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N A S A C O N T R A C T O R

R E P O R T

N A S A C R - 2 2 9 2

CASE

A STUDY OF THE ROLEOF PYROTECHNIC SYSTEMSON THE SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

by E. R. Lake, S. J. Thompson, and V. W. Drexelius

Prepared by

MCDONNELL DOUGLAS CORPORATION

St. Louis, Mo. 63166

Jor Lang ley Research Center

11 • T- i s> 11 • i imnti i i iTi /*** inn *- r» « r i r \ * i i t i i « - < T n i T ) < ^ t i t i i i r i i i t i ^Tr tu r\ f r rnTTI inrn 1H~7ON A T i O N A L A E R O N A J T i C S AND S P A C E ADMiNiSTRATiON • WASHINGTON, D. t. • Sc"T[ /V i3[R 1973

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19730022108 2018-06-25T11:17:56+00:00Z

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No.

NASA CR-2292

4. Title and SubtitleA STUDY OF THE ROLE OF PYROTECHNIC SYSTEMSON THE SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

7. Author(s)E. R. Lake, S. J. Thompson, and V. W. Drexelius

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

McDonnell Aircraft CompanyMcDonnell Douglas CorporationP.O. Box 516St. Louis> MO 63166

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D.C. 205^

3. Recipient's Catalog No.

5. Report DateSeptember 1973

6. Performing Organization Code

8. Performing Organization Report No.

None Assigned

10. Work Unit No.

128-32-61-01-00

11. Contract or Grant No.

NAS1 - 10892

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

Contractor Report14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract

Pyrotechnic systems, high burn rate propellant and explosive-actuated mechanisms,

have been used extensively in aerospace vehicles to perform a variety of work functions,

including crew escape, staging, deployment and destruction. Pyrotechnic system principles

are described in this report along with their applications on typical military fighter

aircraft, Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and a representative unmanned spacecraft. To consider

the possible pyrotechnic applications on Shuttle the mechanical functions on a large

commercial aircraft, similar in scale to the Shuttle Orbiter, were reviewed. Many

potential applications exist for pyrotechnic systems on Shuttle, both in conventional

short-duration functions and in longer duration and/or repetitive type gas generators.

17. Key Words (Suggested by Author(s))

Shuttle mechanical functionsPyrotechnic/explosive mechanismsHistorical applications of pyrotechnicsPyrotechnic system design philosophy

19. Security Qassif . (of this report)

Unclassified

18. Distribution Statement

Unclassified - Unlimited

20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price*

Unclassified 97 $3. 00

For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

FOREWORD

This report presents the results of a twelve-month studyconducted by the Pyrotechnic Design Staff of McDonnell AircraftCompany, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, for NASA Langley ResearchCenter, under Contract NAS1-10892.

The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the

Hydraulic Design Staff, McDonnell Aircraft Company; the technicalassistance provided by the Navigation and Controls Division of

the Bendix Corporation; the ETkton Diyfsion of the Thiokol ChemicalCorporation; and other pyrotechnic manufacturers, users, andGovernment facilities too numerous to mention, who supplied technicalinformation.

ill

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CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY 1

INTRODUCTION 2

PROCEDURE 3

Phase I - Pyrotechnic System Principles 3Phase II - Historical Applications Survey 4Phase III - Possible Pyrotechnic System Applications

to Modern Aircraft 5

Phase IV - Definition of Mechanical Requirements andPossible Pyrotechnic Applications to SpaceShuttle 6

RESULTS 7

Phase I - Pyrotechnic System Principles 7

Phase II - Historical Applications Survey 16

Phase III - Possible Pyrotechnic System Applications .to Modern Aircraft 19

Phase IV - Definition of Mechanical Requirements andPossible Pyrotechnic Applications to SpaceShuttle 21

CONCLUSIONS 24

REFERENCES 26

TABLES 27

I Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic Applicationsin Aeronautics 28

II Major Past and Current Pyrotechnic Applicationsin Astronautics 28

III Operation of Aircraft Mechanical Systems 29

FIGURES

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Basic Pyrotechnic SystemLinear Explosives - Mild Detonating Cord (MDC) . .

Linear Explosives - Flexible Linear Shaped Charge(FLSC)

Explosive Bolts

Explosive ValvesExplosive NutsLinear ActuatorsGuillotinesGraphic Representation of Design Margin

Levels of Pyrotechnic RedundancyFalse RedundancyTrue Redundancy

Safety ConsiderationTypical Large Bodied Jet TransportTypical Hydraulic/Linear Actuator Design Con-figurations (DC-10)

Typical Hydraulic/Linear Actuator Design Con-figurations (DC-10) Slat Actuation Schematic . . .Methods of Generating Pyro-Pneumatic Power . . . .Typical Solid Propel lant Gas Generator

APPENDIXES

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

Typical Two-Place Aircraft (F-4)

B-58 Encapsulated Ejection Seat

F-lll Crew Module . . . .

Trade Study of Personnel Ejection Techniques . . .

Shrike AGM-45

Unique Pyrotechnic Applications

Project MercuryProject Gemini

Project Apollo

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PageAPPENDIXES (Cont.'d)

X Saturn V Launch Vehicle 75

XI Mariner Mars 1971 78

XII Comparison of Hydraulics vs Pneumatics for Con-ventional Actuator Control Systems 79

XIII Typical Installation of Emergency Slat ActuationSystem 81

XIV Space Shuttle - Potential Pyrotechnic Functions. . 84

XV Trade Study of Payload Door & Radiator DriveMechanism 86

vii

A STUDY OF THE ROLE OF PYROTECHNIC

SYSTEMS ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

By

E. R. Lake, S. J. Thompson, and V. W. Drexelius

McDonnell Aircraft Company

McDonnell Douglas Corporation

SUMMARY

Pyrotechnics have been and will continue to be used extensively aboardaerospace vehicles to perform a multitude of work functions, including

crew escape. Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo pyrotechnic systems were

surveyed historically> along with a representative unmanned space vehicle

and a typical military fighter aircraft. Compiled information reveals that

these high-energy, light-weight, minimum-volume pyrotechnic systems have

in general been used for relatively short-time duration events. A large

commercial aircraft similar in size to the Space Shuttle was reviewed for

potential pyrotechnic applications. Aside from the conventional one-shot

type function of short duration, considerable emphasis was placed on the

possibility of applying pyrotechnics to flight control systems as either

primary or backup functions. Analysis showed that although this applica-

tion to aircraft may be questionable, their consideration for Shuttle

use may have merit. The Space Shuttle review from a pyrotechnic applica-

tion aspect revealed many conventional short-time duration items, plus a

potential use for longer duration and/or repetitive type gas generators.

These could be used directly with actuators and/or vane motor arrangements.

INTRODUCTION

Space Shuttle, which is presently in the stage of developing initialmission concepts, possesses many characteristics of an enlarged commercial

aircraft. In reality it is a hybrid vehicle, encompassing both commercialaircraft and space vehicle requirements. The application of considerableaerospace vehicle pyrotechnic experience to the Space Shuttle could

effect significant design simplification in many onboard mechanicalsystems.

Pyrotechnics, by accepted aerospace terminology, refers to a broadfamily of sophisticated devices utilizing self-contained energy sourcessuch as explosives, propellants and/or pyrotechnic compositions. Thesedevices have been used since 1945 to perform a variety of work functionsaboard aerospace vehicles, including emergency and life-saving applications.The use of pyrotechnics is attractive as they are self-contained energy

sources possessing a minimum volume-weight relationship, high reliability,and safety. They provide instantaneous operation on demand plus the

added asset of relatively long-term storage capability. The fundamentalexplosive, propellant and/or pyrotechnic material, when properly utilizedor packaged, can be made to accomplish applications of cutting, separation,

or pressurization plus numerous other mechanical work functions, such asvalving, electrical switching, and personnel ejection.

This study of the role of pyrotechnics on Space Shuttle includes areview of pyrotechnic system principles, a survey of historical aerospaceapplications, investigation of possible pyrotechnic systems application toa large commercial aircraft, and exploration of possible applications onthe Space Shuttle.

The objective of this study is to provide sufficient information todemonstrate the feasibility of utilizing pyrotechnic (explosively actuatedmechanical) systems on Space Shuttle mechanical systems. It will alsoacquaint program administrators with the advantages that can be derived byconsidering pyrotechnic approaches in system trade studies with the moreconventional hydraulic/pneumatfc/electrical energy sources.

PROCEDURE

The program was divided into four distinct phases of investigation

which are as follows:

Phase I - Pyrotechnic System Principles

Phase II - Historical Applications Survey

Phase III - Possible Pyrotechnic System Applications to

Modern Aircraft

Phase IV - Definition of Mechanical Requirements and Possible

Pyrotechnic Application to Space Shuttle


Pyrotechnic Definition - Background and generic forms are discussed.

The basic pyrotechnic system is presented, along with a discussion of five

basic types of initiation stimuli.

Pyrotechnic Reliability - A review from a conceptual standpoint is

presented to show the importance of adequately understanding and separating

the energy required from energy available at each interface. Redundancy

concepts and examples are presented showing typical Apollo criteria. The

F-lll crew module redundancy is discussed, along with various methods

used to achieve same.

Test Methods - A brief discussion on testing is included. This

aspect was reviewed from an improved technique approach to show that

pyrotechnics can be evaluated on an engineering basis.

Safety - Some aspects of safety as they relate to a reliable systemwere reviewed. The relationship to reliability is discussed.

Trade Studies^ -.Criteria for performing a trade study are discussed,

especially when the use of a pyrotechnic system is not an obvious choice.

Standardization - The importance of standardization from a system

and/or component aspect is presented. Merits of using off-the-shelf hard-ware are discussed.


Aeronautics - The first usage of pyrotechnics as related to aircraftdevelopments is reviewed. Aeronautic pyrotechnic usage is principallydivided between personnel escape systems and weapons deployment. The

three principal personnel escape techniques were therefore reviewed;namely, the open ejection seat as found on the F-4, the encapsulatedescape seat used on the B-58, and the crew module system as utilized aboardthe F-lll. Comparisons are presented between escape systems along withunique systems applications.

Small missiles also fall in the aeronautical category and thereforethe Shrike air-to-air weapon was examined. A typical F-4 weapons configu-ration was selected to study weapons and/or stores deployment. From apyrotechnic standpoint this operation varies very little from aircraftto aircraft.

Astronautics - Pyrotechnic usage on space vehicles centers aboutmanned craft such as Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. These systems werereviewed from a functional and component aspect. In addition, theMariner Mars '71 unmanned spacecraft was selected for the survey. Tocomplete the survey of astronautics pyrotechnic applications, theSaturn V launch vehicle was also included as a good example of abooster.

Trade Studies - Three typical trade studies were performed toprovide the broadest possible cross-section of depth and complexity. Thefirst study was a comparison of personnel ejection techniques from a hypo-thetical multicrew aircraft. A second study compared different electrical

disconnect methods. A third and final study, under this phase, was a verydetailed comparison of stimulus transfer techniques for aircrew ejection

from a typical dual-seat fighter.

The trade studies were based on the pyrotechnic principles listed

in Phase I and the parameters listed below:A. Mechanical requirements

B. System weight/volume analysesC. Energy/power requirements

D. Time required to energize and actuate system

E. Safety factor (design margin)

F. Reliability-confidence levels

G. Passenger protection (safety)

H. RefurbishmentI. Cost to produce an operational system

J. Shelf-life, ruggedness

K. Any trade-off studies, comparing any of the above.

Phase III - Possible Pyrotechnic

System Applications to Modern Aircraft

To approach the physical scale of applying pyrotechnic systems to

Space Shuttle, a systems analysis was conducted on a large modern

commercial transport in which system size, weight, and energy requirements

were well established. The analysis was performed to obtain information

under the following guidelines:

A. All phases of mechanical operation including control

surfaces, landing gear, emergency egress, etc., were

examined for possible pyrotechnic systems application.

B. Differentiation was made between single and multi-cycle

requirements.C. Consideration was given to pyrotechnic systems to accomplish

primary, secondary, or tertiary functions.

D. Trade-off studies were then conducted, comparing the

existing systems to proposed pyrotechnic systems based on the

same parameters described in Phase II.

It was necessary to review the methods whereby aircraft power is

converted into mechanical work, prior to considering pyrotechnic applica-tions. The application of pyrotechnic energy directly through the useof linear actuators or vane motors was evaluated. Selected mechanicalsystems from the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Boeing 747 aircraft werereviewed.

Phase IV - Definition of Mechanical Requirementsand Possible Pyrotechnic Applications to Space Shuttle

In this final phase of the study, both firm and potential pyrotechnic

applications are proposed for use on the Spac'e Shuttle, which includes theOrbiter vehicle, the external fuel tank, and the solid propellant boosters.These applications are based on the background data obtained duringPhases II and III of this study and the following Space Shuttle study

contracts:(1) MAS 8-26016 and HAS 9-9204 (McDonnell Douglas)

(2) MAS 9-10960 (North American)(3) WAS 9-11160 (Grumman)Throughout this phase, the selection or determination of potential]

applications was related to the work function and the required time ofperformance. Consideration was also given to primary, secondary, ortertiary Shuttle functions. A single trade study was performed, basedon the parameters described in Phase II, wherein a gas generator/vanemotor arrangement was compared with a manual back-up system for operating

the radiator and payload bay doors.

RESULTS


Pyrotechnic Definition - The word "pyrotechnics" is literally defined

as the art of making fireworks; however, in today's aerospace terminology,

pyrotechnics refers to a broad family of sophisticated devices utilizing

explosive, propel 1 ant and/or pyrotechnic compositions. Specifically not

included are bombs, warheads, land mines, etc., which are commonly

associated with the military term, ordnance. Pyrotechnic devices have

seen extensive use on all the manned and unmanned spacecraft where they

have been used to perform a very wide variety of mechanical functions.They have been and are continuing to be vital components in all aerospace

personnel escape and armament deployment systems.

Pyrotechnics offer the designer the opportunity of employing a self-

contained energy source that possesses perhaps the highest work potential(exclusive of nuclear energy) in the smallest volume and with minimumweight. In addition, pyrotechnics provide instantaneous operation upon

initiation; they can be designed to provide closely controlled functioning;

they are highly reliable, safe to handle; and possess the added asset of arelatively long-term storage capability. ;

Each pyrotechnic device requires a basic succession of events to

assure proper functioning. The basic system, represented graphically in

Figure 1, consists of four essential elements; namely, the igniter, achemical conversion source, the work output mechanism, and the mechanical

function required. An initiation stimulus functions an igniter, usuallya heat-sensitive pyrotechnic or primary explosive. This material

possesses the ability to ignite by heat, shock, or hot particles the

chemical conversion material next in the train of events. The chemical

conversion involves the release of controlled amounts of gas and heat

such that various rates of energy application can be applied. This energy

source is generally a propellant of moderate burning rate. The next

function is the change from chemical to kinetic energy. The most general

form is the acceleration of a mechanical piece, such as a piston/cylinder

arrangement. The end item of the basic pyrotechnic system is the work

output or actual work performed and can be in the form of cutting,breaking, pressurizing, pushing, and pulling.

As shown in Figure 1, an incoming electric stimulus functions the

igniter. This in turn initiates the propellant which produces gas at

pressure. This gas pressure then imparts kinetic energy to the guillotine

blade which is capable of successfully severing the wire bundle. Although

a guillotine was chosen to illustrate this point, all pyrotechnic devices

generally contain the same four basic elements and their correspondinginterfaces.

While pyrotechnic devices are self-contained and isolated from the

fundamental vehicle operation systems, they require an initiation stimulus.

Five of the most popular methods, together with their modes of transmission

to the igniter, are shown diagrammatically in Figure 1. The fundamentals

of each initiation stimulus are briefly as follows:

o Mechanical - This initiation system relies upon the compression

and release of a spring-loaded firing pin to function a percussion

primer. Such mechanisms generally employ either a sear or ball

release arrangement to free the firing pin at the point of maxi-mum spring compression. !

o Ballistic Hot Gas - This requires a moderate pressure pyrotechnic

gas generating source (usually a double base prdpellant cart-

ridge) to provide the stimulus medium. The ballistic hot gas

from such a source is transmitted through a reinforced pneumatic1 2hose to the pyrotechnic device' . Because of decreasing pressure

with increasing length and volume, hose lengths are relatively

short.

The footnotes appearing in the text have been contributed by the NASAtechnical monitor to provide supplementary information which should behelpful to some sectors of the intended users of this report.2"initiating the devices with percussion primers, as described in theMechanical ignition section".

Additional in-line gas generators may be added to maintain

the operating pressure range. This type stimulus systemis unaffected by electromagnetic radiation.

o Electric - This system uses both low and high voltage approaches,both of which require igniters containing-^ bridgewires for

termination of the electric circuit. In the low voltage system,the bridgewire, upon passage of the electric current incandescesprior to breaking^, while in the high voltage EBW approach the

bridgewire actually explodes as a result of energy discharge ofa capacitor at a high voltage. While the low voltage techniqueis susceptible to electromagnetic interference, the high voltagemethod generally avoids this potential problem area, but requiresconsiderably more volume and is heavier than the low voltagesystem.

o Explosive - This system utilizes detonating cord in the packagedform of either confined detonating fuse (CDF) or shielded mild

detonating cord (SMDC) to transmit an explosive signal. Bothforms of cord terminate in small explosive charges which can be

used directly to function another device. Both CDF and SMDC typestimulus transfer systems are insensitive to electromagnetic

3"thin gage bridgewires for termination of the electrical circuit at theigniter material. In the low voltage system (usually no higher than40 volts) the high resistance bridgewire in conducting the electricalcurrent is heated to achieve the auto-ignition temperature of theigniter material; thus the reference to hot wire systems."

A

"however, in the high voltage approach the bridgewire actuallyexplodes as a result of energy discharge of a capacitor, (chargedto usually no higher than 2500 volts), igniting an explosive materialwith the shock wave created; thus the reference to exploding bridge-wire, (EBW), systems. "

radiation, and provide essentially instantaneous initiation .

This method is commonly referred to as explosive stimulustransfer.

o Laser - This new initiation stimulus consists of transmitting

coherent light through a fiber optic cable to an igniter. Thelatter contains an optical window with a heat or light sensitivepyrotechnic composition pressed against it. Because this systemis relatively new, system weight has not been optimized. Thistype stimulus system is unaffected by electromagnetic radiation.

Pyrotechnic devices can perform a variety of functions and areavailable to the designer in a number of generic forms, (Reference 1).Figures 2 through 8 graphically illustrate some of the more popular pyro-

technic devices found on aerospace systems. Figures 2 and 3 illustratelinear explosives in both shaped and circular form. The explosivecord is a detonating material such as RDX, PETN, or Dipam. The circularcord is also used in stimulus transfer systems providing signals to

various events at the rate of about 6100 m/sec (20,000 ft/sec), and isunaffected by electromagnetically induced current.

Figure 4 shows six explosive bolts differing in separation character-

istics. They all provide release or separation at a prescribed plane.The selection of one versus another is generally based on a limited trade-

off, based on systems requirements.Explosive valve principles are shown in Figure 5. Gas cartridge

pressure moves a spool or plunger to provide a passageway or to obstructsame. The valve on the right has the capability to both open and be

reclosed.

5"(transfer rates in the order of 6,100 m/sec - 20,000 feet/sec.)."

is the material used in the explosive stimulus transfer systems."

10

Figure 6 shows three fundamental explosive nuts. Type I contains a

piston to forcibly eject the bolt, whereas Type II merely releases same.Type III relies on explosive cartridges to force apart the nut halves.

Linear actuators as shown by Figure 7 are straightforward devicesto provide a push or pull. Examples are canopy removers'or pin pullers.

Guillotines (Figure 8) are widely used to sever wires, tubes,reefing lines, and/or any item requiring quick disconnect.

Pyrotechnic Reliability - The only positive method to determine whether

a pyrotechnic device will function satisfactorily is to test fire it. Thehigh reliability and confidence level customarily imposed would require

very large numbers of devices to be fired in order to fulfill the require-ments. For example, a .999 reliability at a. 95% confidence level requiresthe test firing of 2996 devices without a failure. The cost of thisdemonstrated reliability generally proves to be prohibitive. Therefore,the alternative is to use a statistical approach which must be based firstand foremost on a thorough understanding of the hardware design and itsmargin.

The philosophy behind this approach is based on simple statistics.As long as these statistics follow a normal distribution, the approachdiscussed above can be followed. Figure 9 shows two curves depictingnormal distribution about a mean for the energy required to perform a

particular function and that available in the pyrotechnic cartridge. Aslong as the two curves remain separated throughout the operating tempera-

ture range, satisfactory performance is assured. However, if there shouldbe any overlapping of the two curves then random failures, victims of

statistical distribution, can be expected, if a quantitative approachhas been followed, there is no reason for ever allowing the latter condi-tion to occur. Both the energy available and energy required can bemeasured and statistically analyzed.

Redundancy - A definition of redundancy is superfluous repetition, oruse of parallel paths to perform a single function. Because of the crucial .

nature of many aerospace pyrotechnic applications, redundancy is considered

11

necessary to prevent single-point failures. Even with two independent

paths, adequate redundancy exists only if proper attention has been

given to design margins and quality control, from development through

final installation. If redundancy is necessary, however, the depth of

implementation must then be determined, for example, from simply

redundant initiators to completely redundant systems. In astronautics,

specifically the Apollo program, pyrotechnic applications were divided

into two principal categories; namely, crew-critical and mission-

critical. Premature operation or failure of the pyrotechnic to operate

properly was considered crew-critical, since this might result in loss

of the crew. The mission-critical category covered those pyrotechnicfunctions which in the event of failure could result in an aborted mission

or an alternate mission. The extremely critical nature of the pyro-

technic functions onboard Apollo dictated a philosophy of maximum

redundancy where possible. This is graphically illustrated in Figure 10.

It should be noted that during the early development phases of the

Apollo program when the redundancy requirements for the pyrotechnic

systems were less clear, redundancy was taken a step beyond that shown in

Figure 10; namely, the initiators contained dual circuits, each with a

single bridgewire. This was the Apollo Standard Initiator (ASI). Asthe program progressed, it became apparent that the desired reliability

and redundancy could be more readily attained at higher levels of the

pyrotechnic assembly; therefore, the ASI was replaced by a cartridge

containing a single circuit with a single bridgewire known as the SBASI

(Single Bridgewire Apollo Standard Initiator).

Both the F-lll crew module and the F-14 personnel ejection systems

are notable aeronautic examples of redundant pyrotechnic applications.

Both systems utilize an explosive rather than ballistic hot gas as a

stimulus system to sequence the escape functions. This requires the use

of a sizable number of shielded mild detonating cord (SMDC) assemblies.

Since the F-lll crew module pioneered the use of SMDC, redundancy was

initially implemented to provide assurance of firing a system whose

reliability of operation had not been proven. In the F-lll and F-14

12

crew escape systems, redundancy also protects against the possibility

of an SMDC assembly being damaged during installation and failing to

propagate the explosive signal.

Finally, and most important, redundancy should never be employed in

such a manner that will permit introduction of a single-point failure.

For example, Figure 11 shows two redundant pyrotechnic time delay columns

terminating in explosive tips, which in turn initiate the tips of SMDC

lines. For added "redundancy" an explosive cross-over has been added be-

tween the two output tips. Because of the nature of pyrotechnic time

delays, one delay will most probably burn faster. If the output of this

faster delay should initiate low order, then it will fail to initiate the

SMDC tip directly facing it. Further, the cross-over will also propagate

low order and may very well arrive before the second delay initiates

its own output tip. In this case it will destroy both the output tip

Of the delay as well as the second tip. The result is complete failure

of the device.

By omitting the cross-over, as shown in Figure 12, the failure ofthe first delay cannot interfere with the operation of the second; thereby

providing complete redundancy.

Testing - A properly constructed test program to .demonstrate all of

the requirements of a new design is a vital, non-replaceable portion of

the pyrotechnic designer's effort to produce a successful system or

device. Improved techniques in the field of testing have provided the

designer with the means to obtain quantitative data with a higher degreeof accuracy from each test firing than ever before possible. Some examples

of these improved techniques are:

o Tapered Plate Test Technique for Linear Explosives (Severance

Ability)

o Energy Sensor (Cartridge and/or Detonator Output)

o Dynamic Test Device (Energy-Displacement Performance)

13

The aforementioned techniques are by no means all that are availablefor performance monitoring; however, they do represent some of the latestmethods, designed to provide engineering type measurement and analysis.

An excellent treatise concerning the above-mentioned test techniquesis to be found in Reference 2.

Safety - Pyrotechnic materials such as high explosives or propellentsare by definition unstable chemical compounds designed to release energyupon initiation. Pyrotechnic safety must not be viewed only from theinert end of the unstable spectrum since extreme insensitivity imposes

severe restrictions on the initiating, or "all fire," reliability?.Essentially, it is a balance between how insensitive a device or

system can be made compared with its reliability of functioning on command.

Safety must be carefully balanced with reliability by the pyrotechnicspecialist so that the optimum of both diametrically opposed extremes isrealized. The specialist must utilize his knowledge of explosive materials,including such factors as sensitivity, compatibility, performance, environ-mental ability plus evaluation techniques in order to achieve the necessaryreliability within the limits of safe handling and use. This concept isillustrated in Figure 13.

The use of discrete safety devices, known as safe and arm (S & A)mechanisms, is generally restricted to systems that represent extremehazard to personnel who must work around them. Under these circumstances,S & A's which in essence are simply mechanically interrupted explosivetrains, are usually incorporated. Ignition of large rocket motors and

initiation of propellant dispersion or destruct systems are examples ofapplications requiring S & A devices. Since these S & A devices add to thesystem complexity, part of the functional reliability is compromised.

For example, some explosives cannot be initiated to function in theirnormal mode by direct flame or impact by direct gunfire. However, onlya closely controlled, high level explosive input can produce properinitiation."

14

Trade Studies - The trade study is an analytical process by which

selection of an optimum approach, compatible with the specific programrequirements, can be determined. Examples are: comparison of pyrotechnic,hydraulic, and pneumatic approaches to determine the best suited for aspecific task, or comparison of several different pyrotechnic devices,each capable of providing the desired end result. Frequently, tradestudies do not progress beyond a certain point because of an obviousadvantage of one approach. However, when this is not the case, a completestudy must be made. In performing trade studies, one word of cautionis warranted: namely, that it is very easy to allow personal bias toinfluence the result.

Standardization - Standardization in 'any system is desirable from anumber of aspects, including qualification testing, interface control,reliability analysis, and the logistics of supply. Generally, standard-ization is limited to initiation and/or the transfer of the initiation

stimulus to the end pyrotechnic item. Standardization also permitscommonality of design principles in the end item. It is inconceivable toattempt standardization of specific work items such as actuators,

explosive bolts, explosive valves, etc., since most items are unique intheir geometry and performance requirements. An excellent example of astandardized item of pyrotechnic hardware is the SBASI. This is thestandard electrical initiator used throughout the Apollo and LEM vehicles.(References 3 and 4).

The utilization of off-the-shelf hardware should be attemptedwherever possible insofar that an item will be compatible with performanceand interface requirements. A caution on the use of the off-the-shelfhardware should be made. This hardware should be thoroughly demonstrated

in the planned system. Often times, many off-the-shelf items do notmeet the unique requirements of individual systems.

15


Prior to World War II, escape from a disabled aircraft in flight

occurred in environments and at speeds that were physiologically tolerable.As speeds increased, the technique of turning the aircraft on its back,releasing one's safety belt, and falling out was no longer feasible. Theparachute by itself was not adequate for survival.

The Germans took the first effective action in 1944, requiring allfighter aircraft to be equipped with ejection seats. Some 60 ejectionswere reportedly made prior to the end of the war. The British and»the USA

followed with appropriate development programs resulting in some stan-dardized hardware by 1947.

In addition, a 4-gauge blank cartridge was successfully used duringWorld War II to start certain aircraft piston-type engines. The cartridge,

containing relatively fast-burning propellant was fired into one of thepistons, thus spinning and starting the engine. This 4-gauge cartridgelater was modified and utilized as a stores and/or weapons ejectioncartridge.

Aeronautics - Since the initial post-World War II inception, pyro-technics have been increasingly used aboard military aircraft for manyapplications including personnel emergency egress and weapons separation.The speed of the aircraft has logically predicated the development ofpyrotechnic hardware as to sophistication of performance and design.

As an example, the early M-l personnel catapult is relatively straight-forward as compared to the latest rocket catapult for today's high-speedfighter aircraft.

It is beyond the scope of this study to delineate all of the pyro-technic systems and/or components utilized aboard today's fighter aircraft,not to mention the many now obsolete models. Therefore, selected

aircraft or systems were chosen as representative for study. In addition,no attempt is made to show all pyrotechnic hardware ever developed as this

16

can be found elsewhere in vendor or government publications. Table Ishows a brief review of some of the more significant and representative

applications.In the military aeronautical field, the use of pyrotechnics is about

equally divided between stores or weapons ejection and personnel escapesystems. The field of personnel escape is by far the more complex and

offers the greater challenge to the pyrotechnics engineer. Study emphasiswas therefore placed on escape systems, with limited mention of other

pyrotechnic systems and/or components.The field of personnel escape systems (Reference 5) for military

aircraft provides three significantly different approaches; namely, theopen ejection seat, an encapsulated ejection seat or a crew module. Oneeach of these systems was selected for study. Appendix I covers the openseat system pyrotechnics as found on the F-4 aircraft. This applicationis for a dual-piace tandem ejection system utilizing sequencing, rocket-assist separation, and a ballistic hot gas stimulus transfer system.

The encapsulated seat pyrotechnic system, as utilized aboard the B-58bomber, is shown in Appendix II. The pyrotechnic components list, along

with a block diagram of the sequence of events, is shown. This encapsulatedseat system provides an improved escape capability over the open ejectionseat. The stimulus transfer technique employed is a. combination ballistichot gas and electric.

The crew module approach, in which the entire crew compartment is

separated from the fuselage, represents the most advanced system from thestandpoint of escape envelope and post-escape survival. The crew modulesystem as utilized aboard the F-lll was selected for review. Appendix IIIdelineates the pyrotechnic system and includes a list of the mechanicalfunctions. This pyrotechnic system utilizes a high explosive stimulustransfer system of shielded mild detonating cord (SMDC). The explosiveused in the cord is the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (MOL) developed high

temperature resistant DIPAM of 2 1/2 grains/ft charge. The system isredundant as shown by the schematic outline.

17

A trade study was conducted on a hypothetical supersonic bomber rela-tive to selection of open seats, encapsulated seats or a crew module.The results of this study are listed in Appendix IV.

A typical missile, namely the Shrike AGM-45, carried and launched byaircraft is delineated in Appendix V. The pyrotechnic items and

sequence of pyrotechnic events are shown to complete the cross-sectionreview of military aircraft.

The use of pyrotechnics aboard civilian or commercial "aircraft hasbeen minimal. Some progress has been achieved in recent years aboard the

747 transport. This utilization for door unlatching and slide chutedeployment is shown in Appendix VI, entitled "Unique Pyrotechnic Appli-

cations," This appendix also includes a number of military pyrotechnicsystems which appear unique in application and/or functional accomplish-

ment.

Astronautics - The use of pyrotechnics in the astronautics fieldparallels somewhat aeronautics in that they were used to some degree

during early rocket and missile development. Extensive utilization,however, did not occur until the advent of the more prominent spacecraft,

and especially Project Mercury. With the Apollo series, pyrotechnicusage aboard spacecraft reached a new high level. Major past and current

pyrotechnic applications in the field of astronautics is shown in Table II,Mercury, the first U.S. manned spacecraft (Reference 6), utilized a

relatively large quantity of pyrotechnic items, a number of which wereredundant because of the many functional and environmental unknowns andthe strong desire to assure mission success. Project Mercury was uniquein that electrical initiation was used rather extensively along withballistic hot gas. Mercury also perhaps accomplished the earliest use of

linear explosive cord. Two strands of 5 grain/ft cord were used tobreak 70 titanium bolts around the periphery of the entrance hatch, whichprovided emergency and routine egress. Appendix VII provides a summationof all the pyrotechnic functions and items utilized aboard Mercury.

18

Project Gemini (Reference 7) pyrotechnic usage is shown inAppendix VIII and demonstrates the increased usage of pyrotechnic itemsover Mercury. Project Gemini pioneered "the use of shielded milddetonating cord (SMDC) and the use of the high temperature resistantexplosive DIPAM (Reference 8). It is interesting to note that Gemini,

unlike Mercury or Apollo, utilized open ejection seats for escape from

the craft while on the launching pad or at some low level after launch.Both Mercury and Apollo included a large rocket capable of lifting thecomplete capsule to a safe height in the event of a pad abort.

Project Apollo pyrotechnic utilization is shown in Appendix IX andrepresents an advanced system. Significant in the Apollo pyrotechnicsystems is the use of the Apollo Standard Initiator (ASI). In terms ofreliability this represents one of the better pyrotechnic accomplishmentsin the industry.

The Saturn V launch vehicle was also included, because it reflectstypical functions that are found on larger booster systems (Appendix X),but is unique in its use of exploding bridgewire (EBW) devices in con-junction with explosive stimulus transfer for initiation of all pyrotechnicfunctions. The review of pyrotechnic usage in astronautics was completedwith a tabulation of pyrotechnic functions on a typical unmanned satellite.The Mariner Mars '71 spacecraft, Appendix XI, was selected as representa-tive of this category.

Phase III - Possible Pyrotechnic SystemApplication to Modern Aircraft

The study of possible pyrotechnic applications for Space Shuttlewould not be complete if only the obvious typical applications wereincluded. The Space Shuttle is unique in that it combines many aspectsof space and aeronautical design and function. The dual role of space-craft and aircraft, along with mission objectives and size of the Orbitervehicle, resulted in the obvious similarity to a large modern widebody

aircraft. Therefore this phase of the study was directed toward a

19

theoretical consideration of pyrotechnic applications to a modernaircraft. Since an abundant supply of power and redundancy exists ontoday's modern aircraft; it must be pointed out that the items studied

for possible application of pyrotechnics are not to be interpreted asrecommended conversions for the aircraft, but should be considered merelyas functional considerations for the Space Shuttle where different power

sources and philosophies of redundancy may exist.Figure 14 depicts a typical large jet transport and identifies

various mechanical functions for possible pyrotechnic consideration.Availability of detailed information relative to weight and energyrequirements of mechanical systems prompted the selection of the DC-10as the study baseline.

The initial step in this analysis was to review the methods wherebyaircraft power is converted into mechanical work. Methods of energyconversion differed sufficiently between aircraft manufacturers to makeit necessary to also include certain Boeing 747 mechanical systems inorder to be fully representative. This review revealed the fact thatthe DC-10 (Figures 15 and 16) uses hydraulically powered linear actuatorsexclusively for operation of all control surfaces. The Boeing 747,on the other hand, utilizes hydraulically powered ball screw actuatorsfor operation of control surfaces, except for the leading edge flaps,which are powered by pneumatics.

In order to understand and compare proposed systems with existinghydraulic and/or pneumatic applications, a comparison was made as shownin Appendix XII. Since pyrotechnics normally produce hot gas as theresult of an exothermic reaction, their application as a power sourcecan be referred to as hot gas pneumatics or pyro-pneumatics. Theprincipal advantages of pyro-pneumatics is simplicity in that only asingle energy conversion is required. Three basic energy sources forpyre-pneumatic power were considered: solid propel 1 ants, liquid mono-

propellants, and liquid bi-propel 1 ants with specific impulse ranges of160-250 seconds, 130-250 seconds, and 200-390 seconds, respectively.

20

The methods of generating pyro-pneumatic power are shown in Figure 17.The simplest approach is obviously a solid propellent generator (Reference9) applied directly to a hot gas operated actuator. A typical applica-tion of an existing generator as found on the Sidewinder missile is shownschematically in Figure 18. Solid propellants are generally limited torelatively short operating times. A start-stop capability or sequentialfiring of additional units could extend this time.

Liquid mono-propellants dc increase the operation time. They do,however, possess limitations in that they require (1) initial pressuriza-tion of the propellant storage tank, (2) a thermal decomposition chamberor catalyst bed for propellant combustion or decomposition, and (3)a solid propellant initiator for each start when thermal decompositionchambers are used.

Aircraft mechanical systems can be grouped in two categories; namely,those requiring continuous operation, such as elevators, and those

operated infrequently or only once per flight, such as landing gearextension. Because of the current limitations on time duration andstart-stop capability, the continuous operation functions were notconsidered for detailed study.

Table III shows a summary of the mechanical systems considered andtheir potential for pyrotechnic application.

Systems requiring either'1 single-shot or relatively short-durationenergy were reviewed. Typical of these type applications is the emergencyslat actuation system as shown in Appendix XIII along with a brief compari-son of physical characteristics.

Phase IV - Definition of MechanicalRequirements and Possible Pyrotechnic

Applications to Space Shuttle

Shuttle pyrotechnic applications are unique in that most Shuttlecomponents are to be recovered, refurbished, and used again. Pyrotechnic

systems selected for Shuttle use, will consider refurbishment and/or

21

replacement as related to the turnaround time required and economics.In some instances, it will be more economical and quicker to replace an

item rather than removal, teardown, and replacement of expended parts.The mechanical functions aboard Shuttle that can most logically be

accomplished with pyrotechnics will probably fall into one of twocategories. The first category of applications is that of a relativelyshort-time duration and of a one-shot-only nature. The second categoryof potential pyrotechnic items will include longer-duration functions.

Category I pyrotechnic applications will include many basic functionssuch as severance, separation, initiation or ignition, stimulus transfer,valving, and switching. Although a large variety of designs and hardwareexist, it is probable that Shuttle requirements will necessitate modifi-cation, redesign, and/or new hardware. This is especially true withrespect to the quick turnaround concept.

Appendix XIV contains a pictorial schematic of the location of anumber of potential pyrotechnic applications, along with a list of someof those showing suggested units for functional accomplishment. Theschematic and list, mostly covering category I applications, does notnecessarily represent all of the possible applications that may ultimatelybe used on Space Shuttle.

Two of the most important pyrotechnic systems utilized will be the jinitiation and signal transfer systems. With respect to ignition, theApollo Standard Initiator (ASI) will be used for many applications. Careshould be exercised, however, in using any electric initiator in simultaneousmultitudinous events which could over-tax the supply of available electricenergy and affect the system's reliability. To preclude this possibility,it is good design practice to combine the ASI with shielded mild detonatingcord (SMDC). SMDC is widely used in a number of forms (rigid and flexible).The use of the ASI and SMDC will provide an interface control for themany individual pyrotechnic items to be found.

The second category of potential pyrotechnic items will include a

somewhat longer-duration function. Shuttle mechanical functions to .beconsidered in this category include orbiter gear extension, air-breathing

22

engine starting, pressurization of hydraulic accumulators, pneumatic

system pressurization, vane motor actuation for miscellaneous work

functions, and large actuator separation systems.

A relatively large number of gas generators utilizing solid

propellants is in existence. These gas generators, having a nominal

operating time of up to 60 seconds, may have considerable merit for

adaption to a number of mechanical functions on the Space Shuttle. They

have been developed to power turbine-driven auxiliary power units (APU's),

hot-gas servos, piston motors, turbine pumps, turbine starters, and

nutating disc actuators. It should be noted that some gas generators

have been developed, with a continuous burning time of up to six minutes.

A trade study considering the use of a gas generator/vane motor

combination, in place of a manual back-up system for operating the

radiator and payload bay doors, is shown in Appendix XV. The weightreduction realized might be further increased if one of the electric

motors (and parts of the differential gear associated with it) could

be eliminated.

23

CONCLUSIONS

Pyrotechnics have been and will continue to be widely used aboardaerospace vehicles to perform a wide variety of work and emergency func-tions wherever independent, reliable, self-contained energy systems are

required.Many unique advancements have been made in pyrotechnic utilization

and understanding. Aeronautics have produced personnel-ascape and weapons.release systems. Astronautics have produced pyrotechnic systems toaccomplish nearly all major mechanical functions of space missions,such as personnel escape, staging, hatch removal, and valving. Engineer-ing analysis, design, development, and performance demonstration testingcan now be accomplished in a routine manner.

The most proficient usage of pyrotechnic systems and/or devices mustinvolve the technical specialist in this field in the system design.Since pyrotechnic technology is largely unpublished and represents anexpertise held by a relatively small number of people, dissemination of

important experience and data from other projects and industry can onlybe achieved by involvement of the technical specialist at an early stage.

Pyrotechnics are generally utilized as short-duration, one-shot

devices. However, they do have potential for repetitive-functioning andfor relatively long function times, based on existing gas generator

technology. These concepts were theoretically demonstrated by consider-ing possible pyrotechnic applications on a large commercial aircraft

which approaches the scale of the Shuttle Orbiter. The study showed thatalthough pyrotechnic applications for functions such as the operation offlight control surfaces and landing gear, do not appear practical on anaircraft due to the availability of surplus power, their consideration

for similar Shuttle functions should have merit. The technology toaccomplish these large-scale functions will require study and possible

advancement of the state-of-the-art.

24

Pyrotechnic applications for the Space Shuttle should occupy aprominent role in the successful accomplishment of the overall mission.

The potential applications are numerous, drawing heavily on experiencederived from previous aerospace programs. Many new pyrotechnic conceptswill undoubtedly be conceived out of necessity. In many applicationswhere the choice of a mechanical system is not obvious, objective tradestudies should include pyrotechnics as well as other mechanisms to pro-vide the required information for optimum selection. The Apollo StandardInitiator (ASI) and shielded mild detonating cord (SMDC) should findextensive use. Both the ASI and SMDC will provide an excellent degree

of standardization and interface control.This study, in providing a summary of the state-of-the-art of pyro-

technic technology, and the consideration of pyrotechnic applications on alarge aircraft and on the Shuttle itself, now affords the Shuttle designera wider area of consideration through the use of pyrotechnic energysources for a wide variety of mechanical functions.

25

REFERENCES

1. Anon,: Propellant Actuated Devices Engineering Manual. U.S. Army,Frankford Arsenal IEP 65-6370-8 Rev. A., 15 June 1969.

2. Bement, Laurence J. (NASA LRC): Monitoring of Explosive/Pyrotechnic

Performance,'Presented at the Seventh Symposium on Explosives andPyrotechnics, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,8-9 September 1971.

3. Simmons, William H.: Apollo Spacecraft Pyrotechnics. NASATM X-58032, October 1969.

4. Simmons, Wm. H.: Apollo Spacecraft Pyrotechnics. S.A.E. Paper#70083, 1970.

5. Bull, John 0., Serocki, Edward L., McDonnell, Howard L., et al;Compilation of Data on Crew Emergency Syste.ms. AFFDL-TR-66-150,September 1966.

6. Anon.: McDonnell Aircraft Co., Project Mercury FamiliarizationManual. SEDR 104, 15 December 1959.

7. Anon.: McDonnell Aircraft Co., Project Gemini Familiarization

Manual. SEDR 300 Vol. I, 30 September 1965.

8. Bement, Laurence J. (NASA LRC): Application of Temperature ResistantExplosives to NASA Missions, Presented at the Symposium on ThermallyStable Explosives at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak,Maryland, 23 - 25 June 1970.

9. Anon.: Subcommittee of A6 Aerospace Fluid Power and ControlTechnologies, A6B Fluid Power Sources, Society of AutomotiveEngineers: Gas Generator Design Handbook Vol. I. 1968.

26

TABLES

27

TABLE IMAJOR PAST AND CURRENT

PYROTECHNIC APPLICATIONS IN AERONAUTICS

PROGRAM

F-4 (DUAL PLACE)(EXCLUDING ARMAMENTREQUIREMENTS)

F-111 CREW MODULE

F-14 (DUAL PLACE)(EXCLUDING ARMAMENTREQUIREMENTS)

F-15 (SINGLE PLACE)(EXCLUDING ARMAMENTREQUIREMENTS)

F-4 ARMAMENTCARTRIDGE REQUIREMENTSFOR A MISSION CONFIGURATIONOF (24) 500 LB BOMBS AND 4SPARROW MISSILES

NUMBER OFAIRCRAFT INSTALLED

PYROTECHNIC DEVICES USED

31

315

211

44

42

TABLE nMAJOR PAST AND CURRENT

PYROTECHNIC APPLICATIONS IN ASTRONAUTICS

PROGRAM

MERCURY

GEMINI

SATURN

APOLLO(CSM/SLA/LM)

APOLLO(CSM/SLA)FOR SKYLAB

NUMBER OF SPACECRAFTINSTALLED PYROTECHNIC

DEVICES USED

46

139

APPROX.150

314

249

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a study of the role of pyrotechnic systems on the space … · · 2013-08-31a study of the role...

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