a media analysis of racism and ethnocentrism issues framed
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A Media Analysis of Racism and EthnocentrismIssues Framed in US and European Mass Mediawithin the Setting of the 2006 FIFA World CupCompetition.Monica NastaseEast Tennessee State University
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Recommended CitationNastase, Monica, "A Media Analysis of Racism and Ethnocentrism Issues Framed in US and European Mass Media within the Settingof the 2006 FIFA World Cup Competition." (2007). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2083. https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/2083
A Media Analysis of Racism and Ethnocentrism Issues Framed in US and European Mass Media
Within the Setting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup Competition
_____________________
A thesis
presented to
the faculty of the Department of Communication
East Tennessee State University
In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Arts in Professional Communication
_____________________
by
Monica Năstase
May 2007
_____________________
Dr. Stephen Marshall, Chair
Dr. Jack Mooney
Dr. Donald Shemwell
Keywords: agenda setting, media framing, FIFA World Cup, racism, ethnocentrism, content
analysis, soccer
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ABSTRACT
A Media Analysis of Racism and Ethnocentrism Issues Framed in US and European Mass Media
Within the Setting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup Competition
by
Monica Năstase
The present exploratory study, framed in agenda-setting theory, analyzes the way European and
US newspapers frame racism and ethnocentrism issues, on the background of the 2006 FIFA
World Cup. By combining quantitative and qualitative methods, 2 research hypotheses and 9
research questions were explored. The results showed the distribution of articles that used a
positive frame and the ones that used a negative frame was relatively equal across geographical
regions.
The US media have shown as the most ethnocentric nationality the Spanish, while the European
media, the Scottish. There is an agreement across different geographical regions that the French
and the German have the most tolerant or anti-discriminatory actions or attitudes. The most
prominent theme to describe nationalities� tolerant attitudes was the power of football to unify
peoples and to enhance global understanding. Both the American and the European media
described the Argentinean team mostly in terms of athletic skill.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am profoundly thankful to Dr. Stephen Marshall, my Committee Chair, for his
tremendous help and guidance throughout this study. I am also grateful to Dr. Jack Mooney and
Dr. Donald Shemwell for their help and interest in this intercultural project. A million thanks to
Maria Pestalardo, the secondary coder for this study, for her huge help, assistance, and moral
support to this study. Thank you to my family, to all my teachers, and to DJ and Thomas Jessee
for supporting and giving me confidence throughout my graduate study here at ETSU.
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CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................3
CONTENTS ...............................................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................6
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................8
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................11
Ethnic Issues ......................................................................................................11
Cultural Racism .................................................................................................13
Nationalism in Football......................................................................................16
Agenda Setting...................................................................................................20
Media Framing...................................................................................................22
Insufficient Data ................................................................................................25
Research Hypotheses .........................................................................................26
Research Questions ............................................................................................27
3. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................28
Sample Frame and Unit of Analysis ...................................................................29
Codebook. Independent Variables and Dependent Variables ..............................31
Grounded-Theory Approach ..............................................................................34
Reliability Analysis............................................................................................35
4. RESULTS .................................................................................................................37
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Chapter
Descriptive Results ............................................................................................37
Research Questions ............................................................................................41
Ethnicities by Ability Descriptor ........................................................................42
Frame in the Two Geographical Regions............................................................46
Ethnicities by Frame ..........................................................................................48
5. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................59
Discussion: Reporting on the Ability Descriptor.................................................59
Discussion: Reporting on the Framing Variable .................................................60
Emerging Themes from Qualitative Data ...........................................................62
Limitations and Future Research ........................................................................63
REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................66
APPENDICES ..........................................................................................................................70
Appendix A: Codebook......................................................................................70
Appendix B: Tables of Frequency ......................................................................78
Appendix C: Tables of Cross-Tabulation............................................................84
VITA ........................................................................................................................................96
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Country Category..................................................................................................................37
2. Date Category .......................................................................................................................38
3. Type Category.......................................................................................................................38
4. Race Category.......................................................................................................................39
5. Ethnicity Category ................................................................................................................39
6. Ability Category ...................................................................................................................40
7. Frame Category.....................................................................................................................40
8. Racial Issues in US Media.....................................................................................................41
9. Ethnocentrism Issues in European Media ..............................................................................42
10. Depiction with Athletic Skill: US ........................................................................................42
11. Depiction with Athletic Skill: European ..............................................................................44
12. Depiction with Concentration: European .............................................................................46
13. Geographical Region by Ethnicity Portrayal ........................................................................47
14. Ethnocentrism Attitudes: US Media ....................................................................................48
15. Ethnocentrism Attitudes: European Media...........................................................................51
16. Anti-Ethnocentrism: US Media ...........................................................................................54
17. Anti-Ethnocentrism: European Media..................................................................................56
18. Coder ..................................................................................................................................78
19. Newspaper Name ................................................................................................................78
20. Date ....................................................................................................................................80
21. Country ...............................................................................................................................81
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22. Type....................................................................................................................................81
23. Race ....................................................................................................................................81
24. Ethnicity..............................................................................................................................81
25. Ability.................................................................................................................................82
26. Frame..................................................................................................................................83
27. Ethnicity by Ability .............................................................................................................83
28. Ethnicity by Frame ..............................................................................................................89
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The present study analyzes the way European and US newspapers frame issues of racism
and ethnocentrism in coverage of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
Unfortunately, �international soccer has been plagued for years by violence among fans,
including racial incidents� (Longman, 2006, para. 3). Journalist Jere Longman reports on how
the European soccer stadiums have become �a communal soapbox, one of the few remaining
public spaces, where spectators can be outrageous and where political correctness does not exist
and is even discouraged� (Longman). Thus, ever since 2002 Fédération Internationale de
Football Association (FIFA), the international body that governs the soccer game, applied the
action called FIFA Anti-Discrimination Day and includes in each World Cup competition a
campaign called �Say No to Racism.� These actions are possible because the World Cup is not
only a football competition anymore but a brand in itself and also a universal intercultural
phenomenon where all nations come together.
Because the media coverage of World Cup is extensive all over the world and millions
are reading about it daily, journalists are able to raise different social issues, such as racism or
ethnic problems, and thus reach a large number of people from all over the world. Moreover,
framing of such issues is decisive of the way it will shape public opinion. Through its recently-
created campaign, �Say No to Racism�, The World Cup governing body facilitates the issue of
racism in the journalists� agenda by making it a prominent theme.
The advent of the Internet together with the possibility of live coverage and instant access
to information has helped tremendously in shaping the football game as an international and
multicultural affair. In world competitions, like the FIFA World Cup or the Olympics, TV
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reporters from all over the world broadcast the games live. Thus, people from any part of the
world can watch the same game at virtually the same time.
Therefore, the current study examines which of the discrimination issues, racism or
ethnocentrism, is most discussed in each of the two socio-geographic settings, Europe and USA,
and the importance given to each of them. This research analyzed all the available articles from
US and European print media found in the Lexis Nexis database. Through the process of content
analysis, the researcher answered two research hypotheses and nine research questions by
exploring issues such as sources of news and their manner of framing set by the respective
nations� journalists.
This research will be useful to both sociopolitical entities, first as a cultural study on
discrimination and second as an account for journalists of the present tendencies in media
framing of cross-cultural issues. This study would also be useful in education as a tool for
professors to teach students the importance of framing and its effects when reporting worldwide
events and through framing the great influence journalists can have on public opinion. Students
would also have the opportunity to learn about differences in the approach of social issues
between the two continents, North America and Europe. This study is exploratory and ground-
breaking because a similar study comparing the two issues, racism and ethnocentrism, and their
portrayal in the media was not found. Thus, the present analysis benefits mass communication
researchers with a new aspect added to the body of knowledge about intercultural topics.
Furthermore, the two cultural spaces will gain from the results of this study by becoming more
aware of, and further perhaps take action against, the discriminatory practices possibly going on
and their depiction in the media.
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The study is even more significant in light that few past research articles have dealt with
cross-cultural comparisons of racism and ethnocentrism. The importance of continuing to study
the intercultural issues in a world sporting event of such magnitude resides in the permanent
international interchanges of players and coaches and their constant need of social and cultural
adjustment in different teams, traditions, and nations. The study is also essential in describing the
power newspapers have in influencing fans across the world through processes of framing about
newsworthy and important ethnic and race-related issues.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ethnic Issues
Neuliep, Chaudoir, and McCorskey (2001) reviewed the social science literature and
traced back the earliest definition of ethnocentrism, given by Sumner (1906, as cited in Neuliep
et al.) who defined it as �the technical name for this view of things in which one�s own group is
the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it� (p. 137-138).
Other social scientists have tried to give alternative definitions. Levinson saw it as �a
hierarchical, authoritarian view of group interaction in which ingroups are rightly dominant,
outgroups subordinate� (1950, as cited in Neuliep et al., p. 138). Neuliep et al. stated the
following: �The idea is that all cultures are so embedded in their own special codes and value
orientations that there is an ethnocentric inclination to believe that their unique interpretations
and perceptions of the world and human nature are the best and most correct ones� (p. 138).
When analyzing ethnic issues, previous reviewed research focuses primarily on two
paths: either the European problems between different cultures of the continent or the relations
between white Americans and Latinos in the North American setting.
Even though Hispanic people originally from Central or South America are more and
more a common population in many North American cities, research illustrates that Latinos are
still viewed as an oppressed social group. Gaudio and Bialostok (2005) make a critical discourse
analysis on everyday speech of Katherine, a white middle-class American, married to a working-
class Latino man (p. 57-62). Katherine�s conversations are benevolent when talking about her
husband�s less-educated family, about the Latinos who cling to their culture long after settling in
USA, or about the Latinos� lack of socioeconomic success as being �in their blood� (p. 62-63).
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Yet, �Implicit in all these accounts is the proposition that the cultural values of the white middle
class are morally superior to those of other ethnic and class groups, and that it is the
responsibility of �ethnic� poor people of color to renounce their old values and adopt new ones�
(Gaudio & Bialostok, p. 52-53).
Sizemore (2004) also addressed this issue when assessing the whites� discourse of ethnic
inclusion, which �allows for the sentiment, especially among Anglos, that this is �our country�
and Hispanics should �fit in.� (p. 535). Sizemore�s research project consists of qualitative
interviews with white people from a rural area in southern Illinois on the topic of Hispanic social
integration in their community. Virtually all white Americans interviewed, from local people to
government representatives, described the change of their community by the arrival of Hispanics
by using language of ethnocentrism and paternalism.
The way ethnocentrism was manifested in Sizemore�s (2004) article is by the distinction
of �we� the rightfully inhabitants of this place and �them�, the outsiders who need to conform if
they want to fit in. The paternalism was manifested in whites� language in two ways: either as a
�local benevolence� in order to use them as cheap labor for the work on the state�s orchards or as
people with �universal rights�, language used by government agencies in order to undergo their
political agenda of �providing entitlements to minority groups� (Sizemore, p. 548).
The other focus on ethnic problems is the mixture of a multitude of nationalities living
together on the European continent. This constitutes an old debate and research area that has
become even more intense since the formation of the European Union in 1992. �The European
Union itself, in recent years, has been acting rather like a state without a nation � or, rather, as a
state busily trying to invent a (super) nation for itself, through its control of communications and
cultural technologies� (Morley, 1998, p. 342). In Europe, cultural diversity and homogeneity
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have been redefined in order to correspond with standardization and unity promoted by the
European Parliament.
Morley (1998) addressed in his research the question of the future of the European Union
trying to become a single entity by creating a single market in the audiovisual area. Morley
discussed the people�s difficulty in finding their own cultural traits in a politico-economic
alliance and with this the rebirth of ethnic nationalism: �not everyone feels attracted to this kind
of Euro-identity and many are, at the very least, uncertain about what the claims to �unity in
diversity� of European culture might actually mean. [�] One response to these upheavals has
been to find refuge in more localized senses of place and identity; we have seen the flourishing
of cultural regionalism and small nationalisms� (p. 343).
In an interview given to the London newspaper, The Guardian, in 1992, Umberto Eco
expressed his concern on the same idea addressed by Morley (1998) of unity in Europe, either it
is through language, culture, or politics: �We�ve got to pin our hopes on polyglot Europe.
Europe�s problem is to find political unity across a polyglot culture� (p. 25).
Cultural Racism
The instances when explicit racism makes its way in the media channels are rare
nowadays, but that does not mean that racism has disappeared completely from the public realm.
As Gaudio and Bialostok (2005) stated: �The relative absence of overt racism has led some to
suppose that racism itself no longer exists [�] But racism is alive and well [�] It is just hiding
under the guise of �culture�� (p. 51-52). Under the pretext that for instance, Hispanics culturally
are less focused on achieving higher education (Gaudio & Bialostok, p. 62), people convey racist
ideas and they cover them up under the name of cultural diversity. Therefore, rather than
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recognizing the distortion of underprivileged races in US society, middle-class white Americans
�blame culture for the lower classes� suffering and poverty, and for dragging down the living
standards of the country as a whole� (Gaudio & Bialostok, p. 64).
Cultural racism is manifested not only by individuals, like in Gaudio and Bialostok�s
(2005) discourse analysis, but also and maybe more importantly by mass media. The way
journalists portray the different races in news stories affects public understanding and opinions
on the races portrayed and the social implications in diversity. Gandy and Li (2005) analyzed
through a quantitative content analysis of news articles how African-Americans are framed in
stories about racial disparity and inequality. The articles from different newspaper sections are
studied: finance, criminal justice, healthcare, education, and employment. Both whites and
African-Americans were studied. The results showed that the tendency is to portray blacks
discriminately, as having the hardships regardless of the field, rather than reporting on whites as
having the advantages in situations relating to the above-mentioned fields.
The portrayal in the media of discrimination of blacks was studied by other researchers as
well, and the same findings are presented: blacks� loan applications are refused based on the risk
they present (Goshorn & Gandy, 1995), and in an exposure to hazards and risks blacks are
portrayed more negatively than whites (Gandy, Kopp, Hands, Frazer, & Phillips, 1997).
The issue of portraying the African and white Americans in press has also been studied
by Richardson (2005) through an experiment with readers who were given either framed or non-
framed editorials about affirmative action in the American society. Although the framed articles
with the diversity frame did not influence White readers into favoring more the affirmative
action policy, they created more concern and empathy towards Blacks, leading them to have
better interracial attitudes. The results showed that framing is effective because �the diversity
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frame appears to improve Whites� pro-Black affect� (Richardson, p. 522). So, this study gave
further evidence, based on the literature reviewed, that media can manipulate readers using
different frames and that frames can affect readers� racial and ethnic perceptions.
The racist representations of African-Americans go even into the field of sports (Wilson,
1997), where African-American basketball players are categorized in Canadian media as either
�good� or �bad� by their ability to integrate in the white dominated society rather than by the
quality of their play. �The success or failure of African-Americans was attributed to their ability
or inability to take advantage of the �American dream�� (Wilson, p. 177). If they are �good
blacks� they achieved their goals through hard work and discipline, if they are �bad blacks� they
were blamed for not being able to take advantage of the opportunities they had. Either way, by
not mentioning the racist barriers that exist in society, the news stories managed to �reinforce the
view that the failure of the black underclass is their own fault� (Wilson, p. 185) without any
contribution from the society. Wilson�s findings support previous literature reviewed regarding
the racist descriptions of African-Americans in the media, the active construction of negative
stereotypes about African-Americans. They also support �Wenner�s concept of the good
black/bad black dichotomy� (Wilson, p. 186).
Consequently, the articles that study the impact of the framing on the public�s perception
of the different races, and specifically on the African-American one, demonstrate that mass
media are indeed an important influence that shapes public opinion concerning the different
races and ethnicities in the US society.
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Nationalism in Football
Several studies regarding nationalism have been conducted (Hermes, 2005; Inthorn,
2002; Rivenburgh, 2000; Stankovic, 2004; Tzanelli, 2006), but the most comprising in terms of
civilizations from all over the world is the one done by Boster and Maltseva (2006). They
analyzed through a survey of positive and negative phrases Europeans� views on various
nationalities from Europe, Asia, and North America. The results showed a great deal of
stereotyping from each of the nations interviewed, regardless of the proximity or distance from
the country stereotyped.
Generally, the closer the nation is to the one of the interviewee the harsher will be the
judgment and the stereotype, and the farther away the nation is the easier it is judged. As the
authors put it, �The distant background is homogenized, reduced to a sparse schema; it is the
social foreground, one�s neighboring nations and one�s fellow nations, where the images are
complicated, contested and conflicted� (Boster & Maltseva, 2006, p. 59). Thus, the researchers
already started from the premise that there is certainly stereotyping going on among nations, and
so the study was solely concerned with examining the degree of stereotyping each nation
expressed towards others.
The most recent article that analyzed the aspects of nationalism in the football arena is
the qualitative analysis conducted by Hermes (2005). Through interviews taken to fans of the
Dutch national football team, there was revealed their nationalist character, despite their famous
claims that they are a non-racist nation. Many players in the Dutch football team are from
Suriname; a nation governed by Netherlands until 1975 and composed mainly of black people.
Thus, the interviews focused on nationalism and the black players in the team. Even
though almost no one consciously believed or stated he or she is racist, �it is clearly somewhat
17
painful that the Netherlands, a nation felt to be essentially white, should be represented by non-
whites� (Hermes, 2005, p. 61). Furthermore, another type of racism emerged from the results,
called enlightened racism, �in which black players are seen as the naturally (biologically) more
gifted players: �They can do more than the average European player� (Jaap). [�] �The way they
play the ball, it�s instinct� (Johan)� (Hermes, p. 63).
Because of the speed of coverage that needs to be done, reporters have to be prepared
with all data necessary to make astute reviews and commentaries. Tudor (1992) made a
qualitative discourse analysis of the language of British TV reporters at the England � Cameroon
game in 1990 World Cup. The reporting of the event relied mainly on stereotypes that have been
reinforced throughout the entire game time. England, the home team, was unmistakably
portrayed with partisan comments; the language being used was of �us�, or �we want our team to
win� (Tudor, p. 403). In opposition, in regard to Cameroon team, �Their players are unfamiliar
and, in a Eurocentric context, the cultures themselves have little or no pre-established footballing
identity� (Tudor, p. 399). Thus the Cameroon team was described in an �extra-footballing
language, often basically patronizing in tone�, as coming �out of Africa� and �a happy-go-lucky
bunch�, �just happy to be here� (Tudor, p. 399-401). However, after Cameroon won the game,
they were suddenly characterized with the lines: �They�re not as naïve as we�d like to think they
are� and �African football will never be underestimated in Europe again� (Tudor, p. 403-405).
A similar study was conducted by Alabarces, Tomlinson, and Young (2001) who
analyzed the media narratives of nation and the popular players after Argentina�s win over
England at 1998 World Cup in France. The framing of the articles was a mix of reporting from
the field of play, historical rooted rivalries, culture, and principles of the game of football. �Mass
media and sport are indispensable forms of such discourse, in their contribution of �a shared
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culture which makes men into nationalists�� (Gellner, 1994: viii, as cited in Alabarces et al., p.
548). One other aspect of the coverage was the stereotyping of both the countries� national traits
and their historic ability of play. The media coverage is crucial in forming the public opinion and
in this case the fact that this game was �the biggest UK television audience since the funeral of
Princess Diana� (Alabarces et al., p. 554) shows how practical it is for media to shape public
opinion with the help of such a world sporting event as the World Cup.
Across Europe, in a politically troubled part of the continent, Slovenians have similar
nationalist perceptions on their national football team. Stankovič (2004) conducted a historic
analysis on the national identity of Slovenians under political rule of the Serbs in Yugoslavia.
Because they could not express themselves freely in politics, the conflict took shape in culture,
religion, and sports, mainly in football. In the 1960s and 1970s, Slovenians used winter sports as
a means of distancing themselves culturally from Serbs, who did not have either mountains or
winter sports. However, to prove their superiority, Slovenians had to prove they are good in
football as well. Their social strategic move was to change the meaning of football into a
pejorative one, so they would not have to prove their superiority as a nation through an inferior
game. �Soccer literally became a synonym for a game that does little else other than stimulate
the basest of human instincts (anger, hate, mindful passion, quasi-orgasmic joy when a goal is
scored, and so on)� (Stankovič, p. 238-239).
However, after they started to win football games internationally in mid 1990s because of
their better team, Slovenians switched the social meaning of football again, now with the
connotation of �Slovenian soccer as a proof of the incredible vitality of a small nation, its
homogeneity, cooperation, solidarity� (Stankovič, 2004, p. 247). They also accepted the
�inferior� immigrants, the Serbs, who comprised at least half of the national football team. Yet,
19
they explained the success of the football team not through the talent of the Serbs, but through
the �hard work� characteristic to Slovenians, who consider themselves to be a part of the
civilized Germanic type of Europeans.
Eastern European peoples like Slovenians might look up to Germany and other Western
European countries, but these nations are not spared the nationalist discourse either. As Inthorn
(2002) showed, German national identity is discussed up to the present day. Through a
qualitative analysis of the German press coverage, the researcher portrayed how the present
German nation was described within the setting of 1998 FIFA World Cup discourse as an
antithesis of the pre-1945 Germany. The results of the analysis showed that indeed Germany
criticizes nationalism that involves violence or discrimination and accepts the new forms of
nationalism that entails �pride in one�s country without sentiments of national superiority�
(Inthorn, p. 65).
Another aspect analyzed by Inthorn (2002) was the series of stereotypes that are involved
when describing the polarity of the �self� and �other�. Just like Tudor�s (1992) analysis outlined
previously, �common constitutive features of collective identities are identified [�] a sense of
�us� � the members of the national collectivity of the �self� � and �them� � those who do not
belong, the �other� � is established.� (Inthorn, p. 50). Overall, the discourse analysis showed that
even though the German media tries to create an image of the new nationalism of Germany, old
descriptions of �mystic homelands� are still a part of the German press discourse.
One of the latest articles portraying the ways in which nationalism manifests itself in
European countries in the setting of the international football competitions is the content analysis
conducted by Tzanelli (2006). Starting from Greece�s unforeseen triumph in the Euro 2004
Football Cup, the researcher made an account of the sociological meaning of the victory for the
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Greek nation, concluding that the Greek media took every chance to explore the nature of their
national identity presenting Greece after the victory as �the Greek revival�, having a �heroic
uniqueness� or that �Olympus has new Greek Gods� (p. 485-497).
In conclusion, all the articles outlined in this section portray several nations� trend
towards seeing their own people as liberal, multicultural, and open but at the same time superior
to others in a nationalist manner. Clearly, the football setting is just a support and not the main
focus of the explored theme.
Agenda Setting
In 1972 McCombs and Shaw (as cited in Wanta, Golan, & Lee, 2004) were the first two
researchers who conceptualized the agenda setting notion by measuring the agenda of the media.
They stated that �mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of items on their news
agendas to the public agenda� (as cited in Griffin, 2006, p. 395). Their first practical study on
which they tested the theory was the 1968 presidential campaign between Richard Nixon and
Hubert Humphrey. They analyzed the agenda of the media, major newspapers and TV stations,
and then also conducted interviews with voters. Remarkably, there was a great convergence of
the voters� perceptions with the predominant issues resulting from the media analysis. So the
media managed to set the agenda for the voters� perception of the most important issue at the
time.
The selection of the news stories is at the core of the agenda-setting process, practice that
the mass media professionals conduct for every issue of a newspaper or TV news bulletin. The
stories that journalists and news directors choose to include in the newspaper or air on TV, as
opposed to the news stories they choose to leave out, represent the agenda the journalists set for
21
the public. McCombs and Shaw stated that this agenda-setting function creates �a correlation
between the media and public ordering of priorities� (as cited in Griffin, 2006, p. 395).
The hypothesis of agenda setting predicts a relationship between the content in the media
and the public�s perception, more precisely an equivalent between the agenda of the media and
the subsequent public agenda. In order for this hypothesis to prove true, the media agenda must
precede the public agenda in time. Through framing, the media not only tells the public what to
think about, but it tells them what to think by emphasizing some issues instead of others.
Furthermore, McCombs and Shaw even state that �some people look to print and broadcast news
for guidance on which issues are really important� (as cited in Sparks, 2006, p. 178).
Bernard Cohen, political scientist, also summarized the agenda-setting theory in the
following way: �The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to
think, but it is stunningly successful in telling readers what to think about� (as cited in Sparks,
2006, p. 176). So, the continued coverage of certain chosen issues defines what is newsworthy in
a given day, before the public even gets to read the respective news stories and be influenced by
their framing. The coverage of a certain issue may not establish precisely what the public
position will be on the issue, but it guarantees that the issue will be considered important enough.
Wanta et al. (2004) used the agenda-setting theory to study if the newscasts� coverage of
foreign nations set the agenda for public perceptions of those countries. They used content
analysis and survey to study public agenda and the media agenda of the newscasts� content. The
results show that the more media coverage a certain nation received, �the more likely the
respondents were to think the nation was vitally important to US interests� (Wanta et al., p. 364).
The results support the agenda-setting theory and show a strong relationship between media
coverage and the forming of public opinion.
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Media Framing
Despite Cohen�s definition, some researchers believe that the press does indeed tell us
both what to think about and also what to think. The media are able to persuade the public into
what to think about certain issues through the process of framing. A media frame is an
organizing idea for the content of the news in such a way that it �supplies a context and suggests
what this issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion and elaboration� (Griffin,
2006, p. 328). One of the earlier definitions is given by Entman (1992, as cited in Poindexter,
Smith, & Heider, 2003), who stated that framing is �selecting some aspects of a perceived reality
and making them more salient in a communicating text� (p. 526).
By using frames, media not only set the agenda of news for the public opinion but also
transfer the importance of specific attribute to topics, actions, or happenings. These two ways of
persuading the public are called first-level and second-level agenda-setting.
Thus, first-level agenda-setting represents the ability of the media to tell people what to
think about by using the amount of coverage of a certain issue to set its importance. Afterward,
second-level agenda-setting represents a further ability of the media to tell people what to think.
They are able to accomplish this by focusing on the characteristics of the issues published to
transmit how people should think about the respective issue (Griffin, 2006).
Framing actually tells the reader what the important subject is, who are the characters,
and the opinion they should form about them after reading the news story. Framing can also form
opinions about what races get to count in the public debate by the amount of exposure each gets.
Poindexter, Smith, and Heider (2003) have studied how TV stories from local television news
markets all over USA framed race and ethnicity in the last 2 decades of the 20th Century. They
found that �Latinos, Asian Americans and Native Americans were virtually non-existent as
23
anchors, reporters, subjects and sources� and that �reporters were segregated by race�
(Poindexter et al., p. 533). They also found that African-Americans were only visible in negative
news stories.
Regarding various races, even small differences in framing may have strong influences
on how the public perceives and prefers them. �These framing cues might, however, also involve
racial identifications that would trigger implicit evaluative responses in certain subgroups of the
general population� (Gandy et al., 1997, p. 163). Gandy et al. stated that �the subject or theme of
the story is an important determination of the ways in which the story will be framed in the
headline and in the lead� (p. 177). So the stories about white people will be framed differently
from stories about blacks.
Gandy et al. (1997) created a sample of newspaper articles and analyzed comparisons
between whites and blacks in an ordinal scale from �no focus� to �primary focus�. The findings
showed that �the overwhelming majority of the stories were about black victimization or
disparities in which blacks were on the losing side� (Gandy et al., p. 170). Also, when whites
compared to blacks are at risk, Gandy et al. found when talking about whites, journalists tend to
frame them positively, as opposed to the negative frames placed on blacks. When newspapers
deal with an issue about African-Americans, �those stories, almost without regard to topic, are
bound to emphasize the negative� (Gandy et al., p. 178).
Several research articles (Gandy & Li, 2005; Gandy et al., 1997; Goshorn & Gandy,
1995) discuss the issue of framing of African-Americans in US setting in regard to risk. Risk is
seen as �the probability of property damage, injury, illness or death associated with a hazard�
(Gandy & Li, p. 73), including the assignment of blame and responsibility for the respective
harm. Gandy and Li�s study was concerned with the way the media frame stories about disparity
24
and inequality for white and African-American races in the US social setting. The researchers
conducted an analysis of stories of different types, from finance, criminal justice, education, or
healthcare, and revealed editorial bias in terms of discriminatory frames. Specifically, their
findings show that African-Americans are portrayed as the social category that is subject to more
risk in the society, in comparison with middle-class whites. Additionally, when African-
Americans are the victims of a risk, the blame and responsibility is attributed to them rather than
the system.
Consequently, all the previously discussed articles (Gandy & Li, 2005; Gandy et al.,
1997; Goshorn & Gandy, 1995; Poindexter et al., 2003) that deal with the framing of whites in
comparison with blacks in the American media portrayed the discrimination of blacks in favor of
whites, regardless of the subject analyzed. Thus, it is revealed the importance media framing has
on shaping public opinion on different races in the society.
From a different perspective, media framing is not only important in shaping public
opinion but also in setting the scene for the global businesses that invest in the football industry.
Boyle and Haynes (1996) made an analysis of the place of football in the new cultures built
within the economics of global capital. They mainly discussed Scottish football in the process of
increasing globalization that is primarily driven by television. The researchers illustrated that the
cultural and national identities, with all their complexities and particularities, become much more
prominent world-wide when media reports on global sporting events such as the World Cup or
the Olympics.
At a time when both football and visual media industries in Scotland are under pressure
of either Europeanization or globalization, they turned their interest to local or regional heritage
rather than conforming to standardization. Through an extensive discourse analysis, Boyle and
25
Haynes (1996) showed that �The Scottish print media also stress their distinctive Scottish
character, in part through their sports coverage and by recourse to particular local idioms and
discourses� (p. 562).
Insufficient Data
The majority of the articles reviewed until now suggest that the European social setting
has many more difficulties regarding the complex issues of nationalism and ethnocentrism, and
that the United States setting has primarily issues regarding racism. However, a thorough search
yielded only one study that actually made an intercultural comparison of ethnocentrism involving
USA and another social setting. Neuliep et al. (2001) made an analysis of the degrees of
ethnocentrism among Japanese and American college students.
Cultures are generally so embedded in their own values and heritage that they have �an
ethnocentric inclination to believe that their unique interpretations and perceptions of the world
and human nature are the best and most correct ones.� (Neuliep et al., 2001, p. 138). Aside from
most nations of the world, the United States has the political ideology �based on a melting pot
metaphor where people from diverse cultures enter the US and get stirred up in the same pot. The
phrase e pluribus unum represents the socio-political philosophy that from myriad ethnicities
comes a single unified culture.� (Neuliep et al., p. 140). Thus, based on these assumptions,
Neuliep et al. conducted a study with the hypothesis that Japanese people will score higher on
measurements of ethnocentrism. The results supported the hypothesis; Japanese students scored
much higher than American students, and an additional study of data revealed that men scored
higher than women in ethnocentrism in both cultures.
26
Because this is �the first direct empirical comparison of ethnocentrism among Japanese
and Americans� (Neuliep et al., 2001, p. 143), the three researchers proposed for future research
that other studies are done on more diverse cultures in order to get closer to the indicators as to
what aspects of a culture are likely to lead to higher or lower ethnocentrism.
In addition, two other researchers, Imada and Schiavo (2005), have done a study in 16
academic journals on a period of 10 years, from 1990 to 1999, to find out the share of articles
studying different ethnic groups. They selected all articles that analyzed ethnic issues regarding
African-Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans and found African-Americans were
the most studied ethnic group. However, the overall results show that in the APA journals the
percentage of ethnic studies was as low as 4.7% and in non-APA journals it was 8.1%. The
results of this analysis prove once again the importance of continuing to study racial and ethnic
issues within the setting of different cultures.
This awareness of the need of more studies of cross-cultural comparisons of
ethnocentrism and racism combined with the evidence outlined above that international football
competitions and their media portrayal encompass more than just a game, give reason for the
present study. However, it is an exploratory analysis, employing research concepts and methods
that have not been used until now in a quantitative study.
As a result of the previous review of literature, the following research questions and
hypotheses are formulated.
Research Hypotheses
RH1: US media will more frequently cover racial issues than ethnocentric issues within
the setting of 2006 FIFA World Cup.
27
RH2: European media will more frequently cover ethnocentric issues than racial issues
within the setting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
Research Questions
RQ1: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the athletic skill descriptor
by the US media?
RQ2: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the athletic skill descriptor
by the European media?
RQ3: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the concentration descriptor
by the US media?
RQ4: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the concentration descriptor
by the European media?
RQ5: Which frame was used predominantly by each geographic region?
RQ6: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having ethnocentrism attitudes by
the US media?
RQ7: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having ethnocentrism attitudes by
the European media?
RQ8: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having anti-ethnocentrism attitudes
by the US media?
RQ9: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having anti-ethnocentrism attitudes
by the European media?
28
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Content analysis was used in the present exploratory study to examine the research
questions and to test the research hypotheses. This study examines racism and ethnocentrism
issues that appeared in the print media during the time of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, between
June 9th and July 9th, 2006.
Neuendorf (2002) defined content analysis as the �summarizing, quantitative analysis of
messages that relies on the scientific method [...] and is not limited as to the types of variables
that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented� (p. 10).
Content analysis provides researchers with a quantitative method for studying what people say;
from human interactions to character portrayals in TV ads, movies, or shows; or the use of words
in news releases, commentaries, or political speeches. Thus, by identifying specific
characteristics of messages, researchers use content analysis as �an indirect way to make
inferences about people� (Keyton, 2006, p. 234).
Previous content analysis studies explored racial issues mainly focusing on the
differences between the white and the black races. Gandy et al. (1997) studied the framing of
racial inequality of whites and blacks, in regard to risk in society, in the headlines and leads of 29
newspapers. Billings (2004) focused on the differences in ways white and black players were
represented in terms of athletic skill or perceived intelligence. Hardin, Chance, and Walsdorf
(2004) studied a set of 800 images of US Olympic athletes, categorized as �black�, �white� and
�other�, to analyze if illustrations reinforced notions of racial difference. Poindexter et al. (2003)
content analyzed a series of local TV newscasts to find representations of five races in news
29
stories: how they were presented and if they were segregated and the roles each race played in a
news story.
Concerning the study of ethnicities, Rivenburgh (2000) did a content analysis of one
national newspaper from each of US, Argentina, and Denmark to find out if the notions of �in-
group favoritism� and �protection� were used when portraying citizens engaged in international
activities. Wal et al. (2005) also used content analysis to answer research questions regarding the
framing of ethnic minorities in the European and Dutch mass media in different categories of
news stories, from family issues to violence.
Neuliep et al. (2001) used a questionnaire for a quantitative analysis to find out
ethnocentrism levels in American and Japanese college students. The questionnaire consisted
mainly of the statements in the GENE scale, used in the present study for reference as well, and
results showed that Japanese students scored significantly higher than Americans in
ethnocentrism attitudes.
The present analysis constitutes an exploratory study because, as stated above, no other
study was found to have similar methodology.
Sample Frame and Unit of Analysis
The news stories were searched in the online database Lexis Nexis by several criteria:
first there was chosen the region, US and European newspapers, and then the date range between
June 9th and July 9th, 2006. Two series of keywords were used to narrow the search for the
appropriate articles: �world cup� and �ethnicity� and then �world cup� and �race�.
The Lexis Nexis database was built in the 1960s initially comprising only the legal
database (Lexis), and by the beginning of the 1990s, after the addition of the news sources
30
(Nexis), it had developed into �the most comprehensive and well-constructed message archive
on earth� (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 219). Lexis Nexis consists of approximately 10,200 different
databases, with 15 million documents being added each week (Neuendorf, p. 219). All these
facts make it a reliable online source for researchers in their study of mass media content.
However, the publications available in the mass media section of the database are somewhat
biased towards the US news sources �except for the international wire services� (Neuendorf, p.
221). The addition of newspapers� content from different regions of the world depends strictly of
the respective newspaper�s availability of online content. Consequently, this constitutes one of
the drawbacks of the present study, which was not able to reach all the European and American
newspapers, just the ones loaded into the Lexis Nexis database.
Therefore, all the stories found in the database using the two sets of keywords were
downloaded and printed. Stories that came up in the search but had nothing to do with the 2006
FIFA World Cup were eliminated. Such examples are news stories dealing with other global
competitions, such as racing or rowing, or others that contained the word �race� but the reference
was to different subjects, such as a horse race or political race. Initially there were downloaded
and printed 503 news stories. However, after coding the entire data, 166 stories were eliminated
based on the reasons mentioned above.
For each story found, the title and the entire article were analyzed. The unit of analysis is
each segment of a news story containing a mentioned race, ethnicity, or nation and the related
descriptors of the social issue presented. The researchers coded 337 news stories, or 448
segments of a news story.
The 2006 FIFA World Cup Competition is just the background setting for studying the
depiction in media of racial and ethnocentric issues, and it does not constitute the main subject of
31
the study. That is why some of the segments that contained mentions of races, ethnicities, or
nationalities but were not a direct reference to the social issues analyzed in this study were not
coded. Examples of such instances are the mentions of upcoming games between two nations,
rendering of latest scores of games, and other similar instances. For example, a segment that
would not be coded because of the lack of relevance for the present study is the following: �He
was referring to the elimination of Argentina and France, with Italy on the brink unless it defeats
Mexico� (Dell�Apa, 2002, June 13). There are four nations mentioned, but there is no ethnic
issue discussed. There is no discrimination portrayed about any of the nations mentioned. Thus,
such a segment would not constitute a part of the research. Another example of a similar instance
is the following: �On the short list of games that won�t be shown live are Ireland-Cameroon
(2:25 a.m. EDT) tomorrow and England-Sweden (5:25 a.m. Sunday)� (Griffith, 2002, May 31).
These examples are just mentions of the upcoming games. The segment has nothing to do with
an ethnic or racial issue; there is no qualifying term for either of the nation, so it will not be
coded for the purposes of the present research.
Codebook. Independent Variables and Dependent Variables
The independent variables were the following: the newspaper�s name, its date of
publication, the country of the newspaper, and the type of article. The dependent variables were:
the race, the ethnicity or nationality, the word-for-word descriptor, the ability descriptor, and the
frame.
The independent variables had the following specific classifications: the newspaper�s
name variable had 73 categories (see Appendix A); the newspaper�s date of publication had 31
categories: from June 9th to July 9th; the country of newspaper variable had seven categories (see
32
Appendix A); and the type of article had three categories, factual news story, editorial or opinion
article, or �cannot tell or don�t know�.
The dependent variables had the following specific classifications. The race variable had
six categories: white; Black; Asian; Latino, Latina or Hispanic; Native American, and �not
mentioned or don�t know�. One previous study from the ones reviewed coded races with six
terms: white, African-American, Latino or Latina, Asian American, Native American, unable to
determine or other (Poindexter et al., 2003). However, in their study Poindexter et al. (2003) only
analyzed news stories from the US mass media and focused on the Americanized races and
ethnicities living in USA. Because the present study is an analysis of the coverage of a global
event in which nations from all over the world participate, the race categories have been changed
to represent the original source. The races changed were from African-American into Black,
from Asian American into Asian, and from Latino or Latina into the more general phrase, Latino
or Latina or Hispanic. The rest of the categories for the race variable were left the same. The
present study includes the five races mentioned in the previous study because of relevance of the
present intercultural analysis.
The ethnicity or nationality variable had 40 categories (see Appendix A). This is an
intercultural study about the framing of a multitude of nationalities and ethnicities within the
setting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, so each ethnicity that was portrayed in a social issue of
discrimination was coded. At the end of the coding process, each ethnicity or nationality was
given a number and the variable was transformed from string into numerical for the purposes of
statistical research.
The word-for-word descriptor variable means coding the exact phrase used to describe a
race, ethnicity, or nationality of a person or team. It was adopted from Billings and Eastman�s
33
(2002) study that analyzed the media coverage of the 2000 Summer Olympics looking at gender,
ethnicity, and nationality. They defined the word-for-word descriptor or the descriptive phrase
variable as �all adjectival descriptors and descriptive phrases applied� (p. 357). The word-for-
word descriptor was further used by Billings (2004) in a subsequent study. Several examples of
word-for-word descriptors included in the present study are: �attacks on dark skinned
foreigners�, �prejudice against immigrants is high�, �regardless of whether they are black or
brown or white the team represents France�, or �multiracial team�.
The ability descriptor variable had three categories: concentration, athletic skill, and �not
mentioned or other�. The first two categories represent a part of the taxonomy created by
Billings and Eastman (2002) in their study. The same taxonomy was further used by Billings
(2004) to analyze the TV commentaries on Black and white players within the setting of college
and professional football. For the entire classification table see Appendix A.
The frame variable had four categories: �positive�, �negative�, �factual�, and �none�. In
order to conceptualize the frame variable, the present study used Neuliep and McCorskey�s
(1997) research in which they created a generalized ethnocentrism scale. The scale consists of 24
statements that can be grouped in 12 sets of opposite pairs of statements in which one is
ethnocentric or discriminatory towards other cultures, and the other one is tolerant or accepting
of other cultures besides one�s own, or even disapproving of one�s culture. This generalized
ethnocentrism scale was used as a reference to define and set the parameters of the positive
frame and the negative frame. A segment of a news story was coded as having a positive frame
when there was evidence of ethnocentrism attitudes portrayed about a certain ethnicity and it
could be correlated in meaning with any of the 12 ethnocentric statements from the
ethnocentrism scale. A segment of a news story was coded as having a negative frame when
34
there was evidence of tolerant or accepting attitudes portrayed about a certain ethnicity and could
be correlated in meaning with any of the 12 anti-ethnocentric or tolerant statements from the
ethnocentrism scale. A segment of a news story was coded as factual when there was a mention
of race or ethnicity, but the comment or description of it was made without any evaluating
words. A segment of a news story was coded as �none� when there was no ethnocentrism frame
used, generally when the segment was coded for the �ability� category.
Grounded-Theory Approach
For the nine research questions formulated, chi-square tests of independence were not run
because several cells in each case had the expected count less than five. A multitude of
ethnicities were discussed both in the US and the European media. The frequencies ranged from
19 in the US media to 30 in European media. In the US media 16 out of 19 (84.2 %) ethnicities
were mentioned fewer than 5 times. In the European media 25 out of 30 (83.3 %) ethnicities
were mentioned fewer than 10 times, with 20 out of 30 (66.6 %) ethnicities mentioned fewer
than 5 times.
Therefore, the researcher tried to categorize the ethnicities into larger geographical
groups in order to find out if this method would allow a further chi-square statistical test. The
larger categories were the following: Central and South America; North America; Africa;
Europe; Middle East, and Asia and Pacific. All but five of the ethnicities coded were included in
one of these larger categories according to their region. The five ethnicities that were left out are:
English, French, German, Scottish, and Spanish. These ones stand out in the frequency test with
40 to 73 mentions. In comparison, of the remaining ethnicities only one is mentioned 12 times,
30.7 % between three and nine times, and 53.8 % are mentioned once or twice.
35
Furthermore, after the categorization of ethnicities into larger groups, another set of chi-
square analyses were run to test if there are statistically significant relationships between the
regions and the frames, and further on between the regions and the ability descriptors. Again, the
instances when the expected count was less than five ranged from 20.8% to 60.6%. So, even
collapsed into larger geographical categories the data were not suitable for chi-square tests.
Consequently, each of the eight research questions will be further discussed from a
qualitative point of view, taking into consideration relevant frequencies and a deeper analysis of
the data gathered.
The qualitative analysis was done using parts of the grounded theory approach, �one of
the most influential models for coding qualitative data�, initiated by Barney Glaser and Anselm
Strauss in 1967 (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 218). The grounded theory is the method of deriving
theories from qualitative data. The grounded theory approach includes several stages of analytic
steps from open or in vivo coding, further creating the codebook to integration and
dimensionalization (Lindlof & Taylor, p. 220).
For the purposes of the present study, just a part of the grounded theory will be
employed, specifically the construction of interpretative claims, in order to explain the data. For
each research question, besides the quantitative descriptive results, a qualitative approach was
employed by outlining the predominant descriptors of ethnocentrism issues and by defining
emerging themes for each geographical area discussed.
Reliability Analysis
Because of the exploratory nature of the present study, the second coder had to be trained
in understanding the conceptualization of each of the dependent variables. In order to do this, the
36
two researchers coded 10 articles and then discussed each segment coded and why each of them
coded some segments and not others. The researchers had the most difficulties at the beginning
with the ability and frame variables. A 5-hour training session was held to discuss the meaning
of each of them and the correlation with the instruments from previous studies. After each coder
understood how the other one comprehended the variables, they agreed on how to code the
subsequent articles.
After this preliminary conversation and familiarizing with the new topic, an inter-coder
reliability test was conducted between the two coders. An assessment of the inter-coder
reliability was achieved by using Holsti�s (1969) formula. The formula is the following:
2M/N1+N2, where M is agreement number and N1 represents the decision by coder 1 and N2,
the decision by coder 2. The confidence level is of 94% after the inter-coder reliability test. For
the seven out of nine variables there was achieved the level of agreement of 100%.
The primary researcher selected the set of articles to code for each of the coders through a
research randomizer table (http://randomizer.org/form.htm). The random selection was done for
each of the four chunks of data gathered from Lexis Nexis: the US media with race topics, the
US media with ethnicity topics, the European media with race topics, and the European media
with ethnicity topics. Coder 1 analyzed 163 news stories, 247 segments, or 55.1 % of the data,
and coder 2 analyzed 174 stories, 201 segments, or 44.9% of the data.
37
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Descriptive Results
Several sets of frequency distributions show the following results for the data gathered
for the present study.
According to the location of the newspaper, England was the country with the most
newspaper articles reported with almost half the data coming from English mass media. It was
followed by USA, with roughly half the count of England. The rest of the countries follow with
significantly fewer newspaper articles coded. Table 1 demonstrates these results.
Table 1
Country Category
Country Frequency PercentageEngland 215 48.0%USA 103 23.0%Scotland 52 11.6%France 31 6.9%Germany 31 6.9%Ireland 14 3.1%Wales 2 0.4%Total 448 100.0%N: 448
According to the date of the news articles, the first day of the tournament, June 9th, the
last day of the tournament, July 9th, when the World Cup Final was played, and June 25th, one of
the days of the round-of-16 competition, are the three most coded dates. The rest of the dates
follow in a random order. Table 2 demonstrates the frequencies of newspaper articles for the
38
most counts, with the �Other� category signifying 20 dates cumulated, having the least number
of counts. For the entire table see Appendix B.
Table 2
Date Category
Date Frequency PercentageJune 25 39 8.7%June 9 37 8.3%July 9 29 6.5%June 10 28 6.3%June 28 27 6.0%June 23 22 4.9%June 29 22 4.9%June 30 22 4.9%July 4 22 4.9%July 7 22 4.9%June 18 20 4.5%Other 158 35.2%Total 448 100.0% N: 448
According to the type of the article, the majority of articles coded were under the
category �factual news-story�, with just a third of the articles being coded as �editorial or
opinion�. Table 3 demonstrates the frequencies.
Table 3
Type Category
Type Frequency PercentageFactual news-story 307 68.5%Editorial or opinion 141 31.5%Total 448 100.0% N: 448
39
According to the race mentioned, only two out of the six races possible were coded. The
Black race appeared 14 times, while the Asian race just two times in the entire data. Table 4
demonstrates the frequencies of the races within the present study.
Table 4
Race Category
Race Frequency PercentageBlack 14 3.12%Asian 2 0.45%Not mentioned � see �Ethnicity� 432 96.43%Total 448 100.00% N: 448
According to the ethnicity mentioned, the five most mentioned ethnicities are: English,
French, German, Scottish, and Spanish. The other 34 ethnicities have significantly fewer
mentions, with most of them ranging between one and two. Table 5 demonstrates the frequencies
and percentages for the first five most mentioned ethnicities, with those with 1 to 10 mentioned
combined. For the entire table see Appendix B.
Table 5
Ethnicity Category
Ethnicity Frequency PercentageEnglish 73 19.3%Scottish 57 15.0%French 56 14.8%Spanish 46 12.1%German 40 10.6%Other (1-10 mentions each) 107 28.2%Total 379 100.0%N: 379
40
According to the ability variable, only 4 mentions (0.9%) were made that used the
concentration type, 8.5% used the athletic skill descriptor, while the rest of data were not coded
for any ability but for the frame category. Table 6 demonstrates the frequencies for the ability
variable.
Table 6
Ability Category
Ability Frequency PercentageConcentration 4 0.9%Athletic skill 38 8.5%Not mentioned or other 406 90.6%Total 448 100.0%N: 448
According to the frame variable, the positive and negative categories are more balanced,
with 47.1% and 36.2% of the mentions, while the rest are divided between the factual and no
frame mentioned. Table 7 demonstrates the frequencies for each of the categories in the frame
variable.
Table 7
Frame Category
Frame Frequency PercentagePositive 211 47.1%Negative 162 36.2%Factual 32 7.1%None 43 9.6%Total 448 100.0%N: 448
41
Research Questions
RH1: US media will more frequently cover racial issues than ethnocentric issues within
the setting of 2006 FIFA World Cup.
A frequency distribution shows the result for the first research hypothesis. The first
research hypothesis is not supported.
Following the framework of coding races proposed by Poindexter et al. (2003), the
researcher had five categories to code for the �Race� variable. However, after all the data were
computed the findings show that out of 103 cases reported from the US media only 3 articles
mention a race, and that is the �Black� race, representing 2.9% of the cases. The rest 100 cases
do not mention any race, but an ethnicity. Thus, the first research hypothesis is not supported.
Table 8 demonstrates the frequencies for the first hypothesis.
Table 8
Racial Issues in US Media
Race or Ethnicity Frequency PercentageBlack 3 2.9%Various ethnicities 100 97.1%Total 103 100.0%N: 103
RH2: European media will more frequently cover ethnocentric issues than racial issues
within the setting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
A frequency distribution shows the result for the second research hypothesis. The second
research hypothesis is supported (Table 9).
In the present study the two variables, �Race� and �Ethnicity� are mutually exclusive.
The frequency distribution shows that there are 332 cases of ethnicity mentioned by the
42
European media, or 96.2%. The rest of the cases represent a mention of the �Race�. The second
research hypothesis is supported, with the majority of cases covering issues related to various
ethnicities. Table 9 demonstrates the result for the second research hypothesis.
Table 9
Ethnocentrism Issues in European Media
Race or Ethnicity Frequency PercentageVarious ethnicities 332 96.2%Black 11 3.2%Asian 2 0.6%Total 345 100.0%N: 345
Ethnicities by Ability Descriptor
RQ1: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the athletic skill descriptor by
the US media?
For the first research question a frequency distribution analysis has been done to observe
the rates at which each ethnicity was described with the athletic skill descriptor by the US media.
Table 10 shows the rates for the first research question.
43
Table 10
Depiction with Athletic Skill: US
Ethnicity Ability Athletic SkillArgentinean 4
36.4%Brazilian 2
18.2%German 2
18.2%French 1
9.1%Spanish 1
9.1%Ukrainian 1
9.1%Total 11
100.0%N: 11
The US media described with the athletic skill descriptor 11 times involving several
nationalities: the Argentinean ethnicity four times, each of the Brazilian and German ethnicities
twice, and each of the French, Spanish, and Ukrainian ethnicities once.
The qualitative data gathered under the �word-for-word descriptor� variable represents an
idea, a phrase, or a sentence that depicts the respective ethnicity. The emerging theme for the
athletic quality mentioned by the US media in these 11 instances is the innate talent and ability
with which the athletes can move the soccer ball. Examples include: �a roster of incredible
talent�, description made about Spanish football team and �Ronaldinho - this attacking
midfielder is so talented�, about a Brazilian player.
The Argentinean group was the most frequently mentioned and is portrayed as �one of
the most talented teams in the world�; players are praised for their talent, �both individually and
as a team�, and overall for inspiring and powerful soccer.
44
RQ2: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the athletic skill descriptor by
the European media?
For the second research question a frequency distribution analysis has been done to
observe the rates at which each ethnicity was described with the athletic skill descriptor by the
European media. Table 11 shows the rates for the most frequent nationalities, with the
Argentinean one mentioned most frequently. For the entire table please see Appendix C.
Table 11
Depiction with Athletic Skill: European
Ethnicity Ability Athletic SkillArgentinean 6
22.2%Brazilian 4
14.8%English 3
11.1%Spanish 3
11.1%Dutch 2
7.4%French 2
7.4%South Korean 2
7.4%Other (5 nationalities) 5
18.5%Total 27
100.0%N: 27
The European media described players with the athletic skill descriptor 27 times,
covering a multitude of nationalities: Argentinean 6 times; Brazilian, 4 times; each of English
45
and Spanish nationalities 3 times; each of Dutch, French, and South Korean, 2 times; and only
one time each of the following: Czech, German, Italian, Ivorian, and Ukrainian ethnicities.
The qualitative data gathered for the �word-for-word descriptor� variable show that the
athletic qualities mentioned are clustered into 2 main themes: the powerful play and the magic,
beautiful game. The first theme, the powerful play, can be exemplified by: �powerful header�
(about an English player), �battering-ram power� (about Ivorian team), �left-foots the ball home�
(about a Spanish player), �a firm downward header� (about an Italian player), or �the sturdy
Argentine defense�. The second theme observed, the beautiful game, is attributed only to 4 of the
12 ethnicities: Argentinean, Brazilian, Dutch, and English. Examples include: �style, skill and
charisma� (about the Argentinean team), �they play the beautiful game beautifully� (about
Argentinean and Brazilian teams), the English have a �magic play�, and the Brazilians �bring
sunny beautiful soccer�. The most frequently mentioned nationality is Argentinean, which is
portrayed predominantly with the magic and beautiful game theme. Examples are: �team�s
fabulous play�, �wonderful, flowing football� or �beautiful game�.
RQ3: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the concentration descriptor
by the US media?
The third research question yielded insufficient data to run a cross-tabulation analysis. Of
the entire data of the research there are only 4 mentions of the concentration descriptor and they
are all authored by an English newspaper. So, there is no ethnicity mentioned by US media that
would be described with the concentration category of the �Ability� variable.
46
RQ4: Which ethnicity will be described predominantly with the concentration descriptor
by the European media?
For the fourth research question a cross-tabulation analysis was done to observe the rates
at which each ethnicity mentioned was described with the concentration descriptor by the
European mass media. Table 12 shows the rates for the fourth research question, with a half-and-
half frequency result shared between 2 nationalities, English and Swiss.
Table 12
Depiction with Concentration: European
Ethnicity Ability ConcentrationEnglish 2
50%Swiss 2
50%Total 4
100%N: 4
The English ethnicity was described as having a �fighting mentality and refusing to admit
defeat� and also as �very methodical� in terms of the play. The two references made for the
Swiss nationality are very similar and depicted them as �always in control�.
Frame in the Two Geographical Regions
RQ5: Which frame was used predominantly by each geographic region?
A chi-square test was run to find out if there is any significant relationship between the
geographic regions and the frames of ethnocentrism or anti-ethnocentrism. The Phi value of
47
0.054 is slightly bigger than the maximum 0.05 accepted by the social sciences. However,
because this is an exploratory study, p=0.054 will be accepted as showing a reasonably
significant relationship.
The US media depicts predominantly issues of ethnocentrism, with 57.3% of the cases
committed to this issue. Similarly, the European media also depicts predominantly issues of
ethnocentrism, even though not with an absolute majority of cases (43.9%). In conclusion, the
issue of ethnocentrism or discrimination against different ethnicities is the one that is given the
most attention, regardless of geographical region.
Table 13 demonstrates a significant relationship between the two variables.
Table 13
Geographical Region by Ethnicity Portrayal
Country Ethnicity Positive Negative Factual TotalUS media 59
57.3%29
28.2%15
14.6% 103
100%European media 151
43.9%133
38.7%60
17.4% 344
100%Total 210
47.0%162
36.2%75
16.8% 447
100%Note. N: 447; Chi-square: 5.830, df: 2, p=0.54
Because the previously-mentioned one is the only chi-square test that could be run with
the data of this study, the following four research questions will be answered with the help of
cross-tabulations and analysis of qualitative data gathered.
48
Ethnicities by Frame
RQ6: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having ethnocentrism attitudes by
the US media?
For the sixth research question a frequency distribution analysis was done to observe the
rates at which each ethnicity was described by the US media as having an attitude of
ethnocentrism or discrimination. Table 14 shows the rates relevant for the first seven
nationalities, and the rest are clustered together. For the entire frequency table please see
Appendix C.
Table 14
Ethnocentrism Attitudes: US Media
Ethnicity Frame PositiveSpanish 12
23.0%German 11
21.1%French 10
19.2%Eastern European 3
5.7%European 3
5.7%Italian 3
5.7%Ukrainian 3
5.7%Other (5 nationalities) 7
13.3%Total 52
100.0%N: 52
49
The US mass media reported 12 ethnicities that used ethnocentrism attitudes 52 times.
The most reported ethnicity is Spanish, with 23% of the counts, followed closely by German and
French. The rest of the nine ethnicities: Eastern European, European, Italian, Ukrainian,
American, English, Colombian, Eastern German, and Mexican, have significantly fewer counts,
with the higher four counting only three mentions each. So the mass media in United States
focus their reports on Spanish, German, and French as discriminatory nations.
The qualitative data gathered under the �word-for-word descriptor� variable reveal that
for the mostly-discussed nationality, the Spanish, there are only two themes that emerge: the
explicit racist comments made by the Spanish coach and the blatantly anti-black actions of the
Spanish fans. The coach�s racist words �black s***� (expletive word) against a French player
with Black roots are reported seven times, while the rest of reports describe racist incidents on
stadiums where Spanish fans met various Black players with �monkey noises� or chants,
�tossing of bananas�, or �derisive singing�.
All the descriptions made about German nationals are connected with violence and
attacks by either neo-Nazi groups or right-wing extremists. Examples of such reports are: �right-
wing, racially motivated violence�, �attacks on dark skinned foreigners�, �prejudice against
immigrants�, or �racist attacks have occurred in the east�. Thus, German nationals are portrayed
as being discriminatory mainly against immigrants and people with Black roots, such as the
following example: �an engineer of Ethiopian descent was beaten into a coma by three
extremists in Potsdam�.
The most prominent (70%) rendering regarding French is the series of remarks made by
one of the French politicians, Jean-Marie Le Pen, who expressed his disapproval that their team
�is not a real French team� because there are too many Black and Arab French players, and in
50
the same time opinionated that �the coach went overboard on the proportion of colored players�.
Another comment that pertains to the same theme is that �white should not just be the color of
the shirts�.
The rest of the other ethnicities mentioned by the US media can be clustered in two
categories according to the discriminatory themes they approach. All the nations from the
European continent are portrayed as having racist actions against mainly Black players or fans.
The Eastern Europeans, Eastern Germans, the English, the Italians, and the Ukrainians are all
reported as being abusive by �throwing plastic chairs and bottles� (the English), making �ape
noises and tossing bananas� (the Eastern Europeans, the Eastern Germans, and the Italians). The
Ukrainian coach is reported as saying one of the most blatantly and shamelessly racist comments
in this study: �let them learn from [our players] and not some Zumba-Bumba whom they took off
a tree, gave two bananas and now he plays in the Ukrainian league�.
On the other hand, there are the nations on the American continents that show their
discrimination by choosing to support one nation and not another. The Americans say that there
are �scant advantages of being English�, the Colombians would want any Spanish-speaking
country to win the World Cup �except for Argentina�, while the Mexicans do not tolerate other
ethnicities wearing their national shirts.
RQ7: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having ethnocentrism attitudes by
the European media?
For the seventh research question a frequency distribution analysis was done to observe
the rates at which each ethnicity mentioned was described by European media as having
ethnocentrism or discriminatory attitudes. Table 15 shows the frequencies for the highest 5
51
counts, with the �Other� category clustering the rest of the nationalities. For the entire table see
Appendix C.
Table 15
Ethnocentrism Attitudes: European Media
Ethnicity Frame PositiveScottish 43
33.6%Spanish 30
23.4%English 28
21.9%French 12
9.4%German 9
7.0%Other (5 nationalities) 6
4.8%Total 128
100.0%N: 128
The European media reported 10 ethnicities 128 times that revealed ethnocentrism
attitudes toward different nationalities. The most reported ethnicity was the Scottish, with 33.6%
of counts, followed by Spanish and English ones. The rest of the seven ethnicities: French,
German, Cameroonian, Ecuadorian, Italian, Polish, and Romanian have significantly fewer
counts, with the higher three totaling 18% of the mentions, and the rest counting only one
mention each. So, the European mass media focus their reports of discrimination on three
ethnicities: Scottish, Spanish, and English.
The qualitative data gathered under the �word-for-word descriptor� variable show that for
the Scottish, the mostly mentioned nationality, there is a record of just one theme discussed in all
52
of the 43 articles, the Scots� hate and discrimination against the English. Thus, newspapers in 3
countries from Europe all portray the Scottish people using this theme exclusively. Another
remarkable finding is that the 3 countries that discuss the Scottish discriminatory attitudes are
England, Ireland, and Scotland, with 26 mentions by Scottish mass media and 13 by English
media. Examples of the anti-English theme include: �anti-English tone�, T-shirts with �anyone
but England�, �intolerance of England and the English�, �a visceral hatred of England�, �all the
windows in his house put in by Scottish vandals�, �youngster attacked in a park for wearing an
England shirt�, �racist and unprovoked assaults�, �7-year-old boy punched in the head for
wearing England shirt�, �we hate the English�, �we hate people of the same color, our next door
neighbors�, or �physically attack English fans for cheering their team�.
Descriptions about the Spanish, the second most-discussed ethnicity by the European
media, focus on 2 themes: the racist remarks of the Spanish coach against a French Black player,
Thierry Henry, and the racist actions of the Spanish fans against Black players of various
ethnicities. Out of all the data collected about the Spanish in the European media, 63.3% discuss
coach Luis Aragones� racist comment �you�re better than that black s***�, with variations such
as: �he made racist comments about Henry�, �the man who set the anti-racism movement back
years�, �Henry was racially abused by the Spain coach�, or �Luis Aragones publicly abused
Thierry Henry�. The second theme covers the rest of the mentions, portraying Spanish fans as
racist with the following descriptors: �black players were taunted as they entered the stadium�,
�racist chants directed at England's black player�, �France were racially abused by Spain fans�,
or �monkey noises�.
Descriptions about the English ethnicity represent 21.9% of all the mentions in the
European media concerning ethnocentrism attitudes. There is no preponderant theme for the
53
mentions; the English are portrayed as being intolerant of a number of nationalities, from
Portuguese (�anti-Portugal poster�), German (�racist chanting about Germans�, �making Nazi
salutes�), to Scottish (�celebrating the fact that Scots die younger than their English
counterparts� or �anti-Scot jibes�). Another theme that shows discrimination represents the
articles� authors who disapprove of other English people�s tolerant or anti-discriminatory actions.
Examples include: �race-equality obsessing band of charlatans who now run Britain�, �their
sinister agenda [...] to transform Britain from a homogenous society into a land mass of different
nationalities�, or �the desire to take back our country from those who loathe it�.
The rest of the other ethnicities mentioned by the European media are depicted as
discriminatory for a variety of reasons. Several nationalities show their intolerance towards
others, such as �the Italians as parasites, mommy's boys, slimy, and always tired�, �Nigerian was
[verbally] attacked on the field� or �racial slurs against a Ghanaian-born football player� (by the
Germans); �fans positioned themselves to form a human swastika� (by Polish fans); and �fans
held up a series of cards to form a picture of Hitler� (by Romanians). European media also states
that �it's part and parcel of Italian fan culture to abuse black players and anybody else who isn't
seen as indigenous Italian�. Also, regarding the French it is mostly mentioned the politician�s
Jean-Marie Le Pen comments on the French team as having too many players of minority
ethnicities: �the team is not representative [because] there are too many black players�, �the
coach had gone overboard on non-white players� and �minorities were over-represented on Les
Bleus�.
RQ8: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having anti-ethnocentrism attitudes
by the US media?
54
For the eighth research question a frequency distribution analysis was done to observe the
rates at which each ethnicity was described by the US media as having anti-ethnocentric or
tolerant attitudes. Table 16 shows the rates relevant for the eighth research question.
Table 16
Anti-Ethnocentrism: US Media
Ethnicity Frame NegativeFrench 11
42.3%German 3
11.5%Ivorian 3
11.5%African 2
7.7%American 2
7.7%Ghanaian 2
7.7%European 1
3.8%Israeli 1
3.8%Serbian 1
3.8%Total 26
100.0%N: 26
The US media reported 9 ethnicities 26 times that had tolerant attitudes towards various
other ethnicities. The most reported ethnicity is the French one with 42.3% of the cases. The rest
of the 8 nationalities were mentioned once, twice, or 3 times each. So the US mass media focus
their reports of tolerant actions on the French.
55
The qualitative data gathered under the �word-for-word descriptor� variable reveal that
for the mostly-discussed nationality, the French, two themes emerge: Henry�s �Stand Up, Speak
Out� anti-racism campaign and the portrayal of a diverse and tolerant France through its football
team, which is made up of �practically all foreign blacks, Arabs, hardly any whites�. Other
mentions of the diverse France include: �French team reflects the cultural diversity of France�,
�if you are good [...] you are on the field no matter how you look�, or �Zinedine Zidane � the
leader of multi-ethnic France�.
The rest of the ethnicities mentioned have one common theme, the use of football as a
team game to unify people, to enhance global understanding, and to fight racism. An African
person commented: �you'll see rebels watching the games and holding their weapons aside�. The
German team tries to �use soccer to fight racism and xenophobia�. Ghanaian people believe that
�football makes everybody feeling as one�, while a Serbian player commented: �we're all the
same DNA, with a different emblem�.
RQ9: Which ethnicity is portrayed most frequently as having anti-ethnocentrism attitudes
by the European media?
For the ninth research question a frequency distribution analysis was done to observe the
rates at which each ethnicity mentioned was described by the European media as being anti-
ethnocentric, or tolerant. Table 17 shows the frequencies for the nationalities with the most
counts, with an �Other� category at the end, clustering 6 nationalities with fewest counts. For the
entire table please see Appendix C.
56
Table 17
Anti-Ethnocentrism: European Media
Ethnicity Frame NegativeEnglish 36
34.0%French 15
14.2%German 12
11.3%Scottish 11
10.4%Canadian 9
8.5%Australian 6
5.7%African 3
2.8%Arabian 2
1.9%Brazilian 2
1.9%Italian 2
1.9%Pakistani 2
1.9%Other (6 nationalities) 6
5.4%Total 106
100.0%N: 106
The European media reported 17 nationalities 103 times that rendered anti-ethnocentric
attitudes toward different other nationalities. The most reported nationality was the English, with
34% of the counts, followed by French, German, and Scottish with percentages varying between
14.2% and 10.4%. The rest of 13 nationalities have significantly fewer counts between 1 and 9
each.
57
The qualitative data gathered under the �word-for-word descriptor� variable show that for
the English, the mostly mentioned nationality, the predominant theme represent English people�s
actions or attitudes to support tolerance and diversity in their team and in football in general.
Examples include: �this competition has such a good stance against racism�, �we are determined
to take a stand against racism�, �England fans set example of anti-racism�, �they are no better
nor worse no more nor less brave than any other race�, or �football is now much part of our
culture that it cuts across barriers of race�.
The tolerance qualities of the French are represented by two themes: the support of anti-
racism campaigns and attitudes and the praise for diversity in France. Examples of support for
anti-racism include stances such as �we want to silence the racists once for all�, �I've always
been a supporter of campaigns against racism�, or �he has become closely involved in FIFA's
drive to stamp out racism�. Regarding diversity in France, examples are: �it doesn't matter if
we're black or not, because we're French�, �regardless of whether they are black or brown or
white the team represents France�, or �symbol of cultural diversity�.
The German nationality, being the host of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, was depicted
mostly with attitudes of tolerance connected to the behavior during the World Cup. Examples
include: �there will be no tolerance for racist violence during the event�, �the World Cup is a
wonderful antidote to racism and in favor of integration�, �anyone caught making racist remarks
or carrying racist banners - expelled from stadiums�, or �read out declaration against racism�.
The theme with which the Scottish people were portrayed in the European media focused
on the journalists� and people�s support of tolerant actions and condemnation of ethnocentric
attitudes. Examples of such instances include: �physically attack English fans for cheering their
58
team is a disgrace to our nation�, �school children who make anti-English remarks [...] at risk of
being thrown out of school for racism�, or �anti-English feeling is despicable�.
For the rest of ethnicities mentioned, a common theme emerges from the qualitative data
gathered: the power of football to unify different ethnicities and to promote understanding and
tolerance. The Africans see the most popular sport as �a platform for communicating a positive
image of Africa and to fight against racism and discrimination�, the Americans feel united �in
spirit, emotion and pride�, while the Bangladeshi believe that �football makes us all brothers�.
The Australians are portrayed to believe that because of football �the world has become more
international, and there is more understanding there in various nations�. Some English fans with
Pakistani origins support their adopted country by saying that �the color of your skin is just the
color of your skin: we just want England to win�, and a player of Muslim origin is happy to
report about his colleagues that �I don't see their color and they don't see mine�. Finally, the
Canadians are represented as �leaders on that their [tolerant] attitude to immigration and ethnic
minorities�.
59
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
Discussion: Reporting on the Ability Descriptor
Mass media portrayed various ethnicities using the ability descriptor variable either by
emphasizing athletic skill or the concentration or intellectual ability. The nationality that was
described the most by mass media in general using the athletic skill is the Argentinean one. Both
the US media and the European media had the most counts of athletic skill descriptions
regarding the Argentinean team. In 10 out of 38 mentions of athletic skills by the mass media in
both US and Europe Argentineans were portrayed as having a �sturdy� defense and a �fabulous
play�.
Regarding concentration or intellectual ability, there was a small count, with only four
articles mentioning this type of ability in a team or a player. Moreover, only the European mass
media employed this approach when describing certain players. Within the four mentions, two of
them were about the English nationality and the other two about the Swiss team.
The present study included the ability descriptor variable because of the significant
results it had when employed in the past research. However, the ability descriptor variable was
previously used only in studies analyzing blacks and whites, with the results that blacks are
predominantly portrayed with the athletic skill descriptor and the whites with the concentration
skill descriptor. The present exploratory study applied this variable to ethnicities to find out if
there is any significant correlation between the two. The results were sparse and no significant
relationship was found between ability descriptors and ethnicities. Thus, this conceptualization
of describing players was not successful when applied to different ethnicities, but only when
applied to various races, just as Billings and Eastman (2002) previously tested.
60
Discussion: Reporting on the Framing Variable
The distribution of articles that used a positive frame and the ones that used a negative
frame was relatively equal across geographical regions. However, the ethnicities portrayed were
different from region to region.
The US mass media have shown as the most ethnocentric nationality the Spanish, and the
most tolerant or anti-ethnocentric the French. The count of the times each of the two is portrayed
is almost equal, Spanish nationality getting 12 mentions, while the French one, 11 mentions. The
US media is consistent in their report of the Spanish, with all accounts showing this nation as
ethnocentric and with no mention referring to Spanish as tolerant nation. The second and the
third places as ethnocentric nations described by the US media are the Germans and the French.
Even though the French is portrayed as being ethnocentric in 10 accounts, the US media also
show them in their most accounts as an anti-ethnocentric nation. This finding shows a somewhat
balanced coverage in the US media of the French regarding their discriminatory and their
tolerant actions or attitudes.
The European mass media portray most frequently the Scottish as an ethnocentric nation.
However, knowing that over 62% of the European articles coded came from English newspapers,
the result is biased. Also taking into consideration the ongoing conflict between the English and
the Scottish ethnicities, it can be accurately reported that the result is as such because of the
powerful influence of the English mass media.
The second most frequently reported nationality as being ethnocentric by the European
media is the Spanish one. The Spanish were most frequently portrayed as ethnocentric by the US
media and second most frequently by the European media. In fact, there is not one mention of
the Spanish as a tolerant ethnicity in the entire study. The two themes with which the Spanish
61
were portrayed as ethnocentric by the media across the world are coach Luis Aragones racist
comment against a Black French player (66% of entries) and the racist chants of the Spanish fans
against Black players. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that the most talked about
ethnocentrism issue of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was the racist outburst of Spain�s football
coach.
The European media reported with the most frequent mentions the English as a tolerant
nationality. Second and third places are filled by the French and the Germans. Again, because
most articles coded from the European mass media come from English newspapers, it cannot
come as a real surprise that the English themselves are portrayed most favorably. Actually, all
but three of the articles that depict England as a tolerant nation come from English newspapers.
The French and the Germans, the second and third nations described as tolerant,
correspond with the first and second most mentioned nations by the US media as tolerant. So,
there is an agreement across different geographical regions that these 2 nationalities have the
most tolerant or anti-discriminatory actions or attitudes.
When portraying attitudes of anti-ethnocentrism, both the US and the European media
reported a multitude of nationalities. The US media reported 9, while the European media
reported as many as 17 nationalities and their tolerant attitudes or actions. In the Results section
the most frequent nationalities were reported and the rest were clustered into �Other� category.
The �Other� category for both the US and the European media comprises 19 nationalities, from
Bangladeshi to African and from Portuguese to Brazilian, with one to three mentions about each
of them. A common theme emerges from these scattered mentions about ethnicities from all over
the world: the power of football to unify peoples and to enhance global understanding. This
means that across the continents of this world the predominant view of football as a team sport is
62
that it is helpful in increasing tolerance between peoples and in seeing everyone as equal, just
like players of different ethnicities are equal on the football field.
All these findings about how the US and the European media portray different
nationalities are ground-breaking results, as the literature reviewed yielded no other similar
studies or findings. The only study found that compared ethnocentrism attitudes among US and
Japanese college students discovered that the Japanese prove to be more ethnocentric than the
Americans. However, these two ethnicities are not significant in the present study: the
Americans are mentioned twice, while there is no mention of the Japanese.
In conclusion, by covering some nationalities more than others and by framing the
Spanish as more ethnocentric than other ethnicities, both American and European mass media
made use of the agenda-setting and framing theories to raise public awareness of the respective
issues and to influence public opinion.
Emerging Themes from Qualitative Data
The qualitative data gathered had a few very prominent themes that could be found
throughout the articles from both the US and the European mass media. They are the racist
comments of the Spanish football coach and the anti-English comments and attacks from the
Scottish.
For the results of each of the research questions 5 to 9 several themes found were
reported related to the various ethnicities mentioned. The researcher further grouped them by
their positive (or ethnocentric) and negative (or tolerant) meaning.
The ethnocentric main themes were the following: the explicit racist comments of the
Spanish coach Luis Aragones, anti-Black actions of Spanish and German fans, violent attacks
63
and hate manifested by Germans and Scottish people, racist remarks by French politician Jean-
Marie Le Pen, and intolerance verbally manifested by several ethnicities.
The tolerant and anti-discriminatory main themes revealed from the present study are the
following: French player�s Thierry Henry �Stand Up, Speak Out� anti-racism campaign, the
support of anti-racism campaigns and tolerance from the English and the French people, the
praise of France as a diverse and integrative nation, and the power of football as a team game to
fight racism, unify different ethnicities, and enhance global understanding and tolerance.
The themes from both the ethnocentrism category and from the anti-ethnocentrism one
can each be grouped into three larger categories: verbal comments (either racist or tolerant),
attitudes (either of hate and discrimination or of tolerance), and actions (either racist attacks or
anti-racism campaigns). These more general categories are newly-created, were not found in
previous research, and could possibly be further studied in qualitative research regarding tolerant
or discriminatory behavior portrayed in mass media.
Limitations and Future Research
The present study was an exploratory one. After a careful review of literature, most of the
articles found that evaluated discriminatory issues in global competitions were set in a discourse
analysis format and qualitative in nature. So, uncharted territories were explored in order to
complete the study. The previous literature offered scant methodology guidelines as to how to
operationalize and measure ethnocentrism. This is the reason why the methodology for the
present study is composed of parts of two other studies, one of which was qualitative. So, a
major weakness of the study is its exploratory nature. Future studies could find or set up other
means of analyzing quantitatively social issues such as racism and ethnocentrism. Also, the
64
perspective of fans and their power over media coverage and framing of their nations could be
another angle from which issues of racism and ethnocentrism could be further studied regarding
the World Cup media coverage.
Another limitation encountered was the availability of the mass media content in the
Lexis Nexis database. As previously mentioned, the database has available only articles from
newspapers that have their content available online as well. Through the use of this database, the
researcher could not reach articles from many countries in Europe and from various states within
the US body of mass media. For instance, there was no article found in Lexis Nexis published in
an Italian or German newspaper. Because Germany was the organizing country of the 2006 FIFA
World Cup and that Italy was the winning nation of the World Cup, it is virtually impossible that
no article was written about the World Cup in these two countries. So, the online availability was
a drawback for the present study. For future reference, other studies could employ different,
more inclusive databases in order to find more content and more accurate results.
Finally, the third limitation to the present study constitutes the time period coded and
analyzed. The period of one month during the 2006 FIFA World Cup was chosen, and after
gathering and coding all the data, the results showed that the number of ethnicities mentioned in
comparison with the number of entries was unbalanced. There are hundreds of ethnicities in this
world that could be represented in the mass media during an event of such magnitude, and
analyzing the media coverage of just one month proved not to be enough to observe statistically
significant relationships between variables. Future studies should test these issues on longer
periods of time, perhaps even during the months of three or four editions of FIFA World Cup,
and maybe spot the progress of racism and ethnocentrism issues in time.
65
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69
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
Codebook
1. Record the name of the newspaper.
Initially there was a nominal list, with each newspaper coded as it occurred in the data.
Afterwards, there was assigned a number for each newspaper found:
Category Code Aberdeen Press and Journal 1 AFX International 2 Agence France Presse 3 Associated Press 4 Buffalo News 5 Chattanooga Times 6 Christian Science Monitor 7 Contra Costa Times 8 Copley News 9 Daily Mail 10 Daily Post 11 Daily Record 12 Daily Star 13 Dayton Daily News 14 Deutsche Presse Agentur 15 Eastern Daily Express 16 Evening Chronicle 17 Financial Times 18 Florida Times Union 19 Guardian Weekly 20 Herald Express 21 Herald News 22 Inside Bay Area 23 Intelligencer Journal 24 International Herald Tribune 25 Irish Independent 26 Irish News 27 Los Angeles Times 28 Mail on Sunday 29 New Statesman 30 New York Times 31
70
Category Code News of the World 32 News Quest 33 News Quest Regional Press 34 Pittsburg Post-Gazette 35 Press Association Newsfile 36 Sacramento Bee 37 San Diego Union Tribune 38 Scotland on Sunday 39 South Wales Echo 40 Sunday Express 41 Sunday Mail 42 Sunday Mirror 43 Sunday Telegraph 44 Sunday Times 45 The Atlanta Journal 46 The Boston Globe 47 The Boston Herald 48 The Commercial Appeal 49 The Daily Telegraph 50 The Evening Standard 51 The Express 52 The Guardian 53 The Herald 54 The Houston Chronicle 55 The Independent 56 The Irish Times 57 The Journal 58 The Mirror 59 The Observer 60 The Record 61 The Salt Lake Tribune 62 The Scotsman 63 The Sentinel 64 The Spectator 65 The Sun 66 The Sunday Independent 67 The Times 68 The Washington Post 69 The Washington Times 70 UPI 71 Western Morning News 72 Yorkshire Post 73
71
2. Record the date of the newspaper.
Category Code June 9 609 June 10 610 June 11 611 June 12 612 June 13 613 June 14 614 June 15 615 June 16 616 June 17 617 June 18 618 June 19 619 June 20 620 June 21 621 June 22 622 June 23 623 June 24 624 June 25 625 June 26 626 June 27 627 June 28 628 June 29 629 June 30 630 July 1 701 July 2 702 July 3 703 July 4 704 July 5 705 July 6 706 July 7 707 July 8 708 July 9 709
3. Record the country of the newspaper.
Initially there was a nominal list with each location coded as it occurred in the data.
Afterwards, there was assigned a number for each country found:
72
Category Code England 1 France 2 Germany 3 Ireland 4 Scotland 5 Wales 6 USA 7
4. Record the type of article.
Category Code Factual news-story 1 Editorial or opinion 2 Cannot tell or don�t know 3
5. Record the race mentioned.
Category Code White 1 Black 2 Asian 3 Latino or Latina or Hispanic 4 Native American 5 Not mentioned � see �Ethnicity� 6
6. Record the ethnicity mentioned.
Category Code African 1 American 2 Arabian 3 Argentinean 4 Australian 5 Bangladeshi 6 Brazilian 7 British 8 Cameroonian 9 Canadian 10 Colombian 11 Czech 12 Dutch 13 Eastern European 14
73
Category Code Eastern German 15 Ecuadorian 16 English 17 European 18 French 19 German 20 Ghanaian 21 Irish 22 Israeli 23 Italian 24 Ivorian 25 Mexican 26 Muslim 27 Pakistani 28 Polish 29 Portuguese 30 Romanian 31 Scottish 32 Serbian 33 South Korean 34 Spanish 35 Swiss 36 Trinidadian 37 Ukrainian 38 Welsh 39 None 99
7. Record the word-for-word descriptor.
Write the exact descriptive phrase for each ethnicity, race, or nationality coded. For
instance, from the sentence: �Henry launched his own anti-racism Stand Up, Speak Out
campaign with black and white wristbands two seasons ago�, the coder will code in the word-
for-word descriptor column the following: anti-racism Stand Up, Speak Out campaign.
74
8. Record the ability descriptor.
Category Code Concentration 1 Athletic skill 2 Not mentioned or other 3
The original taxonomy for the ability descriptor set up by Billings and Eastman (2002), is
the following:
1. Explanations of athletic success
Concentration
Athletic Skill
Composure (= calmness, self-control)
Commitment
Courage
Experience
2. Explanations of athletic failure
Concentration
Athletic Skill
Composure
Commitment
Courage
Experience
3. Personality/physicality descriptors
Outgoing/extroverted
Modest/Introverted
75
Emotional
Attractiveness
Size/parts of body
Factual/neutral/other
9. Record the frame of the segment.
Category Code Positive 1 Negative 2 Factual 3 None 4
The general ethnocentrism scale, according to which the frame category for the present
study was conceptualized and coded, was developed by Neuliep and McCorskey (1997) and is
the following:
1. Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.
2. People in other cultures have a better lifestyle than we do in my culture.
3. Most people would be happier if they didn't live like people do in my culture.
4. My culture should be the role model for other cultures.
5. Lifestyles in other cultures are just as valid as those in my culture.
6. Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.
7. I'm not interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
8. It is not wise for other cultures to look up to my culture.
9. People in my culture could learn a lot from people in other cultures.
10. Most people from other cultures just don't know what's good for them.
11. People from my culture act strange and unusual when they go into other cultures.
12. I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.
13. Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.
14. People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.
76
15. My culture is backward compared to most other cultures.
16. My culture is a poor role mode for other cultures.
17. Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.
18. My culture should try to be more like other cultures.
19. I'm very interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
20. Most people in my culture just don't know what is good for them.
21. People in other cultures could learn a lot from people in my culture.
22. Other cultures are smart to look up to my culture.
23. I respect the values and customs of other cultures.
24. People from other cultures act strange and unusual when they come into my culture.
77
APPENDIX B
Tables of Frequency
Table 18
�Coder�
Coder Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Coder 1 247 55.1 55.1 55.1Coder 2 201 44.9 44.9 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
Table 19
�Newspaper Name�
Newspaper Name Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Aberdeen Press and Journal 10 2.2 2.2 2.2AFX International 16 3.6 3.6 5.8Agence France Presse 13 2.9 2.9 8.7Associated Press 16 3.6 3.6 12.3Buffalo News 4 .9 .9 13.2Chattanooga Times 1 .2 .2 13.4Christian Science Monitor 3 .7 .7 14.1Contra Costa Times 2 .4 .4 14.5Copley News 6 1.3 1.3 15.8Daily Mail 14 3.1 3.1 19.0Daily Post 1 .2 .2 19.2Daily Record 9 2.0 2.0 21.2Daily Star 3 .7 .7 21.9Dayton Daily News 3 .7 .7 22.5Deutsche Presse Agentur 8 1.8 1.8 24.3Eastern Daily Express 1 .2 .2 24.6Evening Chronicle 1 .2 .2 24.8Financial Times 2 .4 .4 25.2Florida Times Union 1 .2 .2 25.4Guardian Weekly 3 .7 .7 26.1Herald Express 1 .2 .2 26.3Herald News 4 .9 .9 27.2Inside Bay Area 1 .2 .2 27.5Intelligencer Journal 1 .2 .2 27.7
78
Newspaper Name Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
International Herald Tribune 21 4.7 4.7 32.4Irish Independent 4 .9 .9 33.3Irish News 1 .2 .2 33.5Los Angeles Times 29 6.5 6.5 40.0Mail on Sunday 4 .9 .9 40.8New Statesman 2 .4 .4 41.3New York Times 3 .7 .7 42.0News of the World 14 3.1 3.1 45.1News Quest 25 5.6 5.6 50.7News Quest Regional Press 3 .7 .7 51.3Pittsburg Post-Gazette 1 .2 .2 51.6Press Association News File 4 .9 .9 52.5Sacramento Bee 3 .7 .7 53.1San Diego Union Tribune 2 .4 .4 53.6Scotland on Sunday 2 .4 .4 54.0South Wales Echo 1 .2 .2 54.2Sunday Express 12 2.7 2.7 56.9Sunday Mail 1 .2 .2 57.1Sunday Mirror 4 .9 .9 58.0Sunday Telegraph 5 1.1 1.1 59.2Sunday Times 9 2.0 2.0 61.2The Atlanta Journal 2 .4 .4 61.6The Boston Globe 3 .7 .7 62.3The Boston Herald 5 1.1 1.1 63.4The Commercial Appeal 6 1.3 1.3 64.7The Daily Telegraph 11 2.5 2.5 67.2The Evening Standard 6 1.3 1.3 68.5The Express 16 3.6 3.6 72.1The Guardian 27 6.0 6.0 78.1The Herald 1 .2 .2 78.3The Houston Chronicle 3 .7 .7 79.0The Independent 8 1.8 1.8 80.8The Irish Times 6 1.3 1.3 82.1The Journal 4 .9 .9 83.0The Mirror 14 3.1 3.1 86.2The Observer 15 3.3 3.3 89.5The Record 1 .2 .2 89.7The Salt Lake Tribune 2 .4 .4 90.2The Scotsman 7 1.6 1.6 91.7The Sentinel 1 .2 .2 92.0The Spectator 1 .2 .2 92.2The Sun 6 1.3 1.3 93.5The Sunday Independent 3 .7 .7 94.2The Times 7 1.6 1.6 95.8
79
Newspaper Name Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
The Washington Post 11 2.5 2.5 98.2The Washington Times 2 .4 .4 98.7UPI 4 .9 .9 99.6Western Morning News 1 .2 .2 99.8Yorkshire Post 1 .2 .2 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
Table 20
�Date�
Date Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
June 9 37 8.3 8.3 8.3June 10 28 6.3 6.3 14.5June 11 2 .4 .4 15.0June 12 18 4.0 4.0 19.0June 13 3 .7 .7 19.6June 14 12 2.7 2.7 22.3June 15 10 2.2 2.2 24.6June 16 5 1.1 1.1 25.7June 17 2 .4 .4 26.1June 18 20 4.5 4.5 30.6June 19 6 1.3 1.3 31.9June 20 5 1.1 1.1 33.0June 21 5 1.1 1.1 34.2June 22 11 2.5 2.5 36.6June 23 22 4.9 4.9 41.5June 24 4 .9 .9 42.4June 25 39 8.7 8.7 51.1June 26 11 2.5 2.5 53.6June 27 13 2.9 2.9 56.5June 28 27 6.0 6.0 62.5June 29 22 4.9 4.9 67.4June 30 22 4.9 4.9 72.3July 1 11 2.5 2.5 74.8July 2 11 2.5 2.5 77.2July 3 8 1.8 1.8 79.0July 4 22 4.9 4.9 83.9July 5 4 .9 .9 84.8July 6 10 2.2 2.2 87.1July 7 22 4.9 4.9 92.0July 8 7 1.6 1.6 93.5
80
July 9 29 6.5 6.5 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
Table 21
�Country�
Country Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
England 215 48.0 48.0 48.0France 28 6.3 6.3 54.2Germany 34 7.6 7.6 61.8Ireland 14 3.1 3.1 65.0Scotland 52 11.6 11.6 76.6Wales 2 .4 .4 77.0USA 103 23.0 23.0 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
Table 22
�Type�
Type Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Factual news-story 307 68.5 68.5 68.5Editorial or opinion 141 31.5 31.5 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
Table 23
�Race�
Race Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Black 14 3.1 3.1 3.1Asian 2 .4 .4 3.6not mentioned or don't know
432 96.4 96.4 100.0
Total 448 100.0 100.0
81
Table 24
�Ethnicity�
Ethnicity Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
African 5 1.1 1.1 1.1American 6 1.3 1.3 2.5Arabian 2 .4 .4 2.9Argentinean 12 2.7 2.7 5.6Australian 8 1.8 1.8 7.4Bangladeshi 1 .2 .2 7.6Brazilian 9 2.0 2.0 9.6British 3 .7 .7 10.3Cameroonian 2 .4 .4 10.7Canadian 9 2.0 2.0 12.7Colombian 1 .2 .2 12.9Czech 1 .2 .2 13.2Dutch 2 .4 .4 13.6Eastern European 3 .7 .7 14.3Eastern German 1 .2 .2 14.5Ecuadorian 1 .2 .2 14.7English 73 16.3 16.3 31.0European 4 .9 .9 31.9French 56 12.5 12.5 44.4German 40 8.9 8.9 53.3Ghanaian 2 .4 .4 53.8Irish 1 .2 .2 54.0Israeli 1 .2 .2 54.2Italian 9 2.0 2.0 56.3Ivorian 4 .9 .9 57.1Mexican 1 .2 .2 57.4Muslim 1 .2 .2 57.6Pakistani 2 .4 .4 58.0Polish 1 .2 .2 58.3Portuguese 1 .2 .2 58.5Romanian 1 .2 .2 58.7Scottish 57 12.7 12.7 71.4Serbian 1 .2 .2 71.7South Korean 2 .4 .4 72.1Spanish 46 10.3 10.3 82.4Swiss 3 .7 .7 83.0Trinidadian 1 .2 .2 83.3Ukrainian 5 1.1 1.1 84.4Welsh 1 .2 .2 84.6None 69 15.4 15.4 100.0
82
Ethnicity Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Total 448 100.0 100.0 Table 25
�Ability�
Ability Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Concentration 4 .9 .9 .9athletic skill 38 8.5 8.5 9.4not mentioned or other
406 90.6 90.6 100.0
Total 448 100.0 100.0 Table 26
�Frame�
Frame Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
positive 211 47.1 47.1 47.1negative 162 36.2 36.2 83.3factual 32 7.1 7.1 90.4none 43 9.6 9.6 100.0Total 448 100.0 100.0
83
APPENDIX C
Tables of Cross-Tabulation
Table 27
�Ethnicity by Ability�
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
Ethnicity African Count 0 0 5 5 Expected Count .0 .4 4.5 5.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 1.2% 1.1% % of Total .0% .0% 1.1% 1.1% Std. Residual -.2 -.7 .2 American Count 0 0 6 6 Expected Count .1 .5 5.4 6.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 1.5% 1.3% % of Total .0% .0% 1.3% 1.3% Std. Residual -.2 -.7 .2 Arabian Count 0 0 2 2 Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .5% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -.1 -.4 .1 Argentinean Count 0 10 2 12 Expected Count .1 1.0 10.9 12.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 83.3% 16.7% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 26.3% .5% 2.7% % of Total .0% 2.2% .4% 2.7% Std. Residual -.3 8.9 -2.7 Australian Count 0 0 8 8 Expected Count .1 .7 7.3 8.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 2.0% 1.8% % of Total .0% .0% 1.8% 1.8% Std. Residual -.3 -.8 .3 Bangladeshi Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0%
84
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
% within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Brazilian Count 0 6 3 9 Expected Count .1 .8 8.2 9.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 66.7% 33.3% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 15.8% .7% 2.0% % of Total .0% 1.3% .7% 2.0% Std. Residual -.3 6.0 -1.8 Cameroonian Count 0 0 2 2 Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .5% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -.1 -.4 .1 Canadian Count 0 0 9 9 Expected Count .1 .8 8.2 9.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 2.2% 2.0% % of Total .0% .0% 2.0% 2.0% Std. Residual -.3 -.9 .3 Colombian Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Czech Count 0 1 0 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 2.6% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.1 3.1 -1.0 Dutch Count 0 2 0 2 Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 5.3% .0% .4% % of Total .0% .4% .0% .4% Std. Residual -.1 4.4 -1.3 Eastern
European Count 0 0 3 3
Expected Count .0 .3 2.7 3.0
85
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
% within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .7% .7% % of Total .0% .0% .7% .7% Std. Residual -.2 -.5 .2 Eastern
German Count 0 0 1 1
Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Ecuadorian Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 English Count 2 3 71 76 Expected Count .7 6.4 68.9 76.0 % within Ethnicity 2.6% 3.9% 93.4% 100.0% % within Ability 50.0% 7.9% 17.5% 17.0% % of Total .4% .7% 15.8% 17.0% Std. Residual 1.6 -1.4 .3 European Count 0 0 4 4 Expected Count .0 .3 3.6 4.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 1.0% .9% % of Total .0% .0% .9% .9% Std. Residual -.2 -.6 .2 French Count 0 3 53 56 Expected Count .5 4.8 50.8 56.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 5.4% 94.6% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 7.9% 13.1% 12.5% % of Total .0% .7% 11.8% 12.5% Std. Residual -.7 -.8 .3 German Count 0 3 37 40 Expected Count .4 3.4 36.3 40.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 7.5% 92.5% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 7.9% 9.1% 8.9% % of Total .0% .7% 8.3% 8.9% Std. Residual -.6 -.2 .1 Ghanaian Count 0 0 2 2
86
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .5% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -.1 -.4 .1 Irish Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Israeli Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Italian Count 0 1 8 9 Expected Count .1 .8 8.2 9.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 11.1% 88.9% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 2.6% 2.0% 2.0% % of Total .0% .2% 1.8% 2.0% Std. Residual -.3 .3 -.1 Ivorian Count 0 1 3 4 Expected Count .0 .3 3.6 4.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 25.0% 75.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 2.6% .7% .9% % of Total .0% .2% .7% .9% Std. Residual -.2 1.1 -.3 Mexican Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Muslim Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 None Count 0 0 69 69
87
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
Expected Count .6 5.9 62.5 69.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 17.0% 15.4% % of Total .0% .0% 15.4% 15.4% Std. Residual -.8 -2.4 .8 Pakistani Count 0 0 2 2 Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .5% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -.1 -.4 .1 Polish Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Portuguese Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Romanian Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Scottish Count 0 0 57 57 Expected Count .5 4.8 51.7 57.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% 14.0% 12.7% % of Total .0% .0% 12.7% 12.7% Std. Residual -.7 -2.2 .7 Serbian Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 South Korean Count 0 2 0 2
88
Ability Total concentration athletic
skill not
mentioned/other
Expected Count .0 .2 1.8 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 5.3% .0% .4% % of Total .0% .4% .0% .4% Std. Residual -.1 4.4 -1.3 Spanish Count 0 4 42 46 Expected Count .4 3.9 41.7 46.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 8.7% 91.3% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 10.5% 10.3% 10.3% % of Total .0% .9% 9.4% 10.3% Std. Residual -.6 .0 .0 Swiss Count 2 0 1 3 Expected Count .0 .3 2.7 3.0 % within Ethnicity 66.7% .0% 33.3% 100.0% % within Ability 50.0% .0% .2% .7% % of Total .4% .0% .2% .7% Std. Residual 12.1 -.5 -1.0 Trinidadian Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Ukrainian Count 0 2 3 5 Expected Count .0 .4 4.5 5.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 40.0% 60.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% 5.3% .7% 1.1% % of Total .0% .4% .7% 1.1% Std. Residual -.2 2.4 -.7 Welsh Count 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .0 .1 .9 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% 100.0% % within Ability .0% .0% .2% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.1 -.3 .1 Total Count 4 38 406 448 Expected Count 4.0 38.0 406.0 448.0 % within Ethnicity .9% 8.5% 90.6% 100.0% % within Ability 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% % of Total .9% 8.5% 90.6% 100.0%
89
Table 28
�Ethnicity by Frame�
Frame Total positive negative factual none Ethnicity African Count 0 5 0 0 5 Expected Count 2.4 1.8 .4 .5 5.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 3.1% .0% .0% 1.1% % of Total .0% 1.1% .0% .0% 1.1% Std. Residual -1.5 2.4 -.6 -.7 American Count 2 3 1 0 6 Expected Count 2.8 2.2 .4 .6 6.0 % within Ethnicity 33.3% 50.0% 16.7% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .9% 1.9% 3.1% .0% 1.3% % of Total .4% .7% .2% .0% 1.3% Std. Residual -.5 .6 .9 -.8 Arabian Count 0 2 0 0 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 1.2% .0% .0% .4% % of Total .0% .4% .0% .0% .4% Std. Residual -1.0 1.5 -.4 -.4 Argentinean Count 0 1 1 10 12 Expected Count 5.7 4.3 .9 1.2 12.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 8.3% 8.3% 83.3% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% 3.1% 23.3% 2.7% % of Total .0% .2% .2% 2.2% 2.7% Std. Residual -2.4 -1.6 .2 8.2 Australian Count 0 6 2 0 8 Expected Count 3.8 2.9 .6 .8 8.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 75.0% 25.0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 3.7% 6.3% .0% 1.8% % of Total .0% 1.3% .4% .0% 1.8% Std. Residual -1.9 1.8 1.9 -.9 Bangladeshi Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 Brazilian Count 0 2 1 6 9 Expected Count 4.2 3.3 .6 .9 9.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 22.2% 11.1% 66.7% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 1.2% 3.1% 14.0% 2.0%
90
Frame Total positive negative factual none % of Total .0% .4% .2% 1.3% 2.0% Std. Residual -2.1 -.7 .4 5.5 Cameroonian Count 2 0 0 0 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .9% .0% .0% .0% .4% % of Total .4% .0% .0% .0% .4% Std. Residual 1.1 -.9 -.4 -.4 Canadian Count 0 9 0 0 9 Expected Count 4.2 3.3 .6 .9 9.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 5.6% .0% .0% 2.0% % of Total .0% 2.0% .0% .0% 2.0% Std. Residual -2.1 3.2 -.8 -.9 Colombian Count 1 0 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 Czech Count 0 0 0 1 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% .0% 100.0
%100.0%
% within Frame .0% .0% .0% 2.3% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .0% .2% .2% Std. Residual -.7 -.6 -.3 2.9 Dutch Count 0 0 0 2 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% .0% 100.0
%100.0%
% within Frame .0% .0% .0% 4.7% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -1.0 -.9 -.4 4.1 Eastern
European Count 3 0 0 0 3
Expected Count 1.4 1.1 .2 .3 3.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame 1.4% .0% .0% .0% .7% % of Total .7% .0% .0% .0% .7% Std. Residual 1.3 -1.0 -.5 -.5 Eastern
German Count 1 0 0 0 1
Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0
91
Frame Total positive negative factual none % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 Ecuadorian Count 1 0 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 English Count 30 36 5 5 76 Expected Count 35.8 27.5 5.4 7.3 76.0 % within Ethnicity 39.5% 47.4% 6.6% 6.6% 100.0% % within Frame 14.2% 22.2% 15.6% 11.6% 17.0% % of Total 6.7% 8.0% 1.1% 1.1% 17.0% Std. Residual -1.0 1.6 -.2 -.8 European Count 3 1 0 0 4 Expected Count 1.9 1.4 .3 .4 4.0 % within Ethnicity 75.0% 25.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame 1.4% .6% .0% .0% .9% % of Total .7% .2% .0% .0% .9% Std. Residual .8 -.4 -.5 -.6 French Count 22 26 5 3 56 Expected Count 26.4 20.3 4.0 5.4 56.0 % within Ethnicity 39.3% 46.4% 8.9% 5.4% 100.0% % within Frame 10.4% 16.0% 15.6% 7.0% 12.5% % of Total 4.9% 5.8% 1.1% .7% 12.5% Std. Residual -.9 1.3 .5 -1.0 German Count 20 15 2 3 40 Expected Count 18.8 14.5 2.9 3.8 40.0 % within Ethnicity 50.0% 37.5% 5.0% 7.5% 100.0% % within Frame 9.5% 9.3% 6.3% 7.0% 8.9% % of Total 4.5% 3.3% .4% .7% 8.9% Std. Residual .3 .1 -.5 -.4 Ghanaian Count 0 2 0 0 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 1.2% .0% .0% .4% % of Total .0% .4% .0% .0% .4% Std. Residual -1.0 1.5 -.4 -.4 Irish Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2%
92
Frame Total positive negative factual none % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 Israeli Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 Italian Count 4 2 2 1 9 Expected Count 4.2 3.3 .6 .9 9.0 % within Ethnicity 44.4% 22.2% 22.2% 11.1% 100.0% % within Frame 1.9% 1.2% 6.3% 2.3% 2.0% % of Total .9% .4% .4% .2% 2.0% Std. Residual -.1 -.7 1.7 .1 Ivorian Count 0 3 0 1 4 Expected Count 1.9 1.4 .3 .4 4.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 75.0% .0% 25.0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 1.9% .0% 2.3% .9% % of Total .0% .7% .0% .2% .9% Std. Residual -1.4 1.3 -.5 1.0 Mexican Count 1 0 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 Muslim Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 None Count 31 30 8 0 69 Expected Count 32.5 25.0 4.9 6.6 69.0 % within Ethnicity 44.9% 43.5% 11.6% .0% 100.0% % within Frame 14.7% 18.5% 25.0% .0% 15.4% % of Total 6.9% 6.7% 1.8% .0% 15.4% Std. Residual -.3 1.0 1.4 -2.6 Pakistani Count 0 2 0 0 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% 1.2% .0% .0% .4% % of Total .0% .4% .0% .0% .4% Std. Residual -1.0 1.5 -.4 -.4
93
Frame Total positive negative factual none Polish Count 1 0 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 Portuguese Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 Romanian Count 1 0 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity 100.0% .0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .5% .0% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .2% .0% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual .8 -.6 -.3 -.3 Scottish Count 43 11 3 0 57 Expected Count 26.8 20.6 4.1 5.5 57.0 % within Ethnicity 75.4% 19.3% 5.3% .0% 100.0% % within Frame 20.4% 6.8% 9.4% .0% 12.7% % of Total 9.6% 2.5% .7% .0% 12.7% Std. Residual 3.1 -2.1 -.5 -2.3 Serbian Count 0 1 0 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% 100.0% .0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .6% .0% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .2% .0% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 1.1 -.3 -.3 South Korean Count 0 0 0 2 2 Expected Count .9 .7 .1 .2 2.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% .0% 100.0
%100.0%
% within Frame .0% .0% .0% 4.7% .4% % of Total .0% .0% .0% .4% .4% Std. Residual -1.0 -.9 -.4 4.1 Spanish Count 42 0 0 4 46 Expected Count 21.7 16.6 3.3 4.4 46.0 % within Ethnicity 91.3% .0% .0% 8.7% 100.0% % within Frame 19.9% .0% .0% 9.3% 10.3% % of Total 9.4% .0% .0% .9% 10.3% Std. Residual 4.4 -4.1 -1.8 -.2 Swiss Count 0 0 0 3 3
94
Frame Total positive negative factual none Expected Count 1.4 1.1 .2 .3 3.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% .0% 100.0
%100.0%
% within Frame .0% .0% .0% 7.0% .7% % of Total .0% .0% .0% .7% .7% Std. Residual -1.2 -1.0 -.5 5.1 Trinidadian Count 0 0 1 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .0% 3.1% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 -.6 3.5 -.3 Ukrainian Count 3 0 0 2 5 Expected Count 2.4 1.8 .4 .5 5.0 % within Ethnicity 60.0% .0% .0% 40.0% 100.0% % within Frame 1.4% .0% .0% 4.7% 1.1% % of Total .7% .0% .0% .4% 1.1% Std. Residual .4 -1.3 -.6 2.2 Welsh Count 0 0 1 0 1 Expected Count .5 .4 .1 .1 1.0 % within Ethnicity .0% .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% % within Frame .0% .0% 3.1% .0% .2% % of Total .0% .0% .2% .0% .2% Std. Residual -.7 -.6 3.5 -.3 Total Count 211 162 32 43 448 Expected Count 211.0 162.0 32.0 43.0 448.0 % within Ethnicity 47.1% 36.2% 7.1% 9.6% 100.0% % within Frame 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0
%100.0%
% of Total 47.1% 36.2% 7.1% 9.6% 100.0%
95
VITA
MONICA NĂSTASE
Personal Data: Date of birth: June 2nd, 1982 Place of birth: Galaţi, România Marital status: Single Education: M.A. Professional Communication, East Tennessee State
University, Johnson City, Tennessee, USA, 2007 B.A. Journalism; English Language and Literature, The West University, Timişoara, România, 2005 Professional Experience: Graduate Assistant, East Tennessee State University, Computer and Information Sciences Department, Emerging
Technology Center; Johnson City, Tennessee, 2006 � 2007. Part-time secretary, East Tennessee State University, Educational
Leadership and Policy Analysis Department; Johnson City Tennessee, 2005 - 2006.
Research Tuition Scholar, East Tennessee State University, Communication Department; Johnson City, Tennessee, 2005 - 2006.
Publications: Năstase, M., King, J. M., & Price, K. (2006). A content analysis of
an attempt by Victoria�s Secret to generate brand mentions through provocative displays. IABD Business Research Yearbook, Morgan State University, Baltimore.
Honors: United States Achievement Academy National Collegiate
Education Award. ETSU President's Pride.