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Agricultural and Forest Meteorology xxx (2004) xxx–xxx

A multicriteria climatic classification system for grape-growingregions worldwide�

Jorge Toniettoa,∗, Alain Carbonneaub,1

a EMBRAPA—National Grape and Wine Research Center, PO Box 130-95700-000, Bento Gonçalves, Brazilb ENSAM—Formation de Viticulture-Oenologie, Montpellier, France

Received 1 August 2002; accepted 24 June 2003

Abstract

This study concerns firstly the methodology to describe the climate of vineyards, on a macroclimate scale of viticulturalregions worldwide. Three synthetic and complementary viticultural climatic indices (potential water balance of the soil overthe growing cycle, heliothermal conditions over the growing cycle and night temperature during maturation), validated asdescriptors, are used: (1) dryness index (DI) which corresponds to the potential water balance of the soil of Riou’s index, hereadapted using precise conditions to calculate it, as an indicator of the level of presence-absence of dryness; (2) heliothermalindex (HI) which corresponds to Huglin’s heliothermal index; (3) cool night index (CI) an index developed as an indicatorof night temperature conditions during maturation. These indices are representative of the variability of the viticulturalclimate worldwide, related to the requirements of varieties, vintage quality (sugar, colour, aroma), and typeness of the wines.A Multicriteria Climatic Classification System (Géoviticulture MCC System) for the grape-growing regions worldwide isformulated based on classes for each of the three climate indices, with elements to explain the results. Three formulatedconcepts provide the system base: viticultural climate, climatic group and viticultural climate with intra-annual variability(for warm regions with more than one harvest a year in natural climate conditions). The application of theGéoviticultureMulticriteria Climatic Classification Systemis presented for 97 grape-growing regions in 29 countries. The system is aresearch tool for grape-growing and wine-making zoning. It also enables work at different levels on the scale, on a world-widescale or larger – the large grape-growing region, the small grape-growing region, as shown by the studies performed. Itallows relating the viticultural climate to the elements of grape quality and the typeness of the wines considering the climaticzone.© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Vineyard; Climate classification; Climate models; Water balance; Zoning

� Elements of the PhD performed by Jorge Tonietto, obtainedat theEcole Nationale Superieure Agronomique de Montpellier inMay 1999.

∗ Correspondig author. Tel.:+55-54-455-8000;fax: +55-54-451-2792.E-mail addresses:[email protected] (J. Tonietto),[email protected] (A. Carbonneau).

1 Fax: +33-4-99-61-00-66.

1. Introduction

The world of grapes and wines concerns at least40 countries. The quality and the typeness of winesdepend on natural factors and human factors. It issaid that, worldwide, the climate of the differentgrape-growing regions accounts for a large part of thediversity of varieties cultivated, viticultural products,quality and typeness of the wines.

0168-1923/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2003.06.001

2 J. Tonietto, A. Carbonneau / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology xxx (2004) xxx–xxx

A diagnosis of the current status of knowledgeregarding grape-growing shows that few studies areavailable on the climate, involving world-wide viti-culture as a whole. The climatic indices available todescribe the viticultural regions are above all thermalat the level of the grape-growing cycle.

In fact, temperature influences composition andquality of grapes (Coombe, 1987). In California(USA), the Thermal Index of Winkler has allowed theclassification, in five large regions, according to thedifferent categories of degrees-days established by thisindex (Amerine and Winkler, 1944; Winkler, 1962).These regions represent quite well the grape qualityand some of the wine characteristics as a result ofthe climatic influence of this zone.Huglin (1978)hasdeveloped the Heliothermal Index of Huglin, whichis applicable at a world-wide range, established overa period which is closest to the average cycle of thegrapevine. It takes into account the length of the dayfor the highest latitudes, uses the daily temperaturesand displays a good relation to the potential of sugarcontent of the grape. However, both above mentionedindices remain essentially thermal over the cycle,and are not able to weel distinguish the climates in aworld-wide scale because other climatic factors haveto be considered.

During the ripening period, the air temperatureplays a determinant role for grape maturation, includ-ing the aroma and the coloration, having an importanteffect on the characteristics of the wines (Jackson andLombard, 1993). The day temperatures influence thecoloration, but the effect of conditions of cool nightstemperatures on it is even stronger (Singleton andEsau, 1969; Kliewer and Torres, 1972; Kliewer, 1973;Tomana et al., 1979; Fregoni and Pezzutto, 2000).

Different water level in the soil affects grape qual-ity and reflects in wine quality (Conradie et al., 2002).Jackson and Cherry (1988)show that in regions witha high rainfall the ripening capacity of grapes is lowerto that predicted by the climatic thermal indices. It isobserved that in temperate regions which do not gen-erally suffer droughts, a certain lack of water duringthe ripening period is favorable to the organolepticwine quality (Galet, 1993; Riou et al., 1994; Huglinand Schneider, 1998). The regulation of water sup-ply is determinant for obtaining grapes of quality(Seguin, 1983; Mérouge et al., 1998). Bravdo andHepner (1987)show that a water deficit can improve

the quality of the grape, especially at moderate levels(Carbonneau, 1998). Riou et al. (1994)have devel-oped a potential water balance of the soil index forvineyards, related to the grape quality potential forwine, modeled to be used in different macroclimates(Carbonneau, 1994).

Even considering some important descriptions ofclimate concerning grape-growing regions (Gladstones,1992; Smart and Dry, 1980; Bentryn, 1988), it maybe established that the indices available are still in-sufficient to provide a uniform climatic descriptionof grape-growing regions and to broaden the under-standing of the great climatic variability found in theworld vineyards.

As found in different systems used to classify gen-eral climates of the world, a multicriteria climaticclassification for grape-gowing regions, with syn-thetic indices related to requirements of varieties,vintage quality (sugar, colour, aroma), and typenessof the wines is lacking. Thegéoviticulture concept,which corresponds to processing viticultural infor-mation on a world scale (Carbonneau and Tonietto,1998), may appropriate a new way to identify and tocompare viticulture climate of the regions, character-ize their variability worldwide and establish groupsof grape-growing regions, bearing a certain similarityas regards climates. The research presented belowprovides some answers to these problems.

2. Methodology for the characterization of theviticultural climate worldwide

2.1. Climatic data base for grape-growing regionsworldwide

One of the constraints in performing a study ofthis kind was the availability of a sufficiently largeand representative data base of climate data for worldgrape-growing regions. For this purpose we workedwith the support of the World Meteorological Orga-nization (W.M.O.), and the collaboration of membersof the Agricultural Meteorology Commission of eachcountry, and with some scientific institutions.

Regarding the climate, we have used only onepoint of reference to represent each wine-growing re-gion studied, although it is known that the climate ofeach region can show important climatic variability.

J. Tonietto, A. Carbonneau / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology xxx (2004) xxx–xxx 3

Thus, in the text, the word wine-growing region hasthis connotation regarding its climatic representativ-ity in the corresponding region. The data regardinggrape-growing regions from the data base establishedcorrespond to the inter-annual monthly means ofclimatic variables, insofar as possible the normal cli-matic of the 1961–1990 series (minimum, maximumand mean air temperature, precipitation; relative airhumidity; mean wind speed; solar radiation and/orsunshine hours; and Penman’s potential evapotranspi-ration) from a standardized meteorological station thatrepresents the climate of the grape-growing region.

To study the climate, we chose 97 regions from29 countries (Table 1) with complete data of all cli-matic variables, with no estimation data. The sampleof grape-growing regions is representative of the cli-matic diversity of world viticulture and those regionswere chosen to provide a good geographic distribu-tion (over all 6 of the 7 continents of the globe: lati-tude between 4◦ and 51◦ in the Northern Hemisphereand between 6◦ and 45◦ in the Southern Hemisphere),and to increase the diversity of types of climate repre-sented (oceanic, warm oceanic, transition temperate,continental, cold continental, mediterranean, subtrop-ical, continental subtropical, attenuated tropical, aridand hyperarid climates and borders of arid and semi-arid climates—classified according toPeguy, 1970)and their variability.

The research covers regions where the grape iscultivated on a commercial scale for the productionof wine. The regions where grapes are not cultivatedare, therefore not included in this study, even if someof them present a wine-growing potential. But, inorder to have an overall view of the world vineyards,some regions located at the high latitude limits ofgrape cultivation and also regions in the intertropicalzone—desert climates and tropical climates—werealso included, even if they do not produce muchwine.

2.2. Climatic indices to characterize the climate ofgrape-growing regions

The climatic indices presented below are the resultof a preliminary study that allowed us to test theirpertinence on a large data base including the regionspresented inTable 1and others. Thus, three climaticindices were chosen, related to water balance and

thermal conditions (heliothermal potential and nighttemperature).

These indices are established as a function of amean vegetative cycle of the grape. They are pertinentboth to characterize as such the climatic potentialsof a region, and strongly linked to the qualitative po-tential and to the characteristics of the grapes or viti-cultural products (requirements of varieties, vintagequality—sugar, acidity, colour, aroma, and typenessof the wines). As will be seen below, these threesynthetic indices provide complementary informationabout each other.

2.2.1. Heliothermal indexSome reasons led to the choice of the classical

Heliothermal Index of Huglin (Huglin, 1978) in thisstudy. In this index, the “helio” component is due,first to the “d” coefficient of the thermal componentwhich expresses the mean day length in relation tothe latitude, second to the fact that the calculation ofthe thermal component is estimated over the meanhemeroperiod when most of metabolisms are active.This provides information regarding the level of he-liothermal potential, and is calculated based on aperiod that is on the average biologically acceptable.It also provides a better idea of the sugar potential ac-cording to varieties than the classic temperature sumsand, thus, provides qualitative information. Combinedwith the cool night index (CI, presented further), itpermits a good discrimination of the region climate,as regards global heliothermal conditions during veg-etative cycle of the grape and cool night conditionsduring ripening period. All these reasons justify thechoice as compared with other indices available,especially the Thermal Index of Winkler which iscorrelated to it (r = 0.98 between the HeliothermalIndex of Huglin and the Thermal Index of Winklerover the 97 regions of the study as a whole), but lesspertinent to the qualitative factors.

Calculation: The Heliothermal Index of Huglin (HI)(Huglin, 1978) is calculated using:

HI =30.09∑

01.04

[(T − 10) + (Tx − 10)]

2d

• In the Northern Hemisphere in the above formula,T is the mean air temperature (◦C), Tx maximumair temperature (◦C), d length of day coefficient,

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Table 1Regions of the database, represented here by one meteorological station (latitude, longitude and altitude accordingTonietto, 1999)

Country Region Country Region Country Region Country Region

Name Acronym Name Acronym Name Acronym Name Acronym

Argentina Lujan de Cuyo ARlu France Bordeaux FRbo Italy Lecce ITle Spain Cadiz ESjeGeneral Roca ARri Carcassonne FRca Modena ITmo Rioja ESlo

Australia Mildura AUmi Cognac FRcg Perugia ITpe Malaga ESmlMount Gambier AUmo Colmar FRcl Ravenna ITra Murcia ESmuNuriootpa AUnu Macon FRma Trapani ITta Orense ESor

Brazil Bento Gonçalves BRbe Montelimar FRmm Treviso ITte Tenerife ESsaPetrolina BRpe Montpellier FRmp Japan Kofu JPko Tarragona ESta

Canada Quebec CAqu Nantes FRna New Zealand Napier NZna Valladolid ESvaSummerland CAsu Pau FRpa Peru Ica PEic Switzerland Geneva CHgeVancouver CAva Perpignan FRpe Portugal Anadia PTan Thailand Bangkok THba

Chile Curico CLcu Reims FRre Evora PTev Chiangmai THchSantiago CLsa Toulouse FRte Funchal PTfu Tunisia Bizerta TNbi

China Bei Jing CNbe Toulon FRtn Lisbon PTli Nabeul TNnaTong Chuan CNto Tours FRtr Peso da Regua PTpe Tunis-Cartagena TNtuUrumqi CNur Germany Freiburg DEfr Viseu PTvi Turkey Izmir TRizYi Couniy CNyc Geiseinheim DEge Rep. of Korea P’ohang KRpo Tekirdag TRteYi Li CNyl Neustadt DEne Suwon KRsu Uruguay Las Bruxas UYcn

Colombia La Union COla Stuttgart DEst Slovakia Bratislava SKbr USA Cleveland UScl

England Maidstone GBma Trier DEtr Slovenia Beli Kriz SIbe Fresno USfr

France Agen Frag Würzburg DEwü Bizeljsko SIbi Medford USmeAjaccio Fraj Guatemala Estanzuela GTes Murska Sobota SImu Portland USpoAngers Fran India Ludhiana INlu Novo Mesto SInm Rochester USrcBastia Frba Pune INpu South Afrique Cape Town ZAca Sacramento USscBesançon Frbe Israel Haifa ILha Spain Ciudad Real ESci


Table 2The coefficient length of day (d) by latitude for the HI index

Latitude Length of day coefficient (d)

≤40◦00′ 1.0040◦01′–42◦00′ 1.0242◦01′–44◦00′ 1.0344◦01′–46◦00′ 1.0446◦01′–48◦00′ 1.0548◦01′–50◦00′ 1.06

ranging from 1.02 to 1.06 between 40◦ and 50◦ oflatitude (Table 2).

• In the Southern Hemisphere the index is equallycalculated based on the 6-month period from 1 Oc-tober to 31 March.

The index is calculated from monthly climaticmeans.

2.2.2. Cool night indexThe cool night index is a night coolness variable

which takes into account the mean minimum nighttemperatures during the month when ripening usuallyoccurs beyond the ripening period. The purpose of thisindex is to improve the assessment of the qualitativepotentials of wine-growing regions, notably in rela-tion to secondary metabolites (polyphenols, aromas)in grapes. That climatic factor is important as regardsgrape and wine color and aromas (Kliewer and Torres,1972; Kliewer, 1973; Tomana et al., 1979).

Calculation: The determination of the cool nightindex (CI) is done as given further (Tonietto, 1999).

• In the Northern Hemisphere: CI = minimum airtemperature in the month of September (mean ofminima), in◦C.

• In the Southern Hemisphere: CI = minimum airtemperature in the month of March (mean of min-ima), in ◦C.

2.2.3. Dryness indexThe dryness index (DI) is measured based on an

adaptation of the potential water balance of the soilindex of Riou (Riou et al., 1994), developed speciallyfor vineyard use.

It enables the characterization of the water com-ponent of the climate in a grape-growing region,taking into account the climatic demand of a standardvineyard, evaporation from bare soil, rainfall without

Table 3Period for the calculation of DI and the value ofW

Moment Date in the hemisphere Value ofW

North South

Initial moment 1 April 1 October W = Wo reserve(estimatedregional mean)

Final moment 30 September 31 MarchW = DI

deduction for surface runoff or drainage. It indicatesthe potential water availability in the soil, related tothe level of dryness in a region. That climatic factoris important as regards the level of grape ripeningand wine quality (Jackson and Cherry, 1988; Seguin,1983; Mérouge et al., 1998; Carbonneau, 1998).

Calculation: The potential water balance index ofRiou, here adapted to precise conditions of calculationdescribed below, is called dryness index, and calcu-lated using:

W = Wo + P − Tv − Es

with, W is the estimate of soil water reserve at theend of a given period, Wo the initial useful soil wa-ter reserve, which can be accessed by the roots,Pthe precipitation,Tv the potential transpiration in thevineyard,Es the direct evaporation from the soil.

Dryness index (DI) is calculated based on a 6-monthperiod, the same used for HI described above, whichis acceptable for most of vineyard in the world. Thevalues ofW in the first and last moment, and the initialand final date, according to hemisphere, are reportedin Table 3.

In the preceding formula,Tv andEs are calculatedmonth by month using:

Tv = ETPk

ETP is the potential evapotranspiration (monthly to-tal), using the Penman method (Penman, 1948), k thecoefficient of radiation absorption by vine plant (whichis in relation to transpiration and depends on vine ar-chitecture)

Es = ETP

N(1 − k)JPm

N is the number of days in the month, JPm the num-ber of days of effective evaporation from the soil permonth.


JPm is the rainfall per month in mm/5; JPm shouldbe≤the number of days per month.

k values adopted as given further.

• In the Northern Hemisphere,k = 0.1, for April,0.3 for May and 0.5 for the months from June toSeptember.

• In the Southern Hemisphere,k = 0.1 for October,0.3 for November and 0.5 for the months from De-cember to March.

Wcan be negative, for expressing the potential waterdeficit, but should not be greater than Wo. The index iscalculated month by month, based on monthly valuesof P, ETP, Tv and Es. DI is called the value ofWobtained at the final moment following the rules aboveand adopting Wo= 200 mm.

2.3. Classes of viticultural climate and theirinterpretation

The adoption of the notion of climatic class toachieve a classification of grape-growing regions isrelated to the fact that each class can effectivelyrepresent not only climatic differences, but also re-sponses of the vine, grapes or its products to climaticfactors defined by the index considered. Thus theypermit grouping together the most homogeneousgrape-growing regions using a multicriteria classifi-cation.

Table 4Classes of viticultural climate for the dryness index, heliothermal index and cool night index of the grape-growing regions

Index Class of viticultural climate Acronym Class interval

Heliothermal index, HI Very warm HI+ 3 >3000Warm HI + 2 >2400≤ 3000Temperate warm HI+ 1 >2100≤ 2400Temperate HI− 1 >1800≤ 2100Cool HI − 2 >1500≤ 1800Very cool HI − 3 ≤1500

Night cold index, CI (◦C) Very cool nights CI+ 2 ≤12Cool nights CI+ 1 >12 ≤ 14Temperate nights CI− 1 >14 ≤ 18Warm nights CI− 2 >18

Dryness index, DI (mm) Very dry DI+ 2 ≤−100Moderately dry DI+ 1 ≤50 > −100Sub-humid DI− 1 ≤150 > 50Humid DI − 2 >150

The classes proposed for the different viticulturalclimate index, and their interpretation, based on expe-rience in world-wide viticulture, founded on the studydata base, are described below.

2.3.1. Heliothermal indexThe classes of heliothermal index are presented in

Table 4.The theoretical characteristics for each class of HI

climate are:

• HI − 3: thevery coolviticultural climate class in-cludes all the regions which are only at the inferiorthermal limit for vines; under these heliothermalconditions it is only the very early/early varietiesthat can reach maturity, especially the white va-rieties (i.e. Muller-Thurgau, Pinot blanc, Gamay,Gewurztraminer) (for example: Québec, CAqu;Reims, Champagne FRre; Geisenheim, DEge). Un-der very cold winter conditions, certain regions useinterspecific hybrids, or americanVitis which aremore resistant thanVitis vinifera.

• HI − 2: in the cool viticultural climate class, theheliothermal potential allows a very large range ofvarieties of grapes, white or red, to ripen, includ-ing for instance Riesling, Pinot noir, Chardonnay,Merlot, Cabernet franc (for example: Tours, LoireValley, FRtr).

• HI − 1: in the temperateviticultural climate class,the later varieties, such as Cabernet-Sauvignon,


Ugni Blanc and Syrah can equally reach maturity(for example: Bordeaux, FRbo; Viseu, Dão, PTvi).

• HI + 1: in thetemperate warmclass of viticulturalclimate, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Carignan can ripen,for instance. Therefore there is no more heliother-mal constraint to ripen all cultivated varieties (ex-cept some exceptions such as the seedless varieties)(for example: Nuriootpa, AUnu; Montpellier, Midi,FRmp).

• HI + 2: the warm class of viticultural climate ischaracterized by a potential which exceeds the he-liothermal needs to ripen the varieties, even the lateones (with some associated risks of stress) (for ex-ample: Jerez da la Frontera, ESje; Nabeul, TNna).

• HI + 3: in the very warmclass of viticultural cli-mate, besides the fact that there is no heliothermalconstraint for the grapes to ripen, intertropical zoneclimates begin to occur for which it is possible,in certain cases, to have more than one harvest ayear (for example: Petrolina, São Francisco Valley,BRpe; Ludhiana, INlu).

2.3.2. Cool night indexCI provides complementary idea of the thermal

regime particularly involved in the grape-ripening pe-riod. The generic theoretical characteristics for eachclass (Table 4) of climate are given further.

• CI − 2: in thewarm nightsclass of viticultural cli-mate, the grape-growing region undergoes a periodof grape ripening with high nocturnal temperaturesfor all varieties, which can affect for instance berrycolour and aromatic potential (For examle: Chi-angmai – THch; Petrolina, São Francisco Valley –BRpe).

• CI − 1: in thetemperate nightsviticultural climateclass, there is an intermediate condition betweenviticultural climatescool nightsand warm nights.The later varieties will ripen under lower night tem-perature conditions than the early varieties (For ex-ample: Jerez de la Frontera – ESje; Évora, Alentejo– PTev).

• CI + 1: in thecool nightsviticultural climate class,ripening occurs under conditions that can be moreor less cool, depending on how early the varietiesare. However, overall, conditions are cooler than inclassCI−1, so that a maximum threshold of nighttemperature favorable to ripening will not be ex-

ceeded for any variety (For example: Bordeaux –FRbo; Anadia, Bairrada – PTan). Tonietto and Car-bonneau (1998) found a threshold around 14.2◦Cin relation to berry colour and terpenic aroma in-tensity.

• CI + 2: in thevery cool nightsviticultural climateclass, night temperature conditions are low and thepositive effect of these temperatures depends, aboveall, on a heliothermal potential that could ensurea good level of grape ripening for a given variety(For example: Santiago do Chile – CLsa; Colmar,Alsace – FRcl; DEfr – Freiburg).

In general, it could be said that under warm nighttemperature conditions for maturation, the tendencyis to observe loss of aromas. The red varieties alsoare at risk of becoming a relatively light color. Onthe other hand, cool night temperature conditions forripening are essentially favorable to the grape colorsand aromas. These two characteristics of the grapesare expressed mainly under heliothermal conditionsthat are sufficient for maturation.

Under the night temperature conditions of theverycool nightsclass, grapes could be found with a highpotential for color and aromas, if full ripening con-ditions are assured (most of the regions producingwell-reputed white wines are in this class of viticul-tural climate). On the other hand, the potential mightbe very weak if conditions for good ripening, espe-cially the heliothermal condition, are not assured.

2.3.3. The dryness indexTwo large groups appear in the forefront: wet

and dry regions. These 2 groups are subdivided intoclasses whose theoretical characteristics are shownfurther (Table 4).

2.3.3.1. Wet climates.• DI − 2: it is considered that with an DI above

150 mm,humidviticultural climate class, this classof climate corresponds to “absence of dryness”,with a high level of water balance availability, anda tendency to excess in relation to quality and nor-mally best ripening of grapes is find in less hu-mid years (For example: Bento Gonçalves, SerraGaúcha, BRbe; Freiburg, DEfr; Macon, Bourgogne,FRma).


• DI − 1: with an DI between 50 and 150 mm,sub-humidclass of viticultural climate, the condi-tion is also typical of the “absence of dryness”. Thevalue of 50 mm would be a critical value reveal-ing the introduction of a minimum water balanceconstraint under conditions of frequent summerdryness and, therefore, a good indicator of the pointof change of the condition of water availability inthe soil to characterize regions with the presenceor absence of frequent dryness (for example: Bor-deaux, FRbo; Napier, NZna; Reims, Champagne,FRre).

2.3.3.2. Dry climates.• DI + 1: in the large “presence of dryness” group,

the interval of DI between 50 and−100 mm, theclass of viticultural climatemoderately drypresentsclimatic conditions where vine will potentially facea certain level of dryness. This situation, in whichthere is a significant stomatal regulation of theplant, is usually favorable to maturation (for exam-ple: Montpellier, Midi, FRmp; Funchal, Madeira,PTpe). Irrigation is practiced in certain cases.Around DI < 50 mm we begin to find regions clas-sified as mediterranean-type climate, with deficitwater in the summer.

• DI + 2: At the level below of−100 mm,very dryclass of viticultural climate, potential dryness is al-ready marked, leading to frequent stress effects andin most cases irrigation is currently practiced. TheDI below −200 mm characterizes regions with ahigh deficit of available soil water; these are the re-gions where irrigation is mandatory and there is afrequent risk of severe stress if adequate irrigationis not practiced (for example: Jerez de la Frontera,ESje; Ica, PEic; Nuriootpa, AUnu).

2.4. Géoviticulture MCC System

The Géoviticulture Multicriteria Climatic Classifi-cation System(Géoviticulture MCC Systemor SystèmeCCM Géoviticoleused in French) is a climatic classifi-cation system for grape-growing regions based on theintegration of the different classes of the three climaticindices—DI, HI and CI. This establishes the viticul-tural climate of each region and enables the regions tobe classified and grouped. Thus, the system allows theidentification of climatic analogues (Fig. 2, Table 5).

Three new definitions have been formulated to usethe system.

(a) Viticultural climate: the viticultural climate is theclimate of a locality, a vineyard or a grape-growingregion, described by the set of three viticulturalclimatic indices. The viticultural climate is thusestablished based on climatic and viticultural in-formation, which is more specific than climateaccording to its general meaning. It should benoted that the viticultural climate of a placechanges from 1 year to another, which leads totwo sub-definitions: the mean viticultural climateand the range of viticultural climate.

(b) Climatic group: the climatic group to which lo-calities, vineyards or grape-growing regions be-long, is an ensemble of localities, vineyards orgrape-growing regions that present a same classof viticultural climate. Usually, the climatic groupincludes a large share of the (inter-annual) rangesof viticultural climates.

(c) Viticultural climate with intra-annual variability:this corresponds to the regions that, under natu-ral climate conditions, change viticultural climateclass as a result of the time of the year at whichgrapes can be produced (a definition to be usedfor regions with a hot climate where it is possibleto have more than one grape harvest a year).

The definition of viticultural climate with intra-annual variability is applicable not only, but mainly inthe intertropical zone, for regions in which the ther-mal potential is such that the grapes do not undergoa dormant period, nor vegetative repose classicallyoccurring in regions with a temperate type of cli-mate. The adoption of a certain number of cultivationpractices allows more than one harvest a year to beobtained. Sometimes an average of more than twoharvests a year can be achieved, with the possibilityof distributing the grape harvests to cover all monthsof the year.

Here it is necessary to know how to analyze andcharacterize the viticultural climate of these regionswhich, different from the traditional regions, havemore than one harvest a year, and do not alwayshave the same production period. Under these condi-tions, the viticultural climate of a region may presentclimatic differences during the time of year underconsideration.


Table 5Classification of the viticultural climate (mean) of 97 regions by class of climatic viticultural index DI, HI and CI of theGeoviticultureMCC System

TheGéoviticulture MCC Systemis only applicableto grape-growing regions, since it is applied oncethe climatic criteria limiting viticulture (risk of frost,excessive humidity, etc.) are taken into account. Thisconcern existing grape-growing areas. But on theother hand, it can contribute to the identification ofnew regions with a grape-growing potential withinthe limits of their feasibility. The general schemeshowing how theGéoviticulture MCC Systemfunc-tions is presented inFig. 1. The system can be usedfor the climatic classification of a grape-growing re-gion, a vineyard, a locality or viticultural terroir. Witha climate data base observed or even modeled con-cerning the grape-growing region, we can calculatethe viticultural climatic indices HI, CI and DI anddetermine the viticultural climate (mean or range) orthe viticultural climate with intra-annual variability.This information allows us to determine the classof viticultural climate (classification), the climaticgroup and the position of the grape-growing region as

regard to other regions and climatic groups (Fig. 2).Insofar as theGéoviticulture MCC Systemenablesan improved description of the viticultural climateand the study of its effect on the quality of thegrape and typeness of the wines, it provides a con-tribution to zoning viticultural research (Tonietto,2001).

3. Results

3.1. Macroclimatic variability of world vineyards

The results of 3 climatic indices calculated basedon all the 97 regions of the study (dryness index, he-liothermal index and cool night index), showed thegreat world climatic variability, both by the HI, whichis already well known for its use as a climatic index inworld viticulture, and for the DI and for the CI (Fig. 2,Table 5).


Fig. 1. Scheme showing theGeoviticulture MCC Systemat work.

In the case of HI, extremes are located either undercold conditions like in the northern limit of the grape(as in Canada—the CAva region or in England—theGBma region), or warm conditions in the tropical re-gions such as India, Thailand, Guatemala or the Brazil-ian Northeast. If we look at the heliothermal index, inrelation to the value of the cold night index, we see aclear tendency to increase the CI values by increasingthe HI. However, there is a great difference, as a func-tion of the values of HI and CI, according to region(Table 5). Let us take an example of the grape-growingregions in Argentina: the region of Lujan de Cuyo,ARlu, at an HI of 2568, very close, therefore to thatof the region of Rio Negro, ARri, with an HI of 2566.On the other hand, the CI is 13.2◦C at ARlu against8.9◦C at ARri. These are 2 arid climates that presentvery different thermal conditions for ripening. At ARrinight temperatures are very low, a condition which hasa very marked effect on grape color. The CI thus al-lows a one to distinguish between the thermal climatesof these two regions.

On the other hand, it becomes clear that there is agreat diversity of water balance conditions in the re-gions as a whole, here represented by DI (Table 5).

This approach, shown by dryness index, clarifies theimportance of taking the water balance componentinto account as an essential element of variability incharacterizing the climate of a grape-growing environ-ment. That is the case of Bento Gonçalves, located inthe extreme south of Brazil (BRbe), and of Montpel-lier, located in the south of France (FRmp). The tworegions are not different as far as HI and CI are con-cerned. Actually, BRbe lies in a region with a transi-tion from the oceanic warm/subtropical type to humidsummer, which is why it has a mean DI of 200 mm.On the other hand, FRmp lies in a mediterranean-typeclimate, a region that is dry in summer, with an DIvalue of−50 mm. This affects the quality of grapes inpotential sugar, berry color and aromatic potential.

3.2. Application of the Géoviticulture MCC System

Table 5 shows the application of theGéoviticul-ture MCC Systemto the 97 grape-growing regions in-cluded in the study. Montpellier (FRmp), for instance,has a viticultural climatemoderately dry, temperatewarmandtemperate nights(for DI, HI and CI, respec-tively), which can be expressed by the corresponding


Fig. 2. Analysis of the Principal Components for the three climatic indices (HI, DI, CI) of the 97 grape-growing regions: position of thegrape-growing regions and climatic groups (according outlines over the regions) pertaining to the regions according main components 1and 2 (see acronym’s legend inTable 1and viticultural climate accordingGeoviticulture MCC Systemin Table 5).


acronyms, i.e., viticultural climate DI+1 HI+1 CI−1.The climatic description of the region might be im-proved by adding a fourth classification factor such astype of general climate (i.e. mediterranean).

The set of three indices with six classes for HI,four classes for CI and four classes for DI, theoret-ically allows a total of 96 different climatic groups.However, many of the climatic groups are not foundin the viticultural climate of the regions of the globe.In the regions involved in our study, 36 groups wereidentified (Table 5; Fig. 2). It is important to clarifythat a grape-growing region may present more thanone viticultural climate, represented in our study bythe climatic mean of one meteorological station of theregion. Notice also that the viticultural climate maychange from year to year inside the same region.

When data from the three climatic indices are pro-cessed using multivariate analysis—analysis of prin-cipal components (APC) this enables the positioningof grape-growing regions and climatic groups. APCperformed with the results of the viticultural climate(mean) of the three indices—DI, HI, CI of the 97grape-growing regions (Fig. 2), showed that the maincomponent 1 (thermal) and 2 (water) represents 94.3%of the total variability, which reinforces the capacity toexplain the variability of the viticultural climate duringthe growing cycle in theGéoviticulture MCC System.HI and CI are also represented in a third component(night coolness). This is interesting up to a point, es-pecially since it shows the regions that have importantdifferences between the CI and HI (Fig. 3; Table 5).

The climatic groups (Table 5) are represented inFig. 2 by the outlines over the regions belonging toeach group.

3.3. The viticultural climate with intra-annualvariability

This concept may be used to classify climates ofthe grape-growing regions that have more than onenatural vegetative cycle a year, different of the clas-sical viticulture where we have only one vegetativecycle per year. To study this situation, let us take theexample of the climate of the São Francisco RiverValley, in the Northeast of Brazil, in the viticulturalregion of Petrolina (BRpe). This region is located at09◦09′ latitude South, in a tropical semi-arid climatezone.

Fig. 3. Correlation circle of the analysis of the principal compo-nents for the three climatic indices (HI, DI, CI)—main components1 and 3.

The mean annual air temperature is 26.4◦C, with amean of 28.3◦C for the warmest month and 24.3◦C forthe coldest month. The total annual rainfall is 559 mm,concentrated during the December-April period. Thevalue of the 3 indices in our study for this region is:DI = −1 mm; HI = 3654; and CI= 21.3◦C. This re-gion thus has a viticultural climate DI+1HI+3CI−2.Its position in relation to the climatic groups andgrape-growing regions as a whole is shown inFig. 2.In order to study the viticultural climate under theseconditions, the three indices are calculated for allperiods of the year, by consecutive one-month stepsover the classical period for the calculation of theindices being studied (BRpe). The 12 values ob-tained show that during the year, the climatic indicespresent values located at the following intervals: 51 to−181 mm for DI, 3265–3669 for HI and 18.1–22.2◦Cfor CI.

The results represented in the APC ofFig. 4 showthe position of Petrolina (BRpe) with indices cal-culated for 12 periods (main component 1, thermal;main component 2, water). In order to obtain a refer-ence to other grape-growing regions, there is also arepresentation of other grape-growing regions locatedin the Intertropical zone. Thus it is observed that theviticultural climate of BRpe changes period by pe-riod. Noticeable, above all, are the periods of BRpe09to BRpe01, with a higher dryness index; or, on thecontrary, BRpe05, DI being the lowest. Petrolina


Fig. 4. Example of viticultural climate with intra-annual variability in the region of Petrolina (BRpe), Brazil, a region located in theintertropical zone (tropical semi-arid climate): the APC shows that the viticultural climate changes as a function of the period of the yearduring which grapes can be produced (main component l, thermal; main component 2, water).

is, thus, placed in three situations in relation to theviticultural climate: viticultural climate withverydry, very warmand warm nights(period BRpe09 toBRpe01); viticultural climatesub-humid, very warmand warm nights(period BRpe05); and viticulturalclimatemoderately dry, very warmandwarm nightsfor the other periods (Fig. 4). This region in factpresents three different viticultural climates, above allconsidering criterion DI. This condition, therefore,describes a viticultural climate with intra-annual vari-ability, characterized by change of class as a functionof the period of the year in which grapes can beproduced.

4. Discussion

4.1. Identifying differences in viticultural climateusing multicriteria climatic indices

The statistical study of the world-wide data base andthe French data sub-base in analysis of principal com-ponents, reveals that these three indices, establishedas a function of a mean vegetative cycle of vines, ac-count for over 90% of the total climatic variabilityin the main components 1 and 2 (Fig. 2) (Tonietto,1999). The discrimination of classical types of climateis equally observed (Carbonneau and Tonietto, 1998).


The results show that the heliothermal potential can-not express all of the thermal variability of an environ-ment. There is significant climatic variability in nighttemperature conditions that come into play regardingthe grape maturation period, with qualitative implica-tions. That is why it is important to include index CIin the thermal characterization of the regions.

Equally, it is possible to analyze the importance ofDI if, for instance, one compares two grape-growingregions with similar HI and CI values, but very differ-ent DI. Table 5presents a whole set of examples thatenable showing climatic variability as regards waterbalance.

The possibility offered by theGéoviticulture MCCSystemto analyze the viticultural climate of the regionswhere there are several harvests a year, or harvestsat different periods during the year, is a methodologywhich provides a new contribution to integrate theviticulture of the regions located in the intertropicalzone, as in the example of Petrolina, Brazil (Fig. 4).

4.2. Géoviticulture MCC System for grape-growingzoning

Macroclimatic studies usingGéoviticulture MCCSystemof world viticulture show the major role playedby climatic groups from the grape-growing regions inthe acknowledged typicity of wines, as regards theirorganoleptic characteristics (Tonietto, 1999; Toniettoand Carbonneau, 1999). The good consistency foundbetween the climatic groups and the characteristics ofacknowledged typicity of wines from each region isalso a way of validating the climatic approach pre-sented by theGéoviticulture MCC System.

As regards to viticultural zoning, the methodologyof viticultural climate description of theGéoviticul-ture MCC Systemcreates the prospect of furtheringclimate research concerning the typicity of products atdifferent levels on the scale (at the level of a country, alarge grape-growing region or a small grape-growingregion), as shown in the studies performed (Toniettoand Carbonneau, 1998, 1999; Tonietto, 1999).

To perform a classification that could be used world-wide, theGéoviticulture MCC Systemis made to estab-lish the smallest possible number of classes for eachviticultural climate index. This is done in order to un-derline the most significant differences between theclimates of grape-growing regions. This means that

the use of these indices to study each grape-growingregion as to mesoclimate can be convenient, if oneestablishes sub-classes inside each reference-class ofindex, on the basis of the statistical variability of itsown data.

For zoning studies, the HI, CI and DI range couldbe taken into account, here modulating the periodsaccording to the duration of the vine cycle (for theNorthern Hemisphere: final moment on 15 Augustor 15 October for HI and DI; 16 July–15 August or16 September–16 October for CI). It is also possi-ble to use the indices on the phenological events ofinterest—budburst to harvest for HI and DI and ripen-ing period (veraison to harvest) for CI.

The calculated DI at the regional level is compara-ble from the climatic standpoint. From the viticulturalstandpoint, the interpretation of the DI results in a re-gion with a very different Wo will be closer to reality,if we also take into account information available re-garding the real water balance of the vines. So, Wocan be modified if a given region has a large major-ity of shallow soils (i.e. Wo= 100 mm) or very deepsoils (i.e. Wo= 300 mm). Equally, for humid regions,complementary information can be obtained simulat-ing the calculation of DI, and adopting Wo= 200 mmat an initial moment, but without a higher maximumof W in the calculation performed month by month.Another situation concerns vineyards with irrigationpractice. For this situation DI may be calculated notonly using precipitation values in the formula, but in-troducing also the amount of irrigation water to havethe potential water availability in the soil.

The System may also help study the variabilityof viticultural climate in different types of climatethroughout the world, the study of the range of viticul-tural climate in the regions (inter-annual variability)and the evolution of viticultural climate as a functionof climate change (Carbonneau and Tonietto, 1998;Tonietto et al., 2002). The approach also constitutesa complement of the description of the viticulturalclimate of vintages (millésimes) which, in their case,should add complementary climatic information to theclimatic indices DI, HI and CI.

Géoviticulture MCC Systemmay also help studiesof site selection for new viticultural areas. In this sit-uation the three indices used must be combined withothers, especially those related to viticulture inapti-tude or limitations like frost risk, climatic conditions


for budbreak, disease risk, excess humidity conditions,etc.

4.3. Géoviticulture MCC System as a reference forclimate viticulture worldwide

The method developed allows the world’s grape-growing regions as a whole to adopt this classificationof their climates, based on classical climatic data fromthe region.

The Géoviticulture MCC Systemenables all thegrape-growing regions worldwide together to adoptthis classification in order to categorize their viti-cultural climates. With these 97 regions and 36climatic groups (Table 5), a very good represen-tation of the climatic diversity found in the worldvineyards, any region can be included to obtain in-formation regarding its position in relation to theclimatic groups of world viticulture as a whole. Sub-sequent useful maps, with geographic informationsystem (GIS), may be developped from de MCCSystem.

Also, the System may be used as reference for cli-mate characterization of the regions in scientific andtechnical publications.

5. Conclusions

TheGéoviticulture MCC Systemdeveloped enablesthe following conclusions.

(a) It is effective to grouping grape-growing regionsthan the single criterion indices available.

(b) The dryness index and the cool night index makeit possible to show other aspects of the climateof grape-growing regions in the world vineyards,and they are complementary to the thermal orheliothermal indices usually used (the Heliother-mal Index of Huglin is the most pertinent in theGéoviticulture MCC System).

(c) The proposal of new definitions for viticulturalclimate (mean and range) and climatic group forgrape-growing regions enables greater precisionin studying the viticultural climatology.

(d) In warm climates, with more than one harvesta year, the proposed definition of viticulturalclimate with intra-annual variability enablesthe characterization of the viticultural climate

throughout the year by means of this multicriteriaevaluation.

(e) A very large climatic diversity found in theworld’s vineyards was clearly shown.

(f) The method developed allows the world’sgrape-growing regions as a whole to adopt thisclassification of their climates, based on classi-cal climatic data from the region involved. TheGéoviticulture MCC Systemenables position-ing each region in relation to other regions andclimatic groups in world viticulture, identifyinghomonym climates.

(g) TheGéoviticulture MCC Systemis a research toolfor grape-growing and wine-making zoning.

Acknowledgements

We thank the World Meteorological Organization(WMO), and especially Mr. N.A. Gbeckor-Kove andMr. V.K. Sivakumar of the Department of the WorldClimate Program of the Division of AgriculturalMeteorology. We also thank all the other institu-tions and people who worked to collect the data inthe different countries: South Africa, South AfricanWeather Bureau; Germany, Deutscher Wetterdienst;England, The Meteorological Office; Argentina, Insti-tuto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuária; Australia,Bureau of Meteorology; Brazil, Empresa Brasileirade Pesquisa Agropecuária; Canadá, Canadian Me-teorological Centre; Chile, Dirección Meteorológicade Chile; China, China Meteorological Administra-tion and China Agricultural University; Colombia,Instituto de Hidrologia, Meteorologia y Estudios Am-bientales; Spain, Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia;United States, Office of Metorology, National WeatherService and National Climatic Data Center; France,Météo-France; Guatemala, Instituto Nacional de Sis-mologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hidrologia;India, India Meteorological Department; Israel, IsraelMeteorological Service; Italy, European Commission,Joint Research Centre, Space Applications Institute,Agriculture and Regional Information System; Japan,Japan Meteorological Agency; New Zealand, Horti-culture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand;Peru, Servicio Nacional de Meteor. e Hidrologia;Portugal, Instituto de Meteorologia; Republic of Ko-rea, Korea Meteorological Administration; Slovakia,


Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute; Slovenia, Hy-drometeorological Institute; Switzerland, InstitutSuisse de Météorologie; Tanzania, Directorate ofMeteorology; Thailand, Meteorological Department;Tunisia, Institut National de la Météorologie; Turkey,State Meteorological Service; Uruguay, DirecciónNacional de Meteorologia and Instituto Nacional deVitivinicultura.

To our collaborators, Pierre Cour, Michel Calleja,Eric Lebon and Jean-Michel Boursiquot, for their con-tributions and their critical analyses of the research asa whole. To FINEP for financial support.

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