a p powerpoint l3
TRANSCRIPT
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Anatomy and physiology
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Bones and Joints
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Postural deviations
Kyphosis - exaggerated curve of
thoracic vertebrae, leading to round-
shoulders ( hunch-back appearance)
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Lordosis - exaggerated curve of
lumbar vertebrae
Scoliosis- spine is twisted laterallya
sign is often shoulders at different
levels
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Normal
postureLordosis Kyphosis
Correcting postural deviations
Kyphosis
reduced lung capacity
Strengthen trapezius/rhomboids &
spine extensors Stretch pectorals & deltoids
Lordosis
Often associated with adiposity
Strengthen muscles that tilt pelvis backwards Strengthen gluteus maximus and rectus
abdominis/core
Stretch hip flexors and erector spinae
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Anatomical terms of direction
Superiorstructure higher or closer to head than another
Inferiorstructure lower or closer to foot than another
Medialtowards midline of body
Lateralaway from midline of body
Anterior/ventraltowards front of body
Posterior/dorsaltowards back of body
Superficialtowards surface of body
Deep- internal or below surface of body
Proximalstructure/body part closer to point of attachment than another
Distalstructure/body part further away from point of attachment than another
Supinelying face up
Pronelying face down 6
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Planes of movement
Sagittal planesplits body
vertically into left and right sides
Transverse planedivides bodyhorizontally into superior and
inferior sections
Frontal planeruns vertically
and divides body into anterior
(front) and posterior (back)sections
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Joint actions & planes of movement
Movements in sagittal plane:any movement that brings body part in front or behind body
- best observed from the side:
Flexionextension/hyperextension
Dorsi flexion - plantar flexion
Movements in transverse plane:any movement that rotates (twists) body (or body part):
Medial/internal rotation - lateral/external rotation
Rotation to the left or right of the vertebral column
Supination - pronation
Movements in frontal plane: movements out to side of body - best observed either from
in front/behind:
Abductionadduction
Lateral flexion
Elevation - depression 8
Inversion - eversion
Horizontal flexion - horizontal extension
Protraction - retraction
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Muscles
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Structure of
skeletal muscle
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Each muscle fibre consists of large numbers of
microscopic threads called myofibrils, which
in turn consist of two rows of microscopic
protein filaments called actin andmyosin These bring about muscle contraction
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ZZ AA
I H I
MyosinActin
ZZ
I A I
Muscle relaxed
Muscle contracted
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More muscles
Adductor group
Adductor magnus
Adductor brevis
Adductor longus
Pectineus
adducts/flexes hip
Gracilis
Abductor group Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Piriformis
Tensor fascia latae
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Abdominal group
Internal obliques
External obliques
Rectus abdominis
Transverse abdominis
Quadriceps group
Rectus femoris
Vastus medialis
Vastus intermedius
Vastus lateralis
Hamstring group
Biceps femoris
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Hip flexor group (iliopsoas)
Iliacus
Psoas major
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Rotator cuff group
(shoulder joint stabilisers)
Supraspinatusabducts/lateral rotation arm
Subscapularismedial rotation arm
Infraspinatuslateral rotation arm
Teres minorlateral rotation arm
Shoulder girdle group
Levator scapulaeelevates scapula
Pectoralis minorprotracts scapula
Serratus anteriorprotracts scapula
Trapezius
Rhomboids major & minordownward rotation scapula
Teres majoradduction, medial rotation, extension shoulder 14
Spine extensors
Erector spinaeiliocostalis, longissimus,
spinalis
Multifidusextension/rotation spine
Quadratus lumborumlateral flexion lumbar
spine
Sartoriusflexion/lateral rotation hip, flexion knee
Biceps, brachialis, brachioradialisflex elbow
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Structure and function of the pelvic floor
muscles
= small group of muscles/connective tissuespan underneath
of pelvis from pubis to coccyx
Support pelvic organs (e.g. bladder, intestines) and pelvic
girdle
The growing uterus during pregnancy can place a lot of stress
on the pelvic floor muscles
Weak/damaged pelvic floor muscles can lead to incontinence
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Core muscles
Localclose to spine (i.e. deep), recruited prior to gross
movement
Transverse abdominis
Multifidus
Quadratus lumborum
Internal obliques
Pelvic floor
Diaphragm
Globalsuperficial
Rectus abdominis
External obliques
Erector spinae
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Antagonistic muscle pairs
Reciprocal inhibition= whilst the agonist contracts, the
antagonist muscle relaxes
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Type 2 (fast twitch) fibres
Type 2a(fast oxidative glycolytic)used in both aerobic &
anaerobic work, take on certain type 1 (ST) characteristics
through endurance training; greater resistance to fatigue, and
are used in activities fairly high in intensity of relatively shortduration
Type 2b(fast glyoclytic)high firing threshold, used for
activities of very high intensity and have a much stronger force
of contraction.
[slow twitch fibres = slow oxidative]
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Cardio-respiratory system
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Structure of the heart
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Coronary arteries (not ondiagram) feeds
cardiac/heart muscle with
blood
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Valves
Atrio-ventricular valves
(bicuspid/mitral & tricuspid)
Between atria and ventricles
Prevent backflow of blood into atria
Semi-lunar valves (pulmonary &
aortic)
Between ventricles and arteries
leaving heart (i.e. pulmonary arteryand aorta)
Prevents backflow of blood into
ventricles
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Coronary circulation
Arteries carrying
oxygenated blood from
aorta to myocardium
(heart muscle) Coronary arteries
branch off aorta
Blood flow greatest
during diastole
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Blood pressure
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= pressure of the blood on the artery walls
Systolic(SBP)pumping phase of heart (contraction of cardiac muscle)
Diastolic(DBP)relaxing phase of heart
Increases during exercise (SBP, DBP stable or slight)
Healthy resting BP = 120/80 (systolic over diastolic)
160/100 = hypertension(high BP)CHD risk factor; CV training can
decrease resting blood pressure in long-term
Hypotension= low BP (
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Arteriosclerosis/atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis
Disease causing arteries to harden
Atherosclerosis
Progressive diseaselaying down of fatty deposits (atheroma) in
arteries
Increases resistance to blood flow, increasing blood pressure
Risk factors:
Sedentary lifestyle
Diets high in saturated fat
High levels of LDLs in diet
Smoking 24
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Long-term effects of regular exercise
Cardiac/heart muscle stronger
Increased stroke volume and cardiac output
Decreased heart rate and blood pressure Increased capillarisationimproved blood supply to muscles
Increased size and number of mitochondriaimproved aerobic energy
production
Reduced risk high blood pressure (hypertrension)reduced risk CHD
Reduced risk obesityreduced risk diabetes
CHD/diabetes risk factors = MODIFIABLE (can be changed; e.g. activity &
diet) or NON-MODIFIABLE (cannot be changed; e.g. genetics, ethnicity,
gender, age)
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Valsalva effect
Holding breath during exertion (forced expiration against a
closed glottis)
fluctuations in blood pressure & heart rate
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Energy systems
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Adenosine P PP
ATP ADP + energy for contraction
AdenosineP P
P
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The energy systems
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Three energy systems (2 anaerobic, 1 aerobic)
Energy produced used to resynthesise ATP, not movement
Lots of heat energy release when ATP broken down
Energy systems used to resynthesise ATP affected by
intensity and duration of exercise
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1. PC System (phoshocreatine system)
ATP
CP
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2. Lactic Acid System
ATP
C
Glycogen
Lactic acid
Glycolytic= breaking down of
carbohydrates into pyruvic acid
(LA system also known as
anaerobic glycolysis)
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3. Aerobic System
ATP
Glycogen Fats Protein
CO2 H2O
O2
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CV thresholds
Lactate threshold - point
at which blood lactate
begins to accumulate
above resting values
OBLAintensity wherelactate produced in
muscles faster than it is
cleared4 mmols/L
VO2maxmaximum
amount of oxygen aperson can take in,
transport and use per min
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Fatigue - causes
ATP resynthesisif not enough ATP available to keep up
muscle contraction
Hydrogen ion (H+
) accumulation- hydrogen ions whichdisassociate from lactic acid (leaving lactate) increase acidity ofmuscleacidosisinhibiting action of glycolytic enzymes
Glycogen depletionglycogen primary fuel for ATP resynthesis;
when completely depleted, muscles unable to carry on contracting
as body cannot use fat by itself as fuel
Decreased availability of calcium ionsdepletion of CP stores
plus lactic acid build up calcium accumulating in muscle cells
calcium ions stop being released for muscle contraction
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The nervous system
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Role and functions of the nervous system (NS)
NS = CNS + PNS (CNS=Central NS/ PNS=Peripheral NS)
Homeostasis= maintaining/returning a system tofunctioning within a normal range
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CNS= brain & spinal cord
Brain
Cerebellum = responsible for controlling group action of
muscles
Spinal cord = link between brain & PNS
PNS = nerves outside spinal cord
Motor neurons (efferent nerves)transmit impulses from
CNS to organs, muscles, glands cause muscle
contraction/movement (i.e. CNS PNS)
Sensory neurons (afferent nerves)sensory receptors in
muscles/tendons/joints relay info about muscle dynamics/limb
movements to CNS (i.e. PNSCNS)
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Responds to internal environmentsenses hormonal status,
and functioning of internal organs
Controls cardiac and involuntary muscles, and endocrine
glands that secrete hormones
We have no conscious control over this branch = involuntary
Sympathetic actionstimulates/increases activity
Speeds up heart rate, breathing rate, response times, etc
Mobilise energy stores to get us ready for action
More active during exercise
Fight or flight response
Catecholaminesadrenaline & noradrenaline
Parasympathetic actionslow things down
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Somatic nervous system
Responds to external environmentsenses movement, touch,
pain, skin temperature, etc
Controls voluntary muscles
We have some control over this branch = voluntary
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Nerve cell
Synapse= a place where 2
nerves communicatei.e. The
junction between neuron/nerve
and target cell
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Principles of muscle contraction
Motor unit= single motor neuron (efferent nerve) + all
muscle fibres it innervates
When impulse sent down neuron, all fibres in MU are
activated, or none = all or none law
If impulse > set thresholdimpulse sent down motor
neuron causing activation of fibres
Frequency of nerve impulses summatewhen close
togetherhigh frequencystronger muscle contraction
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The more MU recruited, the greater the force
Beginners only recruit certain number of MUprotects muscle
from developing too much force & damaging
muscle/connective tissue
Trainingmore MU recruited force = enhanced
neuromuscular connections improves motor fitness
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Sensory organs
Exteroceptorsinformation received from outside body
through sense organs (e.g. skin, eyes, ears, nose)
Proprioceptorsinformation received from inside body by
proprioceptors (e.g. stretch receptors in muscle); tells brain
body position at that moment
Chemoreceptorsblood acidity levels
Baroreceptorsblood pressure
Thermoreceptorstemperature
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Golgi tendon organs (GTO)
Prevents muscles from exerting more force than bones and
connective tissue can handle
Thin capsules of connective tissue where muscle fibre and
tendon meet
Triggers reflex action when very high tensions developed
within muscle and tendon
Causes muscle to relax and antagonist to contract
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Muscle spindle apparatus
Responds to excessive lengthening of muscle
= very sensitive receptors between muscle fibres
Relays information through afferent (sensory) nerves
concerning state of muscle contraction and length of muscle
When a muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched
Sends impulse to spinal cord, indicating how much and how
fast muscle has been stretched
If muscle stretched too far, muscle spindle apparatus will altertension within the muscle and cause a stretch reflex(also
called myotatic reflex), where muscle is automatically
contracted and shortened
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Neuromuscular connections and motor fitness
Improved neuromuscular efficiency increased inter-muscular
coordination during movement
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Endocrine system
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Pituitary gland- growth hormonehelps with growth/development
Adrenal glandshormones regulating nutrient levels
Adrenalineand noradrenaline (catecholamines)
Assist sympathetic nerves preparing body for stress - mobilise fat from adipose
tissue, stimulate breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increase heart rate, breathing
rate, etc.
Pancreas- hormones involved in blood sugar regulation
Insulinlowers blood glucose
Glucagonraises blood glucose
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