A Postcard Tour of Instructional Design

Douglas Bushong

Table of Contents3-4: History of ID5-6: Definition of ID7-8: Notion of "systems"9-10: Use of models11-12: ID model #113-14: ID model #215-16: ID model #317-18: ID model #419-20: ID model #521-22: ID model #623-24: Constructivism25-26: Empiricism27-28: Behaviorism29-30: Info. Proc. Theory31-32: Related ID & EdTech33: APA references

History of IDThe history of instructional design is rooted in philosophy, and later in psychology (Leigh, A Brief History of Instructional Design). The epistemological views of early philosophers shaped our understanding of what knowledge is and where it comes from, and the experiment-driven views of psychologists in the early 20th century formed the foundation for our understanding of animal conditioning. The rapid learning needs of World War II led to major innovations in instructional methods. Later, theorists like Skinner and Bloom helped us to better understand behaviorism and intellectual behavior.Recently, computer technologies have given learners a new set of tools AND given designers a new delivery mechanism for instructional content. Today we are still learning how these new theories and technologies can be best used. I chose this image from my own artwork to show the continuously growing nature of the field. Throughout history, ID has continuously evolved and improved; the starting point for new research is based on the results of previous generations research. With that in mind, if we do more today, it is because of what was done before us; if we see further, it is because we stand on the shoulders of giants.

The images, "On The Shoulders Of Giants," was created and uploaded directly by Douglas A. Bushong

Definition of ID

Instructional Design is the continuous process of creating and improving instructional content. It is the integration of instructional materials, tools, and resources into a complete course (Smith & Ragan, p. 6).

Image: Like architecture, graphic design, and game design, instructional design is one of many subcategories of the general field of design. I chose an image of ancient architects because I see them as the forefathers of our craft. We're all builders, in some way or another. They built structures and we build courses, but the fundamental approach is similar.

The images, "Architectes.medievaux," can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Architectes.medievaux.png

Notions of "systems"

"Systematic" simply means that the design is built on sound theories and foundations. Innovation in the field of instructional design comes from controlled experiments, but the time to innovate is not during the regular ID process. Because the consequences of failure are so high, we must build our courses around known, sound design theories. The image is a picture of Anatoly Karpov, world chess champion from 1975-1985 & 1993-1996. Karpov was known for his strong defensive and positional play, and for his ability to systematically shut down his opponent. He designed his game play around sound theory and fundamentals, rather than eccentric moves and dramatic gambits.

The image of Anatoly Karpov can be found at:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anatoli_Karpow.jpg

Use of modelsWe all have models of the universe in our mind (Gustafson & Branch, p. 1) These models help us to draw (and understand) the abstractions that come from our concrete observations or the universe by simplifying them. (ed. Binswanger & Piekoff, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, p. 19). Models provide us with a pre-existing tools for course development.

The model doesn't have to be exactly correct to be useful. Approximations are acceptable, provided they are accurate within the scope of their measurement (ed. Binswanger & Piekoff, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, p. 196). For my image, I have chosen a two-dimensional "gravity well" model that is often used to explain gravity. It's not entirely accurate, as gravity affects us across more than two dimensions. However, since it is very difficult to portray this in 3-dimensional terms, the model provides a good visualization.

The image "Gravity Potential" can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GravityPotential.jpg

ID model #1Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino's ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model uses (what appears to be) a step-by-step checklist, rather than a graphic, to describe its process. It is a linear model that assumes that the size and resources will be small, and that few resources will be devoted to front-end development (Gustafson & Branch, p. 15). The steps are similar to the ADDIE steps, but they are more specialized and place greater emphasis on active engagement and continuous improvement.

The image that I selected for this model is a clipart of a basic checklist. I chose it because the model doesn't follow the trend of using graphical representations to describe the models.

The clip art image is from Word 2010, and can be found on the MS website here:http://officeimg.vo.msecnd.net/en-us/images/MH900297177.jpg

ID model #2Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell's PIE Model.

The "PIE" in PIE model stands for Plan, Implement, and Evaluate. It is a variation of ADDIE that seems to replace the "ADD" with a "P." This is an over-simplification, of course, as the model makes certain other assumptions:

● The designer and the instructor are generally the same person.● Few resources will be allocated, and many of those will be recycled.● The approach is more learner-centered, and considers the background of

both the teacher and the learner. Like the ASSURE model, this model assumes limited event size (Gustafson & Branch, p. 15).

I chose the business process re-engineering cycle for this piece because of my own business background. The PIE model is a continuous improvement driven model, and clear analogies can be drawn between it and ANY continuous improvement process. Many of the "sins" committed during initial development can be isolated and mitigated with a proper continuous improvement process.

The images, "Business Process Reengineering Cycle," can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Business_Process_Reengineering_Cycle.svg

ID model #3Bergman and Moore's Model

The Bergman and Moore model is structured like a troubleshooting flowchart. It places special emphasis on process controls and management. They identified 6 activities:

Analysis, Design, Development, Production, Authoring, and Validation.

The model is very linear in the sense that each step's deliverables must be completed and evaluated before the designer can proceed through the model. The RFP approach is very similar to the approach used by large corporations for capital budgeting. This model seems to use the management processes already in place to streamline the development process. I chose an image of a business meeting where budget is being discussed because of the similarities between Bergman and Moore's model and the budgeting process often used in business. Typically, a new capital project involving independent contractors will start with multiple RFPs. These will be compared based on price and promised work, and a decision will then be made.

The image can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_070119-N-2789G-001_Personal_Financial_Management_Specialist,_Arnold_Norem,_speaks_about_budgeting_during_a_credit_and_debt_management_course.jpg

ID model #4de Hoog, de Jong, and de Vries Model

This model was designed to help designers create products that can be used by non-designers. It is a product model, built around rapid prototyping (and the associated tools) of simulations. The design model is holistic in the sense that it demands strong integration between the methods and the mechanisms of instructional design.

This model relies largely on tryout and revision (Gustafson & Branch, p. 16). The image presented here is a medieval blacksmith forging a horseshoe out of iron. The image is meant to represent rapid prototyping, with the understanding that technology limitations often affect just how "rapid" the prototyping process can be.

The images, "The Forge," was created and uploaded by Douglas A. Bushong

ID model #5 Dorsey, Goodrum, and Schwen Model

This model is very similar to the design model that I have used through the years. Like the de Hoog, de Jong, and de Vries model, it relies on a continuous cycle of rapid prototyping, testing, correcting, prototyping, testing, etc. Note that this is not a "trial and error" approach, as it does some planning during the introductory stages to minimize errors. Instead, one could characterize it as a "trial and improvement" approach. Like the de Hoog, de Jong, and de Vries model, I chose a representation of rapid prototyping for this model. The objects that you see sitting on the computer were designed using 3D software, and then "printed" using rapid prototyping technology. If a change is needed, it can be created within the computer and a new prototype can be printed.

The images, "3D scanning and printing," can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:3D_scanning_and_printing.jpg

ID model #6Dick, Carey, and Carey Model

This model breaks down the development process into 9 stages, some of which are performed in parallel. It is a deep ADDIE model that removes some of the ambiguity of the process by breaking down the steps into more "chewable" chunks. It's a system model, designed for large classes, and possibly for whole courses.This model assumes a great deal of front-end analysis and continuous improvement (Gustafson & Branch, p. 16).I chose an image of the cornerstone of a building. In early masonry, cornerstones were important because they served as the reference point by which all other stones were placed. Since the Dick, Carey, and Carey model has been characterized as the standard by which other models are measured, the cornerstone seems like an appropriate representation.

The images, "Spalding Academy Cornerstone" can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spalding_Academy_cornerstone.JPG

ConstructivismConstructivism is based on the idea that we all form a model of the universe in our minds. With each new experience of the world, our model is challenged. When this challenge occurs, one of two things will occur:

● Assimilation – our model will be proven correct, and the new experience will reinforce the model in our minds.

● Accommodation - Our model will be proven wrong, and we will have to change it if we want it to match the newly perceived reality.

I chose an image of Stephen Hawking because of the views he expressed on positivism in his book, "The Universe in a Nutshell." He characterized all of science as the formation of models that seemed to accurately predict a variety of phenomena. A good model tends to work for a variety of circumstances, while a bad model tends to break down during evaluation. Ultimately, his positivism model is very similar to constructivism. (Hawking, The Universe In A Nutshell, p. 59.)

The image of Stephen Hawking can be found at:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stephen_Hawking.StarChild.jpg

Empricism

The fundamental epistemological premise of empiricism is that knowledge must come from personal experience and observation of evidence. (Smith & Ragan, p. 22) It is empiricism that tends to motivate us to confirm theoretical ideas with concrete experimentation. This is not to say that new information can’t be discovered through intuitive pursuits (like mathematics); it only states that such information must be confirmed through experimentation before it can be considered "knowledge." I chose an image that I made last year of a mad scientist conducting a chemistry experiment. The purpose of the image is to demonstrate the importance that empiricism places on experimentation.

The images, "Mad Scientist," was created and uploaded by Douglas A. Bushong

BehaviorismBehaviorism is rooted in the idea that everything we do in our moment-to-moment experience can be characterized as behaviors (Smith & Ragan, p. 25). Such a characterization is useful to a limited degree because behaviors can generally be observed. Many behaviorist experiments involve manipulation of the environment, followed by evaluation of how the changed environment affects the subject's behavior. While behaviorists acknowledge the presence of unobserved activity, they recognize that these activities are unobservable and therefore unfalsifiable. This need for observation leads them to generally concentrate on those activities that they can observe and measure (i.e. behaviors).

For this image, I chose an image of one of Pavlov's dogs (preserved). A major influence on behaviorism was Ivan Pavlov, who is best known for his experiments in classical condition using dogs.

The images, "One of Pavlov's Dogs," can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:One_of_Pavlov%27s_dogs.jpg

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory is based on the notion that we process information that we receive rather than respond to mental inputs (Smith & Ragan, p 26). In a sense, it treats the mind as a computer; we have a long term storage (hard drive), a mechanism for bringing information to the front (processor and bus), and a means of temporarily storing data where it is immediately accessible (RAM). For this image, I chose a simple and direct metaphor: a computer sitting at a desk. Certain information goes in, and the computer's state may or may not change depending on how the information is processed. If an embedded program (analogous to an idea or belief system) does not allow the information to process, then it is stopped before it can be saved. On the other hand, if the embedded programs are compatible with the new information, then the information can be used, changed, saved, etc.

The images, "Work Desk," was created and uploaded by Douglas A. Bushong

Related ID & EdTech

Educational technology is the sum of all of the educational tools available today. Just as an architect uses a variety of tools to pull his/her design together, we use educational technologies to create our designs. As instructional designers, it is important that we have a clear understanding of the most modern tools, as these tools will be the backbone of our designs. Instructional design is the method.Educational technology is the mechanism.For my image, I chose a set of clockwork gears and pinions to show how educational technology is involved in all parts of the inner workings of the designed machine. Using the clock analogy, the design involves the whole clock, while the technology only involves the inner gears. The engravings on the side, for example, are part of the design, but not the technology.

The images, "Clockwork," can be found here:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clockwork.jpg

APA references

None.

All citations to text are referenced on the slide, and all citations to online sources are hyper-linked.