A REASSESMENT OF THE EXCAVATIONS AT TALL SAFUT

This dissertation will essentially be an archaeological site report, covering the

excavations carried out at the site of Tall Safut in Jordan. It will be an analysis of the

pottery in an effort to determine the stratigraphy of the site through the Iron IIC/Persian

Period.

Background Statement

The site of Tall Safut is located 12 km. north of Amman in Jordan. It was

excavated by Donald Wimmer over the course of 10 seasons between 1982 and 2001

(Wimmer 1985; 1987a; 1987b; 1989; 1991; 1992; 1994; and 1997). Wimmer was

Professor of Religious Studies at Seton Hall University, a Catholic school in New Jersey,

and was studying at the American Center for Oriental Research in Amman when he was

asked to lead a salvage excavation at Safut under the auspices of the Department of

Antiquities of Jordan. There was some urgency as the main north-south highway

between Amman and Jerash was scheduled to be expanded through the heart of the tell.1

In the first season of 1982, Wimmer excavated in Areas A, B, C, D, and E.

Throughout the course of 10 seasons Areas A-L (omitting I) were excavated (see

1 Wimmer’s only archaeological experience was as a volunteer at Tell Heshbon in 1973 and 1976 (Boraas and Horn 1969; 1973; 1975; Boraas and Geraty 1976; 1978). He had decided to dig at Hesban because as a doctoral student of biblical studies at Notre Dame University his advisor was John L. McKenzie, friend and colleague of the Director of the Tell Heshbon excavations, Siegfried Horn of Andrews University.

1

Appendix for site report and site map). The main periods represented at the site are the

Middle Bronze Age (largely in Area D), the Late Bronze Age II, Iron Age I, Iron Age

IIB, Iron Age IIC/Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman/Byzantine. Significant amounts of

pottery and artifacts were found at the site, as well as large architectural structures,

making Safut one of the most important Bronze and Iron Age sites in Jordan (See Table I,

The Stratigraphy of Safut).

The Middle and Late Bronze Ages were at one time thought to be periods of

abatement in Transjordan (Glueck 1970); however, with further excavations and modern

pottery analysis, more about these periods is known (Sauer 1986 and McGovern 1992).

Due to a supposed Middle Bronze glacis that was revealed by the bulldozers, Safut

emerged on the archaeological scene in 1953 when the Amman-Jerash highway was first

constructed (Zayadine 1973: 18-19). This glacis was further revealed by the expansion of

the highway in 1960 (Ma'ayeh 1960a: 114-116; Ma'ayeh 1960b: 226). Wimmer

determined, based on excavation of Area D, that

There is no question that the bedrock was cut in antiquity as foundation for the crowning wall, and that the composition of the inclined place agreed with the earlier description, except that no certain signs of plaster appeared. It could have weathered away, or have been removed by the 1950s construction. . . . It should be noted that the crowning wall, as it was called, is curved, and that the segment on the west has its counterpart on the east as is evident in a pre-excavation slide. Excavation produces only MB/LB Bronze Age pottery in the layers immediately above the glacis itself which proved to be sterile (Wimmer 1987a: 279).

In other words, it cannot be determined with certainty whether the glacis is artificial or

manmade. Wimmer later reported that what was thought to be a glacis is nothing more

than a natural geological formation (Wimmer 1992: 896). So, in order to understand the

Middle Bronze Age occupation at Safut, the pottery from Area D will be examined. It

will be virtually impossible to determine whether the observed glacis is artificial or

2

naturally occurring, but even if there was no glacis this does not preclude a Middle

Bronze settlement.

There are significant remains found in Area B dating to the Late Bronze Age.

Based on an initial assessment of the pottery from this area there appears to be a

continuation of settlement from the Late Bronze IIB through the Iron Age I. This Late

Bronze/Iron I transition period is very important for understanding the settlement process

that leads to the Iron Age II kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Israel/Judah (Herr

1992; LaBianca and Younker 1994; Petter 2005; Routledge 2004). So, a detailed

examination of the stratigraphy and corresponding pottery, objects, and architectural

remains will be vitally important to determine more definitively the nature of the

transition at Safut and to see how this transitional period relates to those found at sites

such as Tall al-Umayri (Herr 1989; 1991; 1997; 2000; 2002).

Finally, the main period of occupation at Safut is the Iron II. The pottery needs to

be examined in order to understand the occupational phases of the tell as a whole, and the

architecture and artifacts need to be examined in order to delineate the relationship Safut

has with the Baq’ah Valley and the capital city of the Ammonites, Rabbath-Ammon.

Problem Statement

Other than the preliminary reports and encyclopedia articles published by

Wimmer, no detailed analysis of the remains and no final reports have been published

since the conclusion of excavations in 2001. The site has received brief mention in other

articles and books dealing with archaeology because of its remains dating to the Middle

Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, and Iron Ages. Safut has significant remains from these

3

time periods and their detailed analysis is important for understanding the ancient history

of Jordan.

Purpose of the Research

The purpose of this dissertation is to prepare a stratigraphic report of the material

from the Middle Bronze Age through the Iron IIC/Persian Period excavated at Tall Safut,

Jordan from 1982-2001.

Scope and Delimitations

Considering the amount of time that has passed since the excavations were

completed and the lack of detailed material that has been published, the main problem

that will be faced while writing this dissertation is accurately reconstructing each level of

deposition based on the pottery (and pottery drawings) available and the notebooks

recorded during each season of excavation. The secondary problem is the disorganized

and scattered nature of the material. The majority of the pottery findings and artifacts are

located in Jordan. However they are spread between the Salt Archaeological Museum,

the Amman Citadel Museum, and the DAJ storage warehouse facilities. The materials

now located at Andrews University were originally stored at Seton Hall University, and

then upon the retirement of Donald Wimmer were moved to his house. During May 2008

I spent a week at Professor Wimmer’s house retrieving all pertinent materials and hauled

them back to Andrews University. There are also bones and some small finds from the

site in an unknown location in Canada, as well as some figurines and seals in the

possession of Othmar Keel, Professor Emeritus at the University of Freiburg.

4

Due to the fact that the bulk of pottery and artifacts have been kept in Jordan and

are not immediately available for study, the report will mainly focus on pottery sherds

that are now located in the United States at Andrews University. However, also at

Andrews University are pottery drawings of some of the pottery that remains in Jordan,

and these drawings will be an important supplement where sherds are lacking. Using

both sherds and drawings it will be possible to develop a stratigraphic report for all 10

seasons and all areas of excavation pertinent to this report. The report will only look at

levels dating to the Persian Period and earlier. There is scant material on the site from

any later periods and the only excavated architectural remains dating later than the

Persian Period were located on a hill across the wadi from the site (Area H).

Methodology Statement

This dissertation will take the form of an archaeological site report. It will focus

on the stratigraphy of the areas excavated and not on small finds or other remains. The

stratigraphy is best understood by reading through the excavation notebooks and dating

pottery from each level represented. There are several ways to write a site report. Some

are written for every season excavated, others cover all layers in a certain area or field,

and yet others are divided by archaeological periods excavated. Since I have the benefit

of working through the material after it has all been excavated, the third approach will be

used. This approach will be most efficient and will also be the most “user-friendly,”

allowing the reader to look in one chapter for material from a certain time period instead

of looking through multiple chapters and scattered entries. All of these reports use what

is typically called in archaeology the “comparative” approach. The pottery excavated

from the site will be compared with that from other sites with known chronologies. After

5

a date can be assigned to the sherds, the loci they were found in can all be assigned to a

particular phase, and from these phases the overall stratigraphy of the site can be

determined (Dever 1978; Herr and Christopherson 1998).

The proposed content and sequence of chapters is given in a tentative table of

contents attached to this proposal. The chapters concerned with remains from the

excavations will evolve as the material is more closely examined.

6

TENTATIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Chapter:I. INTRODUCTION

Statement of Purpose Methodology The History of the Tell Safut Project (Background) Scope and Delimitations

II. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SAFUT

Name and Biblical References Geography and Routes Geology and Resources History of Exploration

III. MIDDLE BRONZE AGE REMAINS

IV. LATE BRONZE AGE REMAINS

V. IRON AGE I REMAINS

VI. IRON AGE II REMAINS

VII. IRON AGE IIC/ PERSIAN REMAINS

VIII. STRATIGRAPHIC AND HISTORICAL CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCE LIST

7

APPENDIX: SITE REPORT AND MAP

Name/Biblical References:-The name is taken from the small village that borders the site on the west.-The site is likely biblical Nobah (Nabai in the LXX) mentioned in Judges 8:11, with el Gubeihat being Jogbehah, places that Gideon passes by while on the “tent-dwellers road.”-Safut can be traced to shopet (judge/ judgement) by way of Aramaic transmission. It is a Canaanite name, whose meaning alluded to its domineering position overlooking the Baq’ah valley. It cannot, however, be totally excluded that Sâfût is derived from a Canaanite personal name Shaphat (e.g., Num. 13:5, from the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori) (Knauf 1991).

Geography/Routes:-The tell is located on the northern edge of the Amman-Jerash highway 1.5km from the Suweileh intersection, and 12km north of downtown Amman.-The area of the tell is 17,728 sq m (17.8 dunams or 4.5 acres) and is bounded by the highway on the south, two wadis on the east and northeast, a small field on the southwest, and the modern village of Safut on the southwest.-The tell has a flat top measuring 18 by 70 m (Glueck 1939: 191) before the modern highway was built.-The site overlooks the Baq’ah Valley (Beq’ah) from the south, which is 5 km wide and 10 km long running northeast. Tell Safut is 928.32 m above sea level, the valley is 300 m below, and the Suweilah hills are 200 m higher.-The site guarded one of the principle trade routes leading from the interior of Gilead (Jabbok River in the Bible/ modern Wadi Zerqa) through the Baq’ah valley to Rabbath-Ammon. The “tent-dwellers road” of Judge 8:11 linked that area to the Kings Highway.

Geology/Resources:-There are four springs issuing from the tell at the far northern part near the valley floor. There is a considerable buildup of sherd-imbedded layers in this area. There are small wall segments located near them that could have been part of a control system or connected with the lower portions of the approach to the city (Wimmer 1984: 408). The springs emanate from the Wadi Suweileh that flows down from the hills above the site to the south and join with it on the eastern side of the tell to form the Wadi Safut.-Geologically the area belongs to the Kurnub Group: this group is exposed in the western parts of Amman-Zarqa Basin at Baq'ah Valley. It mainly consists of white, gray and multicolored sandstone (weakly cemented fine-medium and coarse grained) with red silts, shales and dolomite streaks. The top of this group is

8

known as the Subeihi Formation, which mainly consists of red-brown varicolored sandstone with a large portion of marl, clay and siltstone. On the other hand, the lower part of this group is known as Aarda Formation which consists of yellow-white sandstone with shale partings and dolomite streaks (Al Mahamid 2005: 74).-The thickness of Kurnub Group has been encountered between 200-300 meters (USAID and WAJ 1989). The formation dates to the Lower Cretaceous Period (100-70 MYA).

Archaeology/ History:-The site was surveyed by De Vaux and Glueck primarily (see Glueck 1937, 1939 and De Vaux 1938) and when the Amman-Jerash road was expanded a cut exposed what was thought to be a MB glacis (Ma’ayeh 1960a, b). -Don Wimmer excavated the site beginning in 1982 and subsequent seasons of 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1995, 1997-1999, and 2001. He dug in Areas A-L (omitting I). -Excavations began at the site in 1982 and areas A1-4 (including A1 extension), B1-3, C1-2, D1-2, and E (one square) were excavated and notebooks written for each. In 1983 excavations continued in A1 and A4, and C1, while new squares 4-6 were opened in area B. During the 1985 season in area B squares 7-8 were opened and in area C squares 1-3 were excavated. In 1987 excavations continued in A1 and A5 was opened, C4-7 were excavated, area F (one square) was excavated, as was G1-2. In 1989 B4-8, C1-7, G4-6, and H1-2 (offsite Byzantine remains) were excavated. After a gap of 6 years excavations continued in 1995 in area C2-7, square B9, and area J1-12 was opened. In 1997 B8, 10-11 were excavated and areas L1-6 and K1-5 were opened. In 1998 excavations were only carried out in L1-6 and L10-15. In 1999 only three squares were excavated L1, L3, and L10. The last season of excavation was 2001 and again only three squares were excavated B4, C3, and C7.- Area A is all Iron Age II and was the initial salvage area where the highway was to be expanded. Area B is made up of eleven 5m x 5m squares directly north of area A. Area C is west of B and is made up of three 5m x 10m square and four 5m x 5m squares. Area D is two 5m x 5m squares to the south and slightly west of C and was excavated in order to better examine the glacis. In these areas A-C remains were found spanning the Middle Bronze Age all the way through the Hellenistic Period. Area E is located 100 m to the east of the tell and was found to consist of some mortars cut into the bedrock, dating to the Late Byzantine period (Wimmer 1985: 409). Area F is the Iron Age IIC northern perimeter casemate defense wall and consists of one square. Area G is an Iron IIC tomb fragment partially bulldozed in the Wadi Safut (Wimmer 1989: 512). Area H is made up of two squares on a hill across the wadi to the east of the tell. A house from the Byzantine period was the only architecture found. Area J has thirteen squares on the southeast slope of the tell just east of Area B, where the surface was excavated to expose architecture in order to stop modern development (Wimmer 1997: 449). Area K is located between areas F and L along the northeastern perimeter of the tell. The last area, L, is made up of 12 squares where the excavations revealed remains largely dating to the Iron Age II.

9

-Material culture remains clearly correlate with other Ammonite sites: the Amman citadel, Tell el-‘Umeiri, Tell Jawa, and Umm ad-Dananir (Wimmer 1997: 449).-Middle Bronze Age: the glacis has been the main focus of any writings on the site prior to excavations by Wimmer. One of his first goals was to determine the age of the glacis.

-After more bulldozing was done no cross section of the glacis appeared and so brought into question its existence. Although at the very least there appears to have been added fortifications in this area.-Wimmer later reports that what was thought to be a glacis is nothing more than a natural geological formation (Wimmer 1992: 896).-There is no pure MB stratigraphy; the pottery was always mixed with LB.

-Late Bronze Age: Most LB remains were found in area B on the southeastern part of the acropolis.

-In square A4, which tied area A to B a probe 1.25m deep revealed LB II layers built on virgin soil and associated with a wall of 0.75m long stones. -There is a perimeter defense wall around the acropolis running E-W for the length of area B (squares 1-3), and LB pottery is associated with its lowest levels. In square B2 a 1.25 m probe was dug to bedrock and the LB wall with narrow foundation trench went all the way down. -Inside of the wall in square B5 a chalice, 600 cubic centimeters of charred two-row barley, and a bronze deity figurine with gold foil was found under a destruction layer of tumbled mud brick. This was likely a shrine and it along with the perimeter wall continued in use into the Iron Age I (Wimmer 1997: 449 contra Wimmer 1987b).-The perimeter defense wall continued into area J (Wimmer 1997).

-Iron Age I: two squares (B4 and B6) showed a sequence from LBII through Iron I with no destruction level. In B6 several large collared-rim storage jars were found standing in a curved mud brick installation, in which the mud brick was baked in situ (Wimmer 1989: 514).-Iron Age II: The site was its largest during this period and a more extensive defense system was built. It was likely used as an administrative and trade center during the periods of Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony. The major Iron II perimeter wall rested on a pure Iron IIB destruction level. This is based on a deep pit (0.9m wide x 2m long x 2.25m deep) faced with stone and containing burnt material dating to Iron IIB (9th-8th century BCE) (Wimmer 1987b: 162).

-This casemate wall (2.2 m thick) was reinforced by another wall with dirt core (or some type of small glacis, Wimmer calls it both). The room (room A/ square A1) inside fully excavated to its floor showed a destruction level with smashed cookpots and figurine heads. The walls of the room were plastered and in a crack a dipper juglet was found: it has a rounded base, an elongated figure, and a loop handle (Wimmer 1987a: 281). This type of juglet exactly parallels one from a late Iron Age Megabelein tomb (Dornemann 1983: 54, 231). A number of vessels were found Ammonite in type and dating to the Iron Age IIC (Wimmer 1987b: 166-170).

10

-In squares C1-C2 there are six phases of a large building (with store/workrooms made of less impressive architecture in C3) and the walls in B7-B8 can’t be interpreted (Wimmer 1987b: 164, 166, 171-172). Five of these phases belong to the Iron IIC/Persian Period. There are three living surfaces separated by two fills or collapses.

-Phase 2 is the latest Iron IIC phase and has consistent living surfaces. A restorable jar, crosswall, and stone tools were found. Architecture consists of small, closed units of 2-3m sq built of single rows of stone.-Phase 3 consists of debris and collapses, not burned. This is where a Babylonian seal impression was found depicting a priest worshipping the god Marduk (square C2).-Phase 4 stone pavements or floors are found in C1 and C3 and earth living surfaces (some partially paved) in B7 and B8. There are more substantial two-row walls enclosing areas of 10-15m sq. A military standard and dagger blade were found in this level (square B7).-Phase 5 is a destruction level, with ashy layer. Stone tools, loom weights, and a bronze bowl were found.-Phase 6 has a series of surfaces made of hard packed mud brick. An iron bar was found here (square C3). There are stone floors in B7 and a storage bin. The architecture is similar to phase 4. Wimmer attributes Room A in area A to this phase.

-In area F the casemate wall was again found and one cross wall was exposed in addition to a 1m sq tower that was integrated into the inner side of the outer wall; a small opening at the base provided access to the tower from inside the wall (Wimmer 1994: 541).-The Iron IIC finds include an iron military standard measuring 1 cm in thickness and 24 cm in diameter. It was held by three rivets to a 17 cm long hollow shaft. An iron bar for dismantling walls was also found (see 1 Chronicles 20:3, 2 Samuel 12:31ff). -In the next layer cooking pots and Assyrian bottles were found. During the last phase of Iron Age occupation a Late Babylonian seal impression was found depicting a worshipper before an altar.-The pottery of the Iron IIC “manifest influence in local imitations of neo-Assyrian palace ware, along with characteristically Ammonite painted ware and the thoroughly black, often burnished ware that continued from Iron IIC into the Persian Period (Wimmer 1985: 410).”

-Later Periods: -phase 1 of area C has two Ottoman burials (although the text doesn’t mention the type) as well as Byzantine sherds and some architectural features on the summit.-Late Roman and Byzantine ware were found together in area E and H, which is on a hill east of the tell where the settlement moved during this time.

11

-Unexcavated areas: inset/offset walls (at 905 m) with a major bench encircling the north and western parts of the tell, which connects with another part that appears to be reached from the valley floor, perhaps indicating a gateway.

Figure 1. Site Map of Tall Safut, adopted from topographic map produced by Robert Suder after the 1985 season (location of Area K not known).

12

Table 1. The Stratigraphy of Safut

Time Period Wimmer Stratigraphy

Chesnut Phasing

Modern/Ottoman Period Phase 1 (burials)

Late Roman/Byzantine Period Stratum I Phase 2 (architectural features of tell)

Early/Middle Roman Period

Hellenistic Period

Late Iron IIC/ Persian Stratum IIa Phase 3 (occupational level)

Iron IIC Stratum IIb Phase 4 (post-occupation)

Phase 5 (occupational level)

Early Iron IIC Stratum IIc Phase 6 (destruction level)

Phase 7 (occupational level)

Iron IIB Phase 8 (?)

Iron IIA

Iron I Stratum IIIa Phase 9 (transition period ? and occupational level)

Late Bronze IIA/B Stratum IIIb Phase 10 (occupational level)

Late Bronze I

Middle Bronze Age Phase 11 (?)

13

Bibliography

1978 Sheet 1: Amman. in Archaeological Map of Jordan, 1:250,000.

Abel, F. M. 1938 Géographie de la Palestine II. Paris: J. Gabalda et Cie.

Al Mahamid, J.2005 Integration of Water Resources of the Upper Aquifer in Amman-Zarqa Basin.

Based on Mathematical Modeling and GIS, Jordan. Freiberg Online Geology 12: 7-223.

Avigad, N., and Sass, B.1997 Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Bennett, C. M., and Bienkowski, P.1995 Excavations at Tawilan in Southern Jordan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bienkowski, P.1991 Treasure From an Ancient Land: The Art of Jordan. Gloucestershire, UK: Alan

Sutton Publishing.2002 Busayra Excavations by Crystal-M. Bennett, 1971-1980. Oxford: Published for

the Council for British Research in the Levant by Oxford University Press.

Boraas, R. S., and Geraty, L. T.1976 Heshbon 1974: The Fourth Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.

Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.1978 Heshbon 1976: The Fifth Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.

Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.

Boraas, R. S., and Horn, S. H.1969 Heshbon 1968: The First Campaign at Tell Hesban. Berrien Springs, MI:

Andrews University Press.1973 Heshbon 1971: The Second Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.

Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.1975 Heshbon 1973: The Third Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.

Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.

14

Bordreuil, P., and Lemaire, A.1976 Nouveaux Sceaux Hebreux, Arameens, et Ammonites. Semitica 26: 45-63.

Brown, R. M.1991 Ceramics from the Kerak Plateau. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

Burrows, M.1931 News From the School of Jerusalem. Bulletin for the American Schools of

Oriental Research 44: 10-12.

Chambon, D. R.1989 Field B: The Western Defense System. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University

Press.

Clark, D. R.2000 Field B: The Western Defensive System. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University

Press.

Dajani, R. W.1966a Jebel Nuzha Tomb at Amman. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities

Jordan 11: 48-52.1966b Four Iron Age Tombs from Irbid. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities

Jordan 11: 88-101.1970 A Late Bronze Age Tomb Excavated at Sahab, 1968. Annual of the Department of

the Antiquities Jordan 15: 29-34.

Daviau, P. M. M., and Dion, P.E.2002 Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan: The Iron Age Town. Leiden: Brill.

De Vaux, R.1938 Chronique: Exploration de la Region de Salt. Revue Biblique 47: 398-425.1978 The Early History of Israel. London: Darton, Longman, & Todd.

Dever, W.1978 A Manual of Field Excavation: Handbook for Field Archaeologists. Cincinnati:

Hebrew Union College.

Dornemann, R. H.1983 The Archaeology of the Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Milwaukee:

Milwaukee Public Museum.

Fischer, P. M.1991 Tell Abu al-Kharaz: The Swedish Jordan Expedition 1989: First Season

Preliminary Report from Trial Soundings. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan 35: 67-104.

15

2006 Tell Abu Al-Kharaz in the Jordan Valley. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

2008 Tell Abu al-Kharaz in the Jordan Valley. Volume 1: The Early Bronze Age. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Fischer, P. M., and Bourke, S.2006 The Chronology of the Jordan Valley during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages:

Pella, Tell Abu Al-Kharaz, and Tell Deir 'Alla. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Franken, H. J.1992 Excavations at Tell Deir 'Alla: The Late Bronze Age Sanctuary. Leiden: Brill.

Franken, H. J., and Kalsbeek, J.1969 Excavations at Tell Deir 'Alla. Leiden: Brill.

Ghanimeh, K. A.1984 Abu Nseir Excavations. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan 28:

305-310, 484-485, 487-489.

Glueck, N.1934 Explorations in Eastern Palestine I. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental

Research 14: 1-113.1937 Explorations in the Land of Ammon. Bulletin for the American Schools of

Oriental Research 68: 13-21.1939 Explorations in Eastern Palestine, III. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental

Research 28-29: 191-192, 197.1970 The Other Side of the Jordan. Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental

Research.

Harding, G. L.1948 An Iron-Age Tomb at Sahab. Quarterly for the Department of Antiquities of

Palestine 13: 92-102.

Harding, G. L., and Isserlin, B. S. J.1953a A Middle Bronze Age Tomb at Amman. Palestine Exploration Fund Annual 6:

14-26.1953b An Early Iron Age Tomb at Madeba. Palestine Exploration Fund Annual 6: 27-

41.

Hendrix, R. E.; Drey, P. R.; and Storfjell, J. B.1997 Ancient Pottery of Transjordan: An Introduction Utilizing Published Whole

Forms: Late Neolithic through Late Islamic. Berrien Springs, MI: Institute of Archaeology/Horn Archaeological Museum.

16

Herr, L. G.1989 Madaba Plains Project: The 1984 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and

Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.1991 Madaba Plains Project: The 1987 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and

Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.1992 Shifts in Settlement Patterns of Late Bronze and Iron Age Ammon. Studies in the

History and Archaeology of Jordan IV: 175-177.1997 Madaba Plains Project: The 1989 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and

Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.2000 Madaba Plains Project: The 1992 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Subsequent

Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.2002 Madaba Plains Project: The 1994 Season at Tall al-'Umayri and Subsequent

Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.

Herr, L., and Christopherson, G.1998 Excavation Manual: Madaba Plains Project. Berrien Springs, MI: Madaba Plains

Project in cooperation with Andrews University Institute of Archaeology.

Homès-Fredericq, D.; Hennessy, J. B.; and Zayadine, F.1986 Archaeology of Jordan. Leuven: Peeters.

Ibach, R.1987 Archaeological Survey of the Hesban Region. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews

University Press.

Ibrahim, M. M.1974 Second Season of Excavations at Sahab, 1973, Preliminary Report. Annual of the

Department of the Antiquities Jordan 19: 55-61.1987 Sahab and its Foreign Relations. Studies in the Archaeology of Jordan 3: 73-81.1992 Sahab. Anchor Bible Dictionary 5: 895-900.

Kafafi, Z.1983 The Local Pottery. Pp. 33-46 in The Amman Airport Excavations, ed. L. G. Herr.

Winona Lake, IN: American Schools of Oriental Research.

Kletter, R.2002 A Monkey Figurine from Tel Beth Shemesh. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21:

147-152.

Knauf, E. A.1991 Eglon and Ophrah: Two Toponymic Notes on the Book of Judges. Journal for the

Study of the Old Testament 51: 25-44.

17

LaBianca, O. S., and Younker, R. W.1994 The Kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Edom: The Archaeology of Society in Late

Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (CA. 1400-500 BCE). In: The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, ed. T. E. Levy. New York: Facts on File.

Landes, G.1961 The Material Civilization of the Ammonites. Biblical Archaeologist XXIV: 66-

86.

Lemaire, A.1981 Galaad et Makir: Remarques sur la tribu de Manasse a l'est du Jourdain. Vetus

Testamentum 31: 39-61.

Ma'ayeh, F. S.1960a Recent Discoveries in Jordan. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan

4-5: 114-116.1960b Chronique Archeologique: Amman, Safout, Jerash, Um Qeis, Quailbe (ancienne

Abila). Revue Biblique 67: 226-229.

Mallon, A.1934 Les Tells Riverains du Jabboq Inferieur (Sukkoth, Phanuel, Nobe). in

Miscellanea Biblica Edita a Pontificio Instituto Biblico ad celebrandum annum XXV ex quo conditum est institutum. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.

McGovern, P.1986 The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Central Transjordan: The Baq'ah Valley

Project 1977-1981. Philadelphia: University Museum.1989 The Baq'ah Valley Project 1987: Khirbet Umm Ad-Dananir and Al-Qesir. Annual

of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan 33: 123-136.1992 Settlement Patterns of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages in the Greater Amman

Area. Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan IV: 179-183.

McNamara, K. G.2004 Fossil Echinoids from Neolithic and Iron Age Sites in Jordan. Pp. 459-466 in

Echinoderms: Munchen Proceedings of the 11th International Echinoderm Conference, 6-10 October 2003, Munich, Germany, eds. Heinzeller and Nebelsick. London: Taylor and Francis Group.

Merling, D., and Younker, R. W.2000 Madaba Plains Project: Tall Jalul. Andrews University Seminary Studies 38: 45-

58.

Merrill, S.1881 East of the Jordan: A Record of Travel and Observation in the Countries of

Moab, Gilead, and Bashan. London: Richard Bentley & Son.

18

Noth, M.1941 Beitrage zur Geschichte des Ostjordanlandes. Palastinajahrbuch 37: 51-101.

Oded, B.1971 Jogbehah and Rujm el-Jebeha. Palestinian Exploration Quarterly 103: 33-34.

Olavarri, E.1965 Sondages a 'Aro'er sur l'Arnon. Revue Biblique 72: 77-94.

Ottoson, M.1969 Gilead: Tradition and History. Lund, Sweden: CWK Gleerup.

Petter, T. D.2005 Diversity and Uniformity on the Frontier: Ethnic Identity in the Central Highlands

of Jordan During the Iron I. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto.

Pritchard, J. B.1980 The Cemetery at Tell es-Saidiyeh, Jordan. Philadelphia: University Museum

University of Pennsylvania.1985 Tell es-Saidiyeh: Excavations on the Tell, 1964-1966. Philadelphia: University

Museum University of Pennsylvania.

Rainey, A. F.2008 Personal communication. Boston, MA.

Ray, P. J.2001 Tell Hesban and Vicinity in the Iron Age. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews

University Press.

Routledge, B. E.2004 Moab in the Iron Age: Hegemony, Polity, Archaeology. Philadelphia: University

of Pennsylvania Press.

Sauer, J. A.1986 Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages: A Critique of Glueck's Synthesis.

Bulletin for the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 1-26.

Schroer, S., and Eggler, J.2006 Monkey. in Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East, eds. J.

Eggler and C. Uelinger.

Thompson, H. O.1986 An Iron Age Tomb at Madaba. in The Archaeology of Jordan and Other Studies,

eds. L. T. Geraty and L. G. Herr. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University.

19

Tristram, H. B.1865 The Land of Israel. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Tubb, J. N.1988 Tell es-Sa'idiyeh: Preliminary Report on the First Three Seasons of Renewed

Excavations. Levant 20: 23-80.

Tushingham, A. D.1972 The Excavations at Dibon (Dhiban) in Moab: The Third Campaign, 1952-53.

Cambridge: American Schools of Oriental Research.1992 A "Neo-Babylonian" Seal from Tell Taanach. Bulletin for the American Schools

of Oriental Research 286: 15-18.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID).1989 The North Jordan Water Resources Investigation Project. Amman-Zarqa Basin.

in Amman, Jordan: Water Authority of Jordan.

Warren, C.1870 Expedition to East of the Jordan. Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement

6: 284-306.

Weippert, M.1979a The Israelite Conquest and the Evidence from Transjordan. Pp. 15-34 in Symposia

Celebrating the 75th Anniversary of the Founding of the American Schools of Oriental Research (1900-1975). ed. F. M. Cross. Cambridge.

1979b Ein Siegel vom Tell Safut. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 95: 173-177.

1980 Berichtigung. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 96: 100.

Wimmer, D. H.1985 Third Archaeological Expedition to Tell Safut. Liber Annuus XXXV: 408-410.1987a The Excavations at Tell Safut. Studies in the Archaeology of Jordan 3: 279-282.1987b Tell Safut Excavations, 1982-1985 Preliminary Report. Annual of the Department

of the Antiquities Jordan 31: 159-174.1989 Safut (Tell). Pp. 512-515 in Archaeology of Jordan II: Field Reports, eds. D.

Homes-Fredericq and J. B. Hennessy.1991 Tell Safut. American Journal of Archaeology 95: 268.1992 Safut. Anchor Bible Dictionary 5: 896-897.1994 Tell Safut. American Journal of Archaeology 98: 540-541.1997 Safut, Tell. Pp. 448-450 in Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East,

ed. E. Meyers.

Winnett, F. V., and Reed, W. L.1964 The Excavations at Dibon (Dhiban) in Moab. New Haven: American Schools of

Oriental Research.

20

Yassine, K.1984 Tell el Mazar I: Cemetery A. Amman: University of Jordan.

Younker, R. W.1993 The Joint Madaba Plains Project: A Preliminary Report of the 1992 Season,

Including the Regional Survey and Excavations at Tell Jalul and Tell El-'Umeiri. Andrews University Seminary Studies 31: 205-238.

1996 Preliminary Report of the 1994 Season of the Madaba Plains Project: Regional Survey, Tall Al-'Umayri and Tall Jalul. Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 65-92.

1997 Preliminary Report of the 1996 Season of the Madaba Plains Project: Regional Survey, Tall Al-'Umayri and Tall Jalul Excavations. Andrews University Seminary Studies 35: 227-240.

2007 Preliminary Report of the 2000, 2004, and 2005 Seasons at Tell Jalul, Jordan (Madaba Plains Project). Andrews University Seminary Studies 45: 73-86.

Zayadine, F.1973 Middle Bronze Age. Pp. 18-19 in The Archaeological Heritage of Jordan: The

Archaeological Periods and Sites (East Bank), ed. G. Barakat. Amman, Department of Antiquities.

21