
101520253035404550
Rainy Winter Summer
Season
Hu
ma
n b
ein
gs
kille
d b
y le
op
ard
s,% Rainy
Winter
Summer
17
Figure 14. Leopard attack on human beings in relation to time (Source: Forest
Department).
Table 2. General activities of hill peoples
Morning shift Day Evening shift Night Shift General activities
4-6 6-10 10-
12
12-2 2-4 4-6 6-10 10-12 12-4
Toilet time
Office /school timing
Women go to cultivated field or jungle with cattle, for fire wood collection and grass cutting.
Women work in field or jungle.
Children return from school
Women return from jungle along with cattle
Worker return from
working places
n=62
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
5-6
7-8
9-10
11-1
2
13-1
4
15-1
6
17-1
8
19-2
0
21-2
2
23-2
4
2-3
4-5
Time
Hum
an d
eath
s,%
18
Based on incidences observed during survey, this also corroborates with forest
department data that leopard attacks are more prominent between 6- 9 p.m. (68%)
(Fig.15).
n=16
0
2
4
6
8
10
5-6
8-9
10-1
1
12-1
3
14-1
5
16-1
7
18-1
9
20-2
1
22-2
3
12-1 2-3
4-5
Time
Num
ber o
f inc
iden
ts
Figure 15. Leopard attack in relation to day of the time.
6.4.6. Leopard attacks in relation to habitat conditions and location of house
Based on 14 cases observed during survey, 78% cases happened in areas having
degraded forest or scrub (Fig 16). It has been noted that most of the areas are now
under thickets and providing good cover to leopards (Fig.17). Weeds such as
Lantana, Xanthium, and Eupatorium are dominating around villages.
n=14
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
degradedforest/scrub
cultivated field others
Habitat type
Num
ber o
f inc
iden
ts
Figure 16. Leopard attacks in relation to habitat condition.
19
Figure 17. Spreading of weeds around villages providing good cover to
leopard
20
One could expect to have low leopard predation on human close to villages as there
are lot of activities. Therefore we analyzed data of predation on human with respect
distance from village. Of the 10 cases, most of such predation has happened in or
around houses which were lonely (Fig. 18).
n=10
0
1
2
3
4
5
50 100
200
300
400
Distance from village or other houses
Num
be o
f atta
cks
Figure 18. Leopard attack in relation to house location.
6.3.7. Leopard attacks in relation to other condition
Frequency of leopard attacks on children may be affected by the presence of adult
male. Based on 14 cases observed during my survey, among them 71% cases
occurred in those places where no adult male was present. Interestingly cases,
which occurred in the presence of male (29%), they could manage to escape from
leopard.
n=14
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
present absentAdult male
Num
ber o
f le
opar
d at
tack
s
Figure 19. Leopard attack in relation to presence of adult male.
21
One could expect severity of leopard predation on human might be affected by the
presence of electricity and dog. Based on 11 cases observed during survey, 91%
cases occurred in areas/houses where there was no electricity, while 73% cases
were in those places where dog was absent.
Figure 20. Leopard attacks in relation to light condition and presence of dog.
6.4. Analysis of leopard- livestock conflict
Number of livestock per family varies from 3 to 7, across the block in Pauri tehsil
(Fig.21), Thelisain has highest livestock holding. Villages of Pauri, Kot, Thailsain and
Kalgikhal are severely affected by leopard predation on cattle. In Pabau livestock
holding is less then other blocks.
Figure 21. Number of livestock in each family across the blocks in Pauri tehsil.
n=11
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Electricitypresent
No electricity Dog present Dog absent
Num
ber o
f inc
iden
ts
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Pau
ri
Pab
au
Khi
rsu
Kot
The
lisai
n
kalg
ikha
l
B l o c k s i n P a u r i t e h s i l
Num
ber
of li
vest
ock
in
each
fam
ily
22
Pabau is the block where number of villages as suffering from leopard predation on
cattle along with human is high then other blocks while block viz. Khirsu, Kalgikhal
and Thelisain where the number of livestock holding is higher are less affected as
leoperd predation on human. In Pauri trend is matching with Pabau block.
Figure 22. Leopard predation on human in respect to livestock holding
1. Future Plane: 1. To complete survey work in Lansdowne Tehsil.
2. Standardize methods for estimating the relative abundance of leopards and
wild prey species.
3. Scat analysis for the determination of leopards food habit.
4. To prepare a project for long term study to understand changed behaviour of
leopard in this area.
12
38
93 6 10
80
22
70
100 100110
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Pau
ri
Pab
au
Khi
rsu
Ko
t
The
leas
en
Kal
gikh
alBlocks in Pauri tehsil
Leopard predation oncattle along withhuman
Leopard predation oncattle