BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CHINAVoi. XXIII. Nos. 3-4. PP. 197-208, 1 PL. DEC. 1943

A Preliminary Study of the Physiography ofthe Foocliow Basin*

By

LIN KWAN-TE

(Fukien Christian Unicri:y)

\Vith one plate.

TOPOURAPtIIC SETIINU

Foàchow City lies about 34 miles above the mouth of the Min River atapproximately 1X9 degrees East Longitude and 26 degrees North Latitude.Foochow Basin (Pl. s) coptains about 550 square miles. It is surrounded onall sides by mountaizis and receives their drainage. The Basin lies in the Minflou Hsien and northwestern Changlo Hsien.

The abrupt granite mountains surrounding the basin tower up to 3,000feet. On the north, the Kushan forms a northern arc, and on the south theChishan forms the southern limit of the basin, though three valleys extendsouthward. Where the Min River en;ers the basin ou the west, the hills aremarked by gentle slopes. East of the basin is a group of hills known as ShiaoShih Shan or Changlo Mountains with elevations between z,600 and 2,000 feetabove sea level. At the southern border is Hsieh Nan Valley, two miles wideand 55 miles long, bordered on the west by abrupt hills and on the south byhills of much lower altitude and gentle slopes. Interlocking mountain spurs atboth the entrance and the outlet of the Min River add to the seclusion of thebasin.

The basin is unique in its physiographic development. Within the basinscattered level-topped hills indicate two fo;mer erosion levels or stages in valley

Received for publication in April 1942.

198 Bulletin of the Geological Society of China

development at 8o to 200 feet and 400 to 600 feet above sea level respectively.These hills for.in strategic and observation points. Kao Chieh Shan (5oo feet)represents the higher level and San Shan (Three Hills) the lower level.

The basin is not a continuous one. It is separated into many small flatalluvial areas by river valleys and low lying hills. On the largest of the alluvialareas stands Foochow City, bordered on the north by Kushan arc and on the southby the northern branch of the Min River. Two other large alluvial flats borderChishan on the south and Changlo on the east.

Nantai Island divides the Min River above Hung Shan Chiao or UpperBridge, the two channels reuniting at Pagoda Anchorage. These channels arebraided and sand filled. They are about one-eighth of a mile wide in the middle,but narrow to a width of forty feet at both ends near Hung Shan Chiao andHsieh-tou gap. Numerous canals and streams traverse the broad, fertile alluvialfloor of the basin and serve the dual purpose of communication and irrigation.-The flat portion of Nantai is also alluvial material but here and there sttnd isolatedhills.

The alluvial islets scattered between the Min River channels are intensivelycultivated and densely populated. Numerous shifting sand bars in these channelsincrease the difficulties of river navigation.

Three geographic divisions, based on topography but reflecting also differences

in economic activities, are secognized in the Foochow Basin. These are thesurrounding mountains, the alluvial plai 15, and Nantai Island and its associatedislets. These are called respectively: Chi-Ku (mountain) region, Min-Chang(alluvial plain) region, and Nantai (is1nd) region.

The mountains of Chi-Ku region form a steep-walled upland surroundingthe basin. The rolling accordant summit forms have reached late maturity indevelopment, while valleys developed in the slopes are in early youth. NearKushan Peak, a table-land of considerable area rises like a moaadnock above the

summit surface.

ROCKS AND STRUCTURE OF 11111 FOOCIIOW BASIN

The topographic expression and other physical characters of the basin arein large part controlled by its underlying bed rock and geologic structure. In

order to understand the physiographic development of the region an adequate

Lin:P/iysiography of Foochow Basin 199

familiarity with the formations and general structure is necessary. Although

correlation and dating of the physical events is rendered difficult ly the absenceof the older sedimentary formations and fossils, the following known facts arepresented for the light that they throw on the subject.

The oldest knQwa formation, making up the bedrock floor of the basin andthe surrounding möuntains, is of Archaean Age [s). It consists chiefly ofgneissic rocks, especially granite gneiss. The formation has been cut by a felsiticdike 2 feet wide near Hung Shan Chiao on the northern bank of the Min River.Similar dikes described in adjacent areas cut the younger formations.

Although younger sedimentary formations, such as limestone, sandstone,shale, conglomerate including "Red Beds" and a volcanic series of the arealtype are described elsewhere in Fukien province, they are missing in the FoochowBasin. The volcanic s ries indicates the presence in eastern Fukien of a post-volcanic orogenic movement, phase Il of the Yenshan movement (z). This facthas an important bearing on the early development of the basin. Since thismovement the region has been subjected to vigorous erosion. The above-mentioned

dike is probably one of the members of the volcanic series.

The gneiss is intruded by granite. In some cases the two are ratherdifficult to distinguish, as the granite may have in its marginal facies a bandedtexture and gneissic appearance. This gneissic structure indicates that some

movement has taken place after the consolidation of the rock. In most placesthe granite is massive. It is coarse granular to porphyritic and contains abundantflesh-colored orthoclase and quartz, whIle dark minerals like mica and hornblende

are comparatively rare. It is possible that the gneissic granite may diMer fromthe massive granite in age. Hsieh [) believes the intrusive granite of easternFukien to be late Mesozoic or early Tertiary in age.

Quartz veins are abundant in the lode rocks. The average width of theseveins is about two inches. These. veins, like the dike, trend in a northerlydirection. They appear to have been deformed after they were deposited.

The granite is much jointed or cracked. In some steep bluffs the granite

blocks have weathered into pinnacles. A steep valley near the Kushan Monasteryhas been eroded along a fissure where water ernrges in springs. Here the

200 Bullctw of the Geological Sociely of China

mature topography of the upland above is in contrast with the youthful andprecipitous gorge.

The crustal movement indicated by these quartz veins and fissures has notbeen definitely dated. Barbour [ has pointed out two movements later than theYenshan, namely, the Nanling and the Lungshan. The Nanling or Himalayanmovement was taking place in late Oligocene and early Miocene. time, and theLungshan in late Pliocene. The former was characterized by moderate to gentlefolding, and the latter by block faùlting. Further facts are needed before theabove-mentioned disturbance can be definitely assigned tó either of these movements.

Overlying the igneous rock is a mantle of saprolite mainly of red clay, insome cases mixed with fine quartz grains. This ferruginous clay appears to beresidual in origin. The red clay near Wen Shari is due to spheroidal weathering,as shown by rounded cores of unweatbered rock remaining buried in the clay. Inanother part of the area angular boulders are buried rather deeply in red clay.This red clay is classified by Thorp [5) as moderately podzolized red earth. Itis widespread on the hill slopes and marginal lands in the basin.

On the flat alluvial areas within the basin the surface cover is "rice paddypodzolized soils" of alluvial origin. Marginal to these loamy deposits are colluvialfans along the stream valleys and at the foot of the hills. These colluvial fansarc made up of pebbles and sand o"erlain by sandy clay. The most recent depositsare sand bars and their overlying thin alluvial layers, which have accumulatedduring the annual floods. Generally each layer represents an annual deposit.The average thickness is about one-tenth of an inch.

These soils and alluvial deposits are all very recent. Early Tertiary depositsare lacking in the basin. However, it is very likely that earlier deposits weremade and later entirely swept away by erosion.

Knowledge concerning the subsurface deposits in the basin is based largelyon the log of a well sunk by the Foochow Electric Light Company (6). Thedeposits include beds of loam, sand, gravels, etc. This well failed to strike bedrockat 800 feet.

These deposits indicate a period of erosion when the land stood Boo feetor more higher than at present. Later subsidence of the valley thus formed ledto the deposition of more than 800 feet of alluvium. The various depths of

Lin:Phy.ciography of Foochow Basin 201

wells indicate this buried valley to have the form of a V-shaped canyon. Theabove mentioned 800-feet well is on the northern bank of the northern branch ofthe Min River, while auoo-foot well that touches the surface of the bed rock islocated about a half mile further north.

The sediments are well assorted with coarse materials at the botto1n andbarns and sands on top. These sediments extend far below the sea level. Theircharacter indicates- that sea water did not enter the basin and that no lake existedhere. Thus it must be assumed that the subsidence was gradual so that thevalley was filled with sediments about as fast as it sank.

The appearance of the basin suggests a structural origin. The straight andabrupt mountain fronts suggest faulting. The absence of squarely truncated spursmay be readily explained by prolonged erosion. The theory of faulting is alsosupported by a zone of hot springs roughly parallel to the Kushan Mountain. Thesprings are limited to a narrow zone about one mile wide, and about one-halfmile from the north bank of the Mtn. River. Along the hillsides the springs come

from relatively shallow depth, but farther away, and nearer the Min River theyhave their origin at greater depths. The water is believed to emerge from aburied fault zone parallel to the mountain front.

The parallelogram shape of the basin also suuggests block faulting. That

the basin once formed a plain at the present 400 to 600 foot level is indicatedby numerous hills at that elevation within the basin as well as narrow benches on

the slopes of the bordering mountains. According to one hypothesis this 400 to

600.foot plain may represent the surface of a fault-block dropped from perhapsthe level of the summit peneplain. If so, later erosion has reduced this plain toa handful of isolated remnants. This hypothesis is opposed to the one suggestedlater in this paper, namely, that the remnants at 400 to 600 feet mark a formererosion surface or strath developed at that level within the basin.

Although the faulting cannot be dated from evidence within this area,tectonic disturbances in adjacent areas suggest an approximate answer. Hsieh (i)'

points out that a fault cuts obliquely through the Mesozoic series on the south.

western side of Pantien near Anchi. In the upper part of the Min River, Tan18) indicates that Cretaceous rocks were folded and faulted. These facts indicate

202 Bullctn of the Geological Society of -China

a date of faulting later than the Cretaceous at Yenshan movement. Thus thedate must be p3st-Cretaceous or early Tertiary, possibly during the Nanlingmovement.

PHYSIOQRAPHIC DI3VELOPMI3NT 0F T1113 BASIN

Pencplanatlon and Origin of the Basin

The Physiography oE a region records constructional processes, particularlysedimentation and igneous activities, and destructional processes of erosion. Thesedimentary cecord in this area is very incomplete, as has been already po!ntedout. As a result, the dating of igneous activities is exceedingly difficult. There-

fore the physiographic records in this area deal chiefly with its erosional history.

The physiographic history of the region probably began in Tertiary timewith extensive eroion of the pre-Tertiary rocks. This process produced a peneplane

of remarkably low relief. Peneplariation was followed by uplift and dissection.Remnants of the former penelane now stand at accordant levels ort the tops ofthe Ku-shan and Chi-shan mountains surrounding Foochow Basin, and the pene.planation is named the Chi-Ku stage after these mountains.

The erosion that followed the Chi-Ku peneplanation resulted, presumably,from the Nanling or Himalayan Movement, assigned by Hsich ( J to Eocene Time'In consequence, the gradients of all the streams were steepened and their erosivepower increased. Down-cutting resulted in the development of precipitous canyons,gorges and cliffs that contrast strikingly with the rounded summits, gentle slopesand broad 'alleys of the post-mature remnants above.

During the gradual uplift which caused the down-cutting, lateral erosionled to the development of a peneplane within the Foochow Basin. This, calledthe Kao-Chieh stage, after the name of a prominent hill in the basin, is preservedtoday in hilltops lying at altitudes cf 400 to 600 feet. The narrow bench onthe slopes of higher mountains previously described, belongs to this surtace. A

superimposed gorge near I-lung Shan Chiao together with other gorges forms thenarrowest portion of the rver channels of this lcvation in the basin.

f. j'rofesor I3aboul dated the ovenietit between Oligocene and Miocene.

Lin :Physiogtaphy of Foochow Basin 20.3

l'here is a third level of crosion indicated by rounded lower hills now lyingSo to 200 feet above sea level. This surface, the San-Shan stage, was probablydue to the uplift and differential erosion of the Kao.Chieh surface, The presentremnants of this surface are, like those of the others, composed of granite.

However between the San Shan stage and the later one there is a missinglink. This missing link should be a period of deposition. The extensive remainsof red earth [to) and angular pebbles front the size of a fist to the size of adate occur all over the upper part of the Min River, especially along the moreprotected places of the valley basin (see Pl. I). There is general lack of assort-ment and distinct bedding. It represents a period of hasty deposition. The redearth and pebble beds are distributed below the San Shan erosional surface withan elevation of 50-loo feet and above the most recent alluvial deposits.

Th next physiographic event is revealed by the buried V-shaped canyonabout 800 feet underneath the present Foochow plain which is called Min-Kiangstage. This indicates that the Chi-Ku peneplairs was once uplifted to at least3,600 feet above sea level, or 800 feet higher than now, with a later subsidenceof more than 800 feet. This subsidence led to the deposition of more than 800feet of alluvium in the valley. This deposit is designated as the Foochow stage.This thickness of sediments indicates a renewal of erosion further inland.

The fall of the rivers in the basin nd its adjacent areas indicates that thecoastal region has been subjected to a slight uolifting movement in relativelymodetn time, so recent, indeed, that the rivers have not been able to cut downtheir beds to the normal depth. This could be compared with the cutting ofbed rock along the urper part of the Min River. The entrenchment of streamsin the alluvial flats at the western end of the basin, together with rocky benchesbordering the eastern half of the basin, indicates this slight uplift. The rockybenches stand about ru feet above rier level in the basin, and z to 20 feetabove sea level at the mouth of the Min River. They probably correlate withthe previously described uplifted terraces on Haitang Island [ii). This recentcutting is named the Pao-Chiang stage.

These physiographic records indicate that erosional processes dominated thedevelopment of the basin. These erosional processes, however, were guided bystructural control. There is evidence that Foochow Basin is a down-faulted

204 Bulletin of the Geological Society of Chzna

tract or graben, and that tuis faulting occurred during the uplift of the Chi-Kupeneplain.

WATER AND WIND GAPS AND ThEIR SIGNIFICANCE

Water and wind gaps are numerous in the area under consideration. Allbut two of these gaps have a general east-west trend in accordance with themain course of tue Min River. The exceptions are Min-An Pass near the mouthof the Min River and the gap where the Yungf u River enters the basin. All

these gaps have been eroded in resistant granite. Narrow gaps have been cutbelow the Kao Chieh and San-Shari surfaces which are characterized by faintslopes and broad valleys. Thus these higher land forms indicate pre-Kao.Chieherosion. The postKao-Chieh gaps have been regarded as evidence of regionalsuperposition.

Two water gaps, Hung Shari at, the west end of the North Channel andHsieh-tou at the east end of the South Channel, are superposed on the Kao-Chkh surface. They belong to a distinct stage of the physiographic developmentlater than the Hung Shan. By their narrowness these gaps influence the watervolume and sedimentation in the two channels. The Yungfu River gap is an

abrupt gorge cut below the Chi-Ku surface. The straightness and abruptness ofthis valley indicate structural control by fissures or fractures. However, theupper course of this river appears to have a physiographic history similar tothat of the basin. The Min-an Pass suggests still anather phase of water gapdevelopment. Here a pre.Kao-Chieh valley of moderately gentle slopes has beentrenched by a post-Kao.Chieh gorge. This gorge is regarded as one of the twooutlets of the Min River. The other is Yang Men gap (Suri Gate) to be

discussed later.

The evidence afforded by the wind gaps is even more convincing. TheSun Gate, the only easy route to the adjacent coastal plain, is situated at theeast end of the basin. Here a wide valley slopes faintly downward for quite along distance toward the gap. In the bottom of this valley, which correspondswith the San-Shari surface, there is a steeply cut and narrow canyon. Thecanyon below the valley bottom has been cut in highly metamorphosed crystallinerocks, the hardest known rocks around the basin. The bottom of the canyon isabout 40 to 6o feet above sea level. This is probably an abandoned drainage

Lin :P/iysiography of Fooch ow Basin. 205

line where erosion was not fast enough to keep pace with the recession of sealevel. As already mentioned, the Min-an Pass. has a northerly trend, but theSun Gate has the same trend as the main channels of the river. Because of itsnarrowness, it inhibited the flow of water and consequently became choked withsediments. The same process is now being repeated just inside the presentMin-an Pass, as indicated by the growth of sand bars. As a result, sedimentationhas decreased the depth in some places to only one-third of a fathom, althoughthe maximum depth in the gorge is 25 fathoms. As the Min-an Pass is now theonly outlet of the river, it cannot be completely silted and choked. Anotherexplanation for the diversion from the Sun Gate is found in the different rockresistance. The superior resistance at Sun Gate is shown by the difficulties

encountered in the development of an irrigation project there. The localgovernment proposed an irrigation system to carry the excess water from theIin Rivtr through Sun-Gate to irrigate the coastal plain, and this necessitated

deepening the gorge. The hardness of the rocks made dynamite necessary. Onthe contrary, a stone quarry in fresh granite of the Min-an Pass is worked byhuman labor alone. The diversion from Sun Gate to Min-an must have takenplace between the San-Shan Stage and the Min.Kiang canyon cutting. Furthermore,the general appearance and trend of Sun-Gate indicate that it was the outlet ofthe basin before the Kao-Chieh and San-Shan stages.

PROBLEMS OP DATING AND CORRLATLON

On account of the absence of fossils and of the older sedimentary formations,precise dating of the physiographic stages is very difficult. However, approximatedates may be inferred by a comparison of the erosional history of this regionwith that of other regions where dating has been more accurate. An estimatemay also be made of the time needed to develop the various erosional surfacesand stages. By this reasoning, together with a consideration of the stratigraphicfacts outlined in a previous section, a date at least as old as late Cretaceous orTertiary seems appropriate for the formation of the Chi-Ku peneplane. Theprolonged vertical arid lateral erosion throughout the Tertiary, possibly accompaniedby interruptions, was responsible for the dvelopment of the basin as far as toSan Shan stage. The Pleistocene was probably marked by rapid uplift whichcaused the cutting of the M n Kiang canyon. Subsidence presumably in late

Pleistocene time led to the deposition of sediments to fill this 800-fect canyon,

206 Bulictin of the Geological Society of China

The most recent event in the region is a slight uplift which led to entrenchmentand deposition. These events and their assumed dates are outlined below:

RecentPao-Chiang entrenchment, dissection, deposition.

PleistoceneFoochow deposition.

PleistoceneMin-Kiang canyon cutting.

TertiarySan Shan.Erosion.

TertlaryKao-Chieh peneplanatlon.

TertiaryHung-shan gorge cutting.

Tertiary or late £retaceousChi-Ku peplanati

The problem of dating on regional correlation is controlled by the twofactors: interruptions and physiographic events. Herein are discussed only threeregions adjacent to Foochow, but the similar history of distant regions appearsn tabulated form at the end of this section.

The study of the physiographic history of the Min River reveals the factthat the upper part of the Min River has a similat physiographic developmentwith exception of the Canyon Cutting (Deep Valley) and underground depositionin the Foochow Basin. This leads to the belief that the so-called Canyon Cuttingwhich is absent from the upper part of the Min River is due to faulting. Theabsence of red earth deposit in the Foochow Basin could be readily explainedby the extensive erosion along the coast. fn their valuable paper on the geologyand mineral depositr of Anchi, about io mites south of Foochow Hsieh andCheng [12] established the sequence of erents for the region, and drew attentionto a number of interesting parallels to the physiographic history of its adjacentareas. These scattered observatins from widely separated regions reveal strikingpoints of similarity in the evolution of the general land surface. Hsieh andCheng mention the Chengwulungshan erosional surface, characterized by

"rounded tops, gentle slopes, and broad valleys which are just in contrast withthe precipitous gorges and cliffs down below." They pliced the stageapproximately in the early Tertiary. Just as in the Foochow Basin, two erosonalsurfaces younger than the Chengwulungshan stage were also found. Thesesurfaces were develop:d after siccessive uplifts. A third uplift led to the formationof gorges and canyons, followed by submergence.

Kao [13] in his geology of eastern Chekiang, a region north of Foochow,outlined a similar physiographic history. Peneplaned summits of post-Cretaceous

Lin:Physiograp/zy of Foocliow Basin 207

age have topographic features sirn'lar to those of Foochow. The formation ofthis peneplane was followed by the developixieat of wide valleys, a youngerpeneplane, and later, gorge cutting.

Underground deposits similar to those of Foochow Basin are discussed byBarbour (t4) in his Geomörphology of Nanking. He says, "the submerged basalcontact of the Siashu barns, and the Nanking gravels zo feet and more belowground-level, definitely indcaíe submergence since that time, though locally down-faulting may exaggerate the effect." Cressey (15] mentions a deposit of 900feet below ground-level in Shanghai. Barbour describes the deposit as follows:"Below the top-dressing of alluvium comes a layer of beach material undeda4nby the upper fine marine series which passes down into sand, with coarse sandand gravel again at about -260 feet. Below -400 feet the material again becomesfine, remaining so with only two minor coarse horizons to a depth of -740 feetafter which it is beach material to ¿he bottom." He therefore interprets thesediments as glue to subsidence, an I says: "Apparently when subsidence began,the sea encroached for a time, since the basal deposits give place to delta beds.A temporary withdrawal of the sea restored shoreline conditioñs to near Shanghai.Thereafter tharine waters again encroached and the locality was submerged to ashallow d:pth until the sea was routed for the last time and the shoreline pushedback eastwards by the expanding delta. Since then the floodplain silt has collectedto a depth of ¡6 feet."

RIFL3RENCR

s. T, FI. C,, Bull. Geol. Suer. China, no. 14, p. 8, 193o.FIttEst, C. Y.. ibid. nO. 27, p. 4-5, 5936.Hsme, C. Y., up. cit.... p. 6.

. Gitacoity, J. W., Structure of Asia, Methuan & Co., London, p. 188-205, 5929.

. Tstop, J., Bull. Geol. Soc. China, vol. 14, 00. 2, p. 137-13$, 5935.Unpublished data received from the Foochow Electric Light Company by personal communicatioE.

HSIEH, C. Y., 0/). Cit. p. 8-so.TAN, H. C. op. cit.

Hsiut, C. Y., Bull. Geol. Soc. China, vol. i, no. 2, p. 62, 1936.so. LIN, KWAN-TE, Physiographic History of the Min River of Fukien (Manuscript).st. Ln.t, KWAN-TE, Bull. GeoL Soc. China, vol. 57, DOS. 3-4, p. 343-347, 1937.12. FISIEN, C. Y. & CHENG, Y. C., Bull. Geai. Surv. China, no. 27, 1936.

KA0, P., ibid, DO. 25, p. 46.47, 5935.

BARBOUR, G. B., Conte. Nat. Res. Inst. Geol., Aced. Sinica, no. 3, 5933.ORESSEY, G. B., The Chinar Jour., vol, 8, no. 5, p. 334-345, 5928.

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