iTERRA MARIQUE

fff

TERRA MARIQUE

Studies in Art History and Marine Archaeologyin Honor of Anna Marguerite McCann

on the Receipt of the Gold Medalof the Archaeological Institute of America

Edited by

John Pollini

Oxbow Books

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Published byOxbow Books, Park End Place, Oxford OX1 1HN

Oxbow Books, John Pollini and the individual authors 2005

1-84217-148-8

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

Front cover: The deified Augustus flanked by personifications ofLand and Sea, relief from the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias. (Photo: Scala Grafik, Izmir)

Frontispiece and back cover: Anna in academic robes. (Photo: Chad Benton Ploth, New York)

Frontispiece to Part II: Anna in scuba gear. (Photo: Anna M. McCann, New York)

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vPreface .............................................................................................................................................................................. vii

Contributors ................................................................................................................................................................... viii

Introduction John Pollini ................................................................................................................................................. ix

Anna Marguerite McCann: A Tribute John P. Oleson and James Russell .................................................................. xv

Publications of Anna Marguerite McCann ................................................................................................................. xix

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................................. xxii

PART I: Art and Archaeology

1 The Verucchio Throne and the Corsini Chair: Two Status Symbols of Ancient ItalyLarissa Bonfante .............................................................................................................................................................. 3

2 Fashioning Plancia Magna: Memory and Revival in the Greek East during the Second Century ADCatherine de Grazia Vanderpool .................................................................................................................................. 12

3 Sestius at Cetamura and Lurius at Cosa? Nancy Thomson de Grummond ........................................................ 30

4 Excavating a Priceless Heritage: Scientific and Other Applications Used by the Brown UniversityExploration of the Petra Great Temple Martha Sharp Joukowsky ..................................................................... 40

5 Terra Sigillata: The Workshop of Publius at Arezzo Philip M. Kenrick ..................................................... 56

6 Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade Archer Martin ......................... 61

7 Dionysos at the Altar of Rhea: A Myth of Darkness and Rebirth in Ptolemaic Alexandria Maria Teresa Marabini Moevs ..................................................................................................................................... 77

8 The Armstrong and Nuffler Heads and the Portraiture of Julius Caesar, Livia, and Antonia Minor John Pollini ................................................................................................................................................................... 89

9 The Parachutists Antiquarium: Pierres Errantes at Calvi (Corsica) James Russell ............................... 123

10 The Eruption of Vesuvius and Campanian Dressel 24 AmphoraeDavid Williams and David Peacock ......................................................................................................................... 140

11 Living Architecture: Living Column and Vegetal Urn. Shared Motifs in Roman Wall Painting and Neo-Attic Furnishings Sara Yerkes ........................................................................................... 149

Contents

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PART II: Marine Archaeology and Technology

12 Deep Water Archaeology Robert Ballard ............................................................................................................. 171

13 Further Evidence of the Specialized Religion of Phoenician Seafarers Aaron J. Brody ............................. 177

14 Aristophanes, Acharnians 44554 and the Trireme Rowers Gear Lionel Casson .......................................... 183

15 Swimming Over Time: Glimpses of the Maritime Life of Aperlae Robert L. Hohlfelder ........................... 187

16 Design, Materials, and the Process of Innovation in Roman Force Pumps John Peter Oleson ................ 211

17 Portus Romae? Geoffrey Rickman ......................................................................................................................... 232

18 Phoenician Shipwrecks and the Ship Tyre (Ezekiel 27) Lawrence E. Stager .................................................... 238

19 The Port of Cosa and Economic Romanization in Gaul and the Danube ValleyElizabeth Lyding Will ................................................................................................................................................ 255

Index ................................................................................................................................................................................ 263

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Preface

The essays collected in this volume range from more general to more technical topics, reflecting the interests ofAnna Marguerite McCann. In producing this work, we have followed for the most part the style and abbreviationsof the American Journal of Archaeology. Other abbreviations used will also be found in the list of abbreviations,coming after McCanns list of publications. Standard abbreviations for Latin and ancient Greek sources will befound in the list of abbreviations in The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., edited by S. Hornblower and A.Spawforth (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996). For anything not in the OCD, please refer to the Greek-EnglishLexicon compiled by G. Liddell and R. Scott, revised and augmented by H. Stuart Jones with the assistance of R.McKenzie (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1996) and the Oxford Latin Dictionary ed. by P.D.W. Glare (Oxford: ClarendonPress 1982).

Each essay is self-contained, with notes and a comprehensive list of bibliographical references at the end ofeach article. All black and white illustrations (figs.) are integrated in each article, with the exception of colorimages (pls.), which are to be found at the end of this volume. Within each article we have attempted to be asconsistent as possible. Among the different essays, however, there will be some differences in punctuation andspelling of terms, as well as in American and British orthography, according to the preference of the individualauthors.

I would like to thank all of the authors for their patience in the production of this volume. Special thanks areowed to Robert Taggart for his generous subvention and to Sarah Monks for her expertise, diligence, and assistancein the editing and production of this volume. Lastly, I thank my wife Phyllis, optima et semper per tot laboresdulcissima, for all her help and support in this endeavor.

John Pollini, Editor

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Contributors

ROBERT D. BALLARDInstitute for Exploration, Mystic, Connecticut, USA

LARISSA BONFANTENew York University, New York, New York, USA

AARON J. BRODYPacific School of Religion, Berkeley, California, USA

LIONEL CASSONNew York University (Emeritus), New York, NewYork, USA

NANCY THOMSON DE GRUMMONDThe Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida,USA

ROBERT L. HOHLFELDERUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA

MARTHA SHARP JOUKOWSKYBrown University (Emerita), Providence, RhodeIsland, USA

PHILIP M. KENRICKIndependent Scholar, Appleton, Oxfordshire,England, UK

MARIA TERESA MARABINI MOEVSRutgers, the State University of New Jersey(Emerita), New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

ARCHER MARTINThe American Academy, Rome, Italy

JOHN PETER OLESONUniversity of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

JOHN POLLINIUniversity of Southern California, Los Angeles,California, USA

GEOFFREY RICKMANUniversity of St. Andrews (Emeritus), St. Andrews,Fife, Scotland, UK

JAMES RUSSELLUniversity of British Columbia, Vancouver, BritishColumbia, Canada

LAWRENCE E. STAGERHarvard Semitic Museum, Harvard University,Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

CATHERINE DE GRAZIA VANDERPOOLThe American School of Classical Studies atAthens, Princeton, New Jersey, USA

ELIZABETH LYDING WILLUniversity of Massachusetts (Emerita), Amherst,Massachusetts, USA

DAVID WILLIAMS and DAVID PEACOCKUniversity of Southampton, England, UK

SARA YERKESIndependent Scholar, Santa Barbara, California,USA

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Introduction

John Pollini

In 1998 Anna Marguerite McCann received the GoldMedal of the Archaeological Institute of America forher distinguished archaeological achievements. OnDecember 29 of that year a special Gold MedalColloquium, organized and chaired by Nancy T. deGrummond, was held in her honor at the 100th AnnualMeeting of the Archaeological Institute of America inWashington D.C. James Russell of the University ofBritish Columbia gave the opening paper on Dr.McCanns numerous accomplishments. Presentingpapers at this colloquium were the following, in orderof presentation:

John Peter Oleson, University of Victoria,Archaeology on Earths Last Frontier: Deep-WaterArchaeology at Skerki BankElizabeth Lyding Will, University of Massa-chusetts at Amherst, The Port of Cosa andEconomic Romanization in Gaul and the DanubeValleyLionel Casson, New York University (emeritus),Romes Trade with IndiaPhilip Kenrick, University of Oxford, A NewCatalogue of Signed Italian Terra Sigillata: What36,000 Vessels Can Tell Us about Roman Craft andTradeMaria Teresa Marabini Moevs, Rutgers Univ-ersity, Hellenistic Text Illustrations and ArretinePottery1

John Pollini, University of Southern California,A Portrait of a Sex-Slave Stud (?) in the Metro-politan Museum of Art in New York2

Larissa Bonfante, New York University, Out ofthe Water: The Wooden Throne from Verucchio

Because of the success of the colloquium, it wasdecided to publish the papers of the speakers, alongwith essays of other colleagues and friends, in a volumein honor of Anna Marguerite McCann highlightingsubjects representative of her interests in ancient art

and underwater archaeology and technology. In a fewcases in which original papers presented at thecolloquium had already been committed to otherpublications,3 participants substituted other papers. Inall, nineteen essays were contributed to the presentvolume. These works are thematically divided into twoparts and arranged alphabetically by author: one partreflecting Annas general interests in ancient art andarchaeology, especially sculpture; the other, herspecific expertise in underwater and port archaeologyand technology.

Part I: Art and Archaeology

In the first essay of Part I, The Verucchio Throne andthe Corsini Chair: Etruscan and Roman StatusSymbols, Larissa Bonfante considers two extra-ordinary round-backed thrones of a type which longremained a status symbol in northern Italy and beyondthe Alps, from the Iron Age down to the Late Antiqueperiod. Both are decorated with scenes of daily life orrituals important for their respective societies. The lateeighth century BC wooden Verucchio throne rep-resents lively little figures, with important men andwomen carried on four-wheeled chariots. The icono-graphy has recently been shown to reflect ritual actionswhich also include various phases and tasks of wool-working and weaving. Some details, as well as theoriginal purpose of the throne, are as yet uncertain.The Roman marble throne dates from the late Republic.Its decoration, carved in low relief with lively, con-sciously primitive-looking figures, originally inspiredby the same Orientalizing Etruscan art, is reminiscentof the hammered bronze relief decoration of Iron Agenorthern Italian situla art. This marble throne wasevidently commissioned by an aristocratic Romangeneral who wanted it to reflect the exotic foreign arthe had seen in the course of the northern campaigns hehad fought, perhaps with Julius Caesar. The simi-

xlarities between the two thrones raise intriguingquestions about the social structure of different areasof ancient Italy. Neither throne has any mythologicalreference. Most tellingly, both testify to the importanceand prestige of their owners families in their originalcontext: one in the emerging aristocratic society of theEtruscan cities; the other in the Roman oligarchicsociety of the end of the Republic.

In Fashioning Plancia Magna: Memory and Revivalin the Greek East During the Second Century AD,Catherine de Grazia Vanderpool discusses the statuetype and civic ideology of a prominent Hadrianicbenefactress in the Roman East. Thanks to a wealth ofinscriptions, monuments, and sculptural represen-tations dating to the Hadrianic period that wereexcavated at Perge in southwest Anatolia, PlanciaMagna is for us one of the best-known femalebenefactors, at a time of notable private civic phil-anthropy. One of the most common images used incontemporary presentations of elite women, includingPlancia Magna, derives from a pair of statue typesdeveloped in Athens in the late fourth century BC. Asexplored in her essay, these types, which recurespecially beginning under Hadrian, are suggested hereto embody a conscious reference to those ideas ofcitizenship and civic behavior developed particularlyin the latter part of the fourth century BC in Athens andrevivified, most notably under Hadrian and hissuccessors. The ideology incorporated in these statuetypes can also be linked to the philosophy behindHadrians institution of the Panhellenia, with its seat atAthens and with its notions of panhellenic citizenship.Plancia Magna and her contemporaries are thusportrayed as part of a Greek nation, as well as of theRoman Empire.

Nancy Thomson de Grummond discusses loom-weights that have significant implications for manu-facture and trade in Sestius at Cetamura and Luriusat Cosa? At Cetamura del Chianti, an inland hilltopsettlement near Siena, excavations by Florida StateUniversity have revealed a Hellenistic Etruscansettlement contemporary with Republican Cosa. Ofparticular interest is an artisans zone with slag frommetal-working; a kiln for making brick, tile, andloomweights; and numerous utensils for spinning andweaving. A large paved room, Structure C, may havebeen the center for a textile workshop. In an adjoiningbuilding, Structure A, was a large cistern dating fromabout 150 BC, probably going out of use in the firstquarter of the first century BC. Among the Hellenisticdebris within it was found a loomweight stampedtidily on the top with an S and made of a fabricdiffering from the weights known to have been madeat Cetamura. Also in the artisans zone was found a

loomweight stamped with an asterisk. These marksmay be compared with stamps from the Sestius firm,well known at Cosa from the amphora trade. ElizabethLyding Will, who contributes to this volume (below),had already noted that the Sestii also produced lamps,bricks, and Arretine pottery and had suggested thatthe Cetamura stamp may indicate a fifth category ofdiversification in the Sestius enterprises. Nancy deGrummonds essay also includes discussion of twoGreco-Italic amphora stamps from Cetamura ofM.LVRI and EUTACHEI (the latter published for thefirst time here) that indicate the trade connections ofEtruscan Cetamura. A review of marks on loom-weights at Cosa revealed that there were three weightsfound there with the initials M.L. (two on theCapitolium and one in the House of the Skeleton), arather unusual marking, tantalizingly reminiscent ofthe stamp of Marcus Lurius from Cetamura.

In Excavating a Priceless Heritage: Scientific andOther Applications Used by the Brown UniversityExploration of the Petra Great Temple, Martha SharpJoukowsky presents research methodology for theeight years that Brown University has been excavatingin Jordan at the Petra Great Temple with the aim ofimproving our understanding of the elusive Naba-taeans who constructed the Great Temple. Thescientific and other applications that they have usedinclude surveying, artifact studies and databases,neutron activation analysis of pottery, analysis ofplaster samples (fresco pigment analysis), paly-nological analysis, studies of stone weathering,consolidation-restoration, dendrochronology, and thecreation of a digital archaeology program for theexcavation. Besides a brief description of the GreatTemple, some of the results are presented to elucidatevarious problems associated with the excavation.

The publication of the second edition of the CorpusVasorum Arretinorum in 2000 has created newopportunities for studying the Italian terra sigillataindustry. In Terra Sigillata: The Workshop of Publiusat Arezzo, Philip M. Kenrick is concerned with theminor Arretine workshop of Publius, which isenigmatic by reason of the large number of slave (ordependent) names associated with a very modestoutput, combined with the absence of any signaturesdenoting the master alone. Kenrick suggests that theabbreviation PVBL or PVBLI found on the stamps ofthis workshop may not refer to an individual at all, butmay denote servi publici and hence some kind of (short-lived) municipal involvement by the colony ofArretium in the flourishing local craft of finewareproduction.

In Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as anIndicator of Openness to Trade, Archer Martin

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examines fourth-fifth century AD contexts, locatedfrom the mouth of the Tiber to a non-navigabletributary, to see how openness to trade is reflected inthe com-position of pottery assemblages. This studysuggests that several elements vary as a reflection of asites position along trade routes. Amphoras declinefrom a substantial majority on or near the coast to asignificant minority on navigable stretches farther fromthe sea and finally to a relatively unimportant presenceon the inland site. They also tend to come increasinglyfrom local or regional sources. Where trade connectionsare strong, imported fine wares will dominate assem-blages. Import substitution for fine wares takes placewhere there is a certain barrier to imported wares butappears to require a minimum level of regionalcirculation to be present. Imported cooking wares canbe present in significant percentages on the coast butdrop off and then disappear the most readily of allimports, except for imported common wares, whichare never more than a feeble presence. Considerationof the composition of pottery assemblages promisesto provide important evidence for interpreting the siteswhere they are found, beyond what is offered by theexamination of the various ceramic classes in isolation.

The essay by Maria Teresa Marabini Moevs,Dionysos at the Altar of Rhea: A Myth of Darknessand Rebirth in Ptolemaic Alexandria, is part of anongoing project to provide visual documentation tothe Grand Procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, aspectacular pageantry occasioned by the celebrationof a quinquennial festival, which was described byAthenaeus of Naukratis in his Banquet of the Learned.This great procession consisted of lesser ones in honorof various divinities, of which only the procession ofDionysos was described in great detail. The life of thegod was displayed on tableaux vivants mounted oncarts. The culminating episode, Dionysos at the Altarof Rhea, was a very rare myth recording the godsrecovery from madness through the intervention ofthe Great Mother Rhea. In her essay Moevs identifiesthe representation of this scene on a Roman terracottaplaque in which the child Dionysos is squatting on analtar with his arms raised in the traditional gesture ofsupplication. This image of Dionysos emerging fromthe darkness of madness recalls the iconography ofHarpokrates, or Horus the Child, squatting on thelotus flower emerging from the chaos of the primevalwater. The intention of the first Ptolemies to unitetheir ancestral divinity Dionysos to Horus, trad-itionally identified with the living Pharaoh, and theirpolitical effort to curb the most unruly manifestationsof the Dionysiac religion, justify the importanceaccorded to the myth of Dionysos at the Altar of Rheain the Procession.

In The Armstrong and Nuffler Heads and thePortraiture of Julius Caesar, Livia, and Antonia Minor,John Pollini discusses two little known basalt portraitsof high quality. The Armstrong Head, representing anolder male, may be an uncanonical portrait of JuliusCaesar, while the Nuffler Head, representing ayounger-looking female, is identifiable as an image ofAugustus wife Livia. Because neither portraitobviously and unquestionably represents the in-dividuals proposed, this essay also presents a newconsideration of the portrait typologies of Caesar andLivia, as well as Antonia Minor, to whom the femalehead bears some resemblance. The Armstrong Headseems to be a portrait of Caesar that was freelyinterpreted by a Hellenistic sculptor working in Egyptat the very end of the Republic or in the earlierAugustan period, while the Nuffler Head of Livia wasprobably created some time after the death of herhusband Augustus in AD 14. Since various factorsindicate that both heads may originally have comefrom the same context, the Nuffler Head, whichappears to have been created at a later date than theother sculpture, may have been added to a portraitgroup that already included the Armstrong Head. Bothimages have suffered damage consistent with theirhaving been intentionally defaced, quite possibly byiconoclastic Christians who attacked the images of thepolytheistic peoples of the Empire during the LateAntique period. Caesar had been worshiped as a god,so images of him with other members of the Julio-Claudian family, especially if set up in a shrine like theCaesareum/Augusteum at Alexandria, would havebeen all the more likely targets of assault.

James Russell presents in The ParachutistsAntiquarium: Pierres Errantes at Calvi (Corsica) acatalogue of a small collection of six Roman objectswhich forms part of a monumental tableau flankingthe war memorial on the parade square of CampRaffali, garrison base of the Deuxime Rgimenttranger des Parachutistes of the French Foreign Legionlocated at Calvi on Corsica. Three items are publishedfor the first time, a sculptured relief stele, a Corinthiancapital, and a funerary inscription, while the otherthree, all inscriptions, had been recorded previously.The extreme brevity of the reports in each case,however, warrants a more detailed discussion of theirtexts. Besides their intrinsic interest as historical andsocial documents, the collection provides an interestingillustration of pierres errantes from antiquity thathave wandered far from their original setting throughhuman caprice and invites speculation on how theyarrived in Corsica. The Numidian provenance of thethree published pieces is certain, and the unequivocalNorth African character of a fourth makes it highly

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probable that the entire collection originates from thesame source. The most plausible explanation is that allsix pieces were assembled when the Regiment was onpatrol in eastern Numidia during the Algerian War ofIndependence (19551962) and remained in itspossession until its evacuation from Algeria in 1967.Having by then assumed the status of a trophy, thecollection would have accompanied the Regiment toits new quarters on Corsica as a reminder of its heroicpast in Africa.

In The Eruption of Vesuvius and CampanianDressel 24 Amphorae, David Williams and DavidPeacock discuss an important type of Campania-produced amphora know as Dressel 24 and itssignificance for dating, since its production is tied tothe eruption of Vesuvius in August of AD 79. One ofthe casualties of this cataclysmic event, which provedto be an unprecedented ecological disaster for the areaaround the entire Bay of Naples, would have been thelocal wine industry, which would have been all butdestroyed at this time. The transport containers forthis wine were the locally made Dressel 24 amphoras,which are found in great numbers throughout theMediterranean, though their distribution stretchesmuch farther, from northern Europe to India. Many ofthese local Bay of Naples amphoras, which are madefrom a distinctive volcanic black sand fabric, have beenrecognized from a number of Indian sites, includingArikamedu. These amphoras thus provide an impor-tant chronological marker for the early Roman winetrade, especially with distant India.

In a previous article4 Sara Yerkes investigated thestriking correspondence between some elements inRoman wall painting of the late second and third stylesand a range of decorative motifs in the Greeksculptural tradition dating back to the fifth centuryBC. In the eleventh and last essay of PART I, LivingArchitecture: Living Column and Vegetal Urn. SharedMotifs in Roman Wall Painting and Neo-AtticFurnishings, Yerkes attempts to build on her earlierargument by placing both Roman mural painting andcontemporary Neo-Attic furnishings within a singlelarger context, that of Roman villa decoration. Focus-ing particularly on those motifs condemned asmonstra by Vitruvius (De arch. 7.5.34), her studyexamines the increasing vegetalization of architecturalmotifs in the first century BC and investigates thedynamic relationship between the motifs of the livingcolumn and vegetal urn. The interplay of thesemotifs makes explicit the flexible and organic natureof the repertoire of motifs in Roman wall painting, aswell as the origins of these motifs in the popular Late-Hellenistic villa furnishings mass-produced for theRoman market.

Part II: Marine Archaeology andTechnology

In the first essay of Part II, Deep Water Archaeology,Robert D. Ballard discusses the importance of recentdiscoveries of ancient shipwrecks far from shore forthe existence of deepwater trade routes. The greatdepth of these shipwrecks, low rates of sedimentation,cold bottom temperatures, absence of light, and, insome cases, absence of dissolved oxygen, create idealconditions for their long-term preservation. In well-oxygenated waters, the wooden portions of the shipshave been eaten by wood-boring mollusks, but in theanoxic bottom waters of the Black Sea the woodenportions of the shipwrecks are well preserved.Advances in deep submergence technology make itpossible for social scientists and archaeologists not onlyto discover and map shipwrecks in 98% of the worldsoceans but also, with newly developed remotelyoperated vehicles, to excavate these wrecks inaccordance with rigorous archaeological standards.

In Further Evidence of the Specialized Religion ofPhoenician Seafarers, Aaron J. Brody discusses therecent discoveries of incense burners aboard ship-wrecks off the southern coast of Israel and in Pisa asnew material cultural evidence for the cultic practicesof Phoenician seafarers. These incense burners fromthe Punic shipwreck at Pisa are in the shape of a bustof a goddess, presumably Tanit, the only goddess ofthe western Phoenician pantheon who was a patrondeity of Phoenician mariners. Further evidence for culticlinks between Tanit and sailors is described, focusingon caves and shrines where the deity was worshipedthat are close to the sea or harbors. Here are found, forexample, depictions of warships and symbols of thegoddess painted on the walls. Also discussed is therepresentation of a smiting god prow figure, which isdepicted on war galleys on coins from the Phoeniciancity of Aradus. This new data adds to the picture of thespecialized religious beliefs and cultic practices ofPhoenician sailors already published by Brody.

In Aristophanes, Acharnians 54554 and theTrireme Rowers Gear, Lionel Casson analyzesAristophanes unique description of the launching of afleet of triremes. The first three lines of this carefullystructured presentation deal with activities arisingfrom steps taken by the naval authorities, the next threewith the gear carried aboard by the crews, and the lastthree with activities relating to departure. Focusing onthe middle segment, this essay clarifies the meaning ofseveral terms used in it and discusses the light it throwson a key question; namely, how the crews wereprovided with the abundant amounts of drinkingwater they required.

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In Swimming Over Time: Glimpses of the Mari-time Life of Aperlae, Robert L. Hohlfelder presents arecently completed archaeological survey of ancientAperlae on the Lycian coast of Asia Minor that hasrevealed interesting insights into the maritime life of asmall, mundane, secondary harbor site largely ignoredby ancient writers. Although probably never a primaryport of call for large merchantmen involved directly ininternational trade, Aperlae was a vital seasidecommunity whose life depended on the sea andcabotage. Isolated from inland settlements by ruggedmountains, this provincial polis was forced to developand sustain coastal trade to survive and occasionallyto prosper during its millennial history (ca. late fourthcentury BC to ca. late seventh century AD). Its primaryexport seems to have been purple dye.

In Design, Material, and the Process of Innovationin Roman Force Pumps, John Peter Oleson discussesforce pumps, of which approximately 34 have beenfound in Roman imperial contexts in Western Europeand Bulgaria. While the design and precise machiningof the metal pumps have attracted the attention ofscholars for over a century, the pumps executed inwood remain poorly known and unappreciated. Thewood-block pumps, which survive in greater numbersthan the metal designs and over a wider geographicalarea, embody the same principles as the metal pumps,were probably more effective, and could be producedlocally. The general uniformity of their design raisesquestions concerning the process of technical inno-vation and the spread of new devices in the RomanEmpire.

When considering the Port of Rome in his essayPortus Romae? Geoffrey Rickman deals withconceptual problems of definition, in addition to theanalysis of actual physical remains. These conceptualproblems must now be viewed within the context ofthe recent work of Nicholas Purcell and PeregrineHorden on the Mediterranean Sea. Their discussionsof maritime connectivity and the evolution offaades maritimes in the ancient and medievalperiods prove helpful in understanding the develop-ment of Romes port. But their arguments must not bepressed too far, and the challenge remains to findexactly the right language to describe the citys linkwith the maritime world of the ancient Mediterranean,an important but neglected topic.

In Phoenician Shipwrecks and the Ship Tyre(Ezekiel 27), Lawrence Stager discusses his 1999investigation of two eighth century BC Phoenicianshipwrecks using the remotely operated vehicle systemof Medea/Jason in water 400 meters deep. The site ofthe shipwrecks was about 33 nautical miles off the

north Sinai coast. The focus of his essay is comparingthe archaeology of these shipwrecks their crews,cargoes, and trade networks with gleanings aboutPhoenician ships from Ezekiels early sixth century BCoracle against Tyre, Ship of State, and from Aramaicbills of lading of Phoenician ships entering Egypt in475 BC.

In The Port of Cosa and Economic Romanizationin Gaul and the Danube Valley, Elizabeth LydingWill considers the impact of the wine transportamphoras of Cosa on the economy of the northernprovinces of the Roman Empire. Building on Willsearlier conclusions that the Sestii were connected witha wine and pottery industry, Anna McCanns study inthe late sixties and early seventies and publication ofthe Port of Cosa in 1987 further confirmed that Cosahad been a commercial harbor and export center forwine and, on a much smaller scale, for fish sauces. Theclay amphoras found in abundance at the site can bedated on the basis of closed contexts at the AthenianAgora and permit a dating of the chief activity of thePort of Cosa from the later third to the later firstcenturies BC. During this time, the Sestii, wealthypoliticians in Rome and landowners at Cosa, main-tained a virtual monopoly over Roman wineexportation to Gaul and even to Germany. The studiesof Elizabeth Lyding Will and others, as well as AnnaMcCanns excavations, have resulted in a morecomplete understanding of the process by whicheconomic Romanization came about during the LateRoman Republic. Not only did the (chiefly provincial)buyers of the products of Roman Italy consume thoseproducts, but also the shipping amphoras in which theproducts were imported were reused by the buyers ina variety of ways, including as ballistic missiles, loud-speakers, coffins, refrigerators, and ovens, as well asfor storage. These vessels were omnipresent, tangiblereminders of Rome. They remain compelling evidenceof Roman economic power.

Notes1 Published in two articles: The Hellenistic Roots of Imagery in

Decorated Arretine Vases, RCRF 36, 2000, 4915 and Eruditi,omosessuali e mimi in caricature arretine di originealessandrina, BdA 84, 1999, 136.

2 Published as Slave-Boys for Sexual and Religious Service:Images of Pleasure and Devotion, in Flavian Rome: Culture,Image, Text, edited by A.J. Boyle and W.J. Domink, Leiden: Brill2002, 14966.

3 See footnotes supra for places of publication. Abstracts of all ofthe papers delivered at the Gold Medal Colloquium arepublished in the April issue of the American Journal ofArchaeology 103, 1999, 2924.

4 S. Yerkes, Vitruvius monstra, JRA 13, 2000, 23451.

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Anna Marguerite McCann has excelled in a remark-able variety of scholarly fields, human accomplish-ments, and service to her profession. She has taught ina number of respected departments of Art History,Archaeology, and Classics, directed excavations bothon land and underwater, worked as an innovativemuseum curator, and served as a generous andperceptive board member for numerous scholarlyorganizations and museums. A pioneer in several areasof Maritime Archaeology, she has continued at thesame time to publish in the fields of ancient Greek andRoman sculpture. She has won prestigious awards forher books in fields as diverse as Roman sculpture,Roman harbors, and deep water archaeology, as wellas for a childrens book on deep water exploration.

Anna took her B.A. in Art History and Classics (PhiBeta Kappa) at Wellesley College in 1954 and receivedtheir distinguished Alumnae Achievement Award in1997. She has said that she owes her start inarchaeology to the late Professor Barbara McCarthywith whom she studied ancient and modern Greek atWellesley and who encouraged her in her senior yearto apply for a Fulbright to Greece. At the age of 21,Anna won a Fulbright to the American School ofClassical Studies in Athens, where she spent a yearand says she fell in love with the Greek mountainouscountryside and its sea-swept shores, the warm-hearted people, their beautiful art, and all the mysteriesof the ancient world. After that year, Anna returnedwith enthusiasm to America to complete her M.A. inArt History at the Institute of Fine Arts, New YorkUniversity in 1957. Her Masters thesis, GreekStatuary Types in Roman Historical Reliefs, with thelate Professor Karl Lehmann reflects her early interestin Roman Imperial sculpture that she followed up inher research for her Ph.D. in Art History and Classicsat Indiana University in 1965. At Indiana and duringher tenure as a Rome Prize Fellow at the AmericanAcademy in Rome from 1964 to 1966, she worked on

her study of The Roman Portraits of Septimius Severus,A.D. 193211, a definitive book on this emperorsportraits that appeared as a volume in the Memoirs ofthe American Academy in Rome.1

It was also at Indiana University that Anna took herfirst course in SCUBA diving the only woman in theclass. When asked how she got into underwaterarchaeology Anna writes:

I love the ocean and I love to swim. I spent my summersgrowing up on the coast of Maine. To be able both to swimand use my professional training in archaeology seemedto me the best of all possible worlds. I have been lucky tohave had the support of both a loving family and husbandwho encouraged me to go ahead. My dad gave me my firstunderwater camera that opened up a new and beautifulworld. Diving with SCUBA was just beginning in the 1950swhen I was in graduate school and I thought it would be achallenge to learn to SCUBA dive and explore the sea.Diving appealed to my youthful sense for adventure and itstill does. Maybe adventure was in my genes. My dad wasone of Americas first Naval Aviators in World War I, andI think his example of courage in exploring the thenunknown was also an inspiration in my particular choiceof profession. Besides being fun to find things underwater,its even more fun to bring them up, study them, and putthem together. Sometimes they reveal a little piece ofhistory that would have been lost unless you had found it.And thats a real thrill to touch the past and find you arelinked to it!

During her years at the American Academy inRome, Anna was struck by the potential importance ofthe still untouched harbor site of Cosa located on theseacoast of ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany. In 1965she began the excavation of both the marshy lagoonand the submerged outer anchorage. An early believerin the value of a team approach to complex sites, Annasynthesized her collaborators efforts in a remarkablecontribution to the history of ancient harbors,technology and the economy of Republican Rome The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: a Center of Ancient

Anna Marguerite McCann:A Tribute

John P. Oleson and James Russell

xvi

Trade (Princeton 1987) awarded the ArchaeologicalInstitute of Americas James Wiseman Award for anoutstanding archaeological publication in 1989.2

In the 1989 JASON Project directed towards theeducation of children in technology and archaeology,Anna moved from shallow to deep-water survey andexcavation with Dr. Robert D. Ballard, President of theInstitute for Exploration, Mystic, CT and Professor ofOceanography, University of Rhode Island. Together,using the very latest robotic technology at the site of alate Roman shipwreck, the Isis, off Skerki Bank, theydemonstrated that controlled archaeological surveyand sampling could take place at a depth of 800m, farbeyond the limits of SCUBA. In this venture, as in alarger, follow-up project with Ballard in the same areain 1997, Anna endured initially much ungenerous andill-founded criticism. Typically, she chose the route ofscholarly publication3 and intelligent, polite discourseto win over her critics. The first JASON Project, directedtowards the education of children in technology andarchaeology, won the American Association for theAdvancement of Science Award (1989) and theComputer World Smithsonian Award (1990).

Other archaeologists are now following in herpioneering footsteps. It is typical of Annas interest inthe broad dissemination of archaeological informationthat she has also presented the results of her researchin numerous public lectures and television programs,in the popular press, and in a co-authored book forchildren: The Lost Wreck of the Isis4 that won theChildrens Book Council, Outstanding Science Bookfor Children in 1990. Most recently, she has publisheda popular guide book on the Roman Port and Fishery ofCosa: A Short Guide, The American Academy in Rome.5

Anna continues with her exploration of the deeperoceans with the newest robotic technology. In thesummer of 2002, as the archaeological director forMITs Tuscan Deep Water Survey, she explored thedeeper seas around Cosa using an AUV (an auto-nomous underwater vehicle) developed in the OceanEngineering Department at MIT by DirectorChryssostomos Chryssostomidis. She also continuedwith her belief in the need for collaboration withscholars in foreign countries as deep water archaeo-logy unfolds and helped form a collaboration betweenMIT, the Soprintendenza Archeologica per la Toscanaand the American Academy in Rome, in a project thatis ongoing. Formerly Adjunct Professor in the Depart-ment of Archaeology, Boston University, Anna iscurrently a Visiting Scholar at MIT in the Science,Technology and Society Program.

Although her work in underwater archaeologywould constitute an outstanding accomplishment in

itself, Anna has carried on a parallel career in ancientart history. Her book Roman Sarcophagi in the Metro-politan Museum of Art6 won several awards, includingthe Outstanding Book Award from the AmericanAssociation of University Presses. Anna has alsopublished seminal articles on Greek and Romansculpture and taken part in international conferenceson ancient bronze sculpture.7

Largely as a result of her devotion to her family,Anna chose not to pursue long-term academicpositions, but she has nevertheless taught with greatsuccess at a number of distinguished institutionsacross the United States. She has worked generouslywith both undergraduate and graduate students,inspiring them with her enthusiastic teaching, provid-ing excavation opportunities, and establishing scholar-ships for their support. She has given herselfgenerously as well to the important task of lecturingto the public, in part through the ArchaeologicalInstitute of Americas lecture program and the AIAsNorton Lectureship in 19941995. She has been a pillarof support for the AIA for decades, with long serviceon the Board of Trustees and as founder of theircommittee for Underwater Archaeology in 1985. TheAIA, in turn, honored her with their highest award,the Gold Medal Award for distinguished archaeo-logical achievement in 1998.8 Anna herself credits hersuccess to her loving and supportive husband, BobTaggart, who over the years has faithfully been by herside. I am very blessed to have Bob, says Anna, andwe, in turn, as contributors to her Festschrift owe himour special thanks for his generous support of thisvolume.

Throughout all this, Anna has concentrated withselfless generosity on another goal, inspiring youngpeople and lay people in general with her ownenthusiasm for the study of ancient art and culture.Her firm belief in the dignity and importance of everyindividual has endeared her to literally thousands ofpeople in the course of her professional career fromday laborers at Cosa, Italy, and Kenchreai, Greece, toambassadors in New York and Rome and she hashelped many students, colleagues, and fellow admini-strators simply to see more clearly and to think morehumanely. Annas most abiding and endearingqualities in the eyes of her many friends, however, areher absolute integrity, her loyalty to her colleagues andstudents, and her heartfelt devotion to archaeology.She exudes a warmth and humanity that inspires allwho come in contact with her to reach beyondthemselves. She is without doubt one of the greatAmerican archaeologists. Where you lay up yourtreasure, there your heart will be also.

xvii

Notes

1 MAAR 30, 1968.2 AJA 94, 1990, 296.3 Deep Water Archaeology with J. Freed, JRA Suppl. Series no. 13,

Ann Arbor 1994, and Deep Water Shipwrecks off Skerki Bank:The 1997 Survey with J. P. Oleson, JRA Suppl. Series no. 58,2004.

4 Toronto 1990.5 Litografia Bruni, Rome 2002.6 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1978.7 The Riace Bronzes: Gelon and Hieron I of Syracuse? From the

Parts to the Whole: Acta, Thirteenth International Bronze ConferenceI, Harvard University, 1996, editors C. C. Mattusch, A. Brauer,and S. E. Knudsen, JRA Suppl. Series 39, 2000, 97105.

8 AJA 103, 1999, 2567.

xviii

fff

xix

Books:

Deep Water Shipwrecks off Skerki Bank: The 1997 Survey,with J.P. Oleson (Journal of Roman Archaeology, Suppl.58, 2004).

The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: A Short Guide. TheAmerican Academy in Rome (Litografia Bruni, Rome2002).

Deep Water Archaeology: A Late-Roman Ship fromCarthage and an Ancient Trade Route Near Skerki Bankoff Northwest Sicily, with J. Freed (Journal of RomanArchaeology, Suppl. 13, 1994).

The Lost Wreck of the ISIS, with R.D. Ballard and R.Archbold (Toronto 1990) [awarded the ChildrensBook Council, Outstanding Science Trade Book forChildren, 1990].

The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: A Center of AncientTrade, A.M. McCann et al. (Princeton 1987) [awardedthe American Association of University PressesOutstanding Book 1987; The James R. WisemanBook Award, The Archaeological Institute ofAmerica, 1989].

Roman Sarcophagi in the Metropolitan Museum of Art(Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1978)[awarded the American Association of UniversityPresses, Outstanding Art Book, 1978; Thomas J.Watson Library, Metropolitan Museum of Art,Outstanding Art Book, 1978].

The Portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193211)(Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 30) (Rome1968).

Book in Progress:

Great Undersea Discoveries from the Mediterranean (forOxford University Press).

Articles:

Cosa and Deep Sea Exploration, The Maritime Worldof Ancient Rome (International Conference, American

Academy in Rome, March 2003) (forthcoming in theSupplementary Series of the Memoirs of the AmericanAcademy in Rome).

Response to Cosas Hydraulic Concrete: Towards aRevised Chronology by E.K. Gazda, in The MaritimeWorld of Ancient Rome (forthcoming in the Supp-lementary Series of the Memoirs of the AmericanAcademy in Rome).

The Isis Shipwreck, Skerki Bank, (forthcoming inPeriplus Encyclopaedia of Underwater Archaeology).London 2004.

Cosa and Deep-Water Archaeology: Skerki Bank andthe Tuscan Coastline, The Archaeological Institute ofAmerica, 105th Annual Meeting (Jan 25, 2004) in SanFrancisco, Abstracts, vol. 27, 81.

Skerki Bank: Archaeological Results, Methods andRecommendations, M.I.T. International Conferenceon Technology and Archaeology in the Deep Sea, Jan.,1999 (forthcoming, Plenum Press).

Cargoes from the Deep, with A.J. Brody, ArchaeologyOdyssey, Jan./Feb. (2003) 309.

Roman Shipwrecks from the Wine Dark Sea, John C.Rouman Lecture Series in Classical and HellenicCultures, University of New Hampshire (Durham 2002)122.

Skerki Wreck F: An Early Imperial Shipwreck in theDeep Sea off Sicily, Rei Cretariae Romanae FautorumActa 37 (2001) 25764.

Lamps and the Dating of Roman Shipwrecks, NewLight from Ancient Cosa: Classical MediterraneanStudies in Honor of Cleo Rickman Fitch, edited by N.Goldman. The American Academy in Rome (NewYork 2001) 3949.

The Discovery of Ancient History in the Deep SeaUsing Advanced Deep Submergence Technology,with R. D. Ballard et al., Deep-Sea Research, Part 1. 47(2001) 15911620.

Amphoras from the Deep Sea: Ancient Shipwrecksbetween Carthage and Rome, Rei Cretariae Romanae

PublicationsAnna Marguerite McCann

xx

Fautorum Acta 36 (2000) 4438. The Riace Bronzes: Gelon and Hieron I of Syracuse?

13th International Bronze Conference, HarvardUniversity, 1996, Journal of Roman Archaeology (2000)97105.

Roman Shipwrecks from the Deep Sea: New TradeRoute off Skerki Bank in the Mediterranean, Context,Boston University 14.2 (1999) 16.

The Roman Port of Cosa and a New Trade Route inthe Deep Sea, III Jornadas de Arqueologa Subacutica,Puertos Antiguos y Comercio Martimo, Valencia, Nov.1997 (Valencia 1998) 3949.

Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology,edited by J.P. Delgado (British Museum Press 1997)11315, s.v. Cosa; 187 s.v. Hamilton and ScourgeShipwrecks; 2078, 214, s.v. Isis; 237, s.v. LaMadonnina Shipwreck.

Underwater Archaeology, in An Encyclopedia of theHistory of Classical Archaeology II, edited by N. deGrummond (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT., 1996)113841.

Deep-Water Archaeology Near Skerki Bank offNorthwestern Sicily The Archaeological Institute ofAmerica, Abstracts vol. 19 (1995), 467.

Reflections on Fragonard, Wellesley Alumnae Maga-zine 48 (1995) review article of J.M. Massengale,Fragonard (1993).

The Archaeologist and Shipwreck ManagementIssues, in Historic Shipwreck Management, MarinePolicy Center, WHOI, Final Report, edited by P.Hoagland (March 1992) 101.

ROVs for Archaeology: The JASON Project 1989,Intervention/ROV91, Hollywood, Florida, May 2123,1991. Conference Proceedings, Marine TechnologySociety (1991) 13.

Hi-Tech Link Up for Kids, Archaeology (January1991) 445.

The Isis: A Late Roman Shipwreck Surveyed byRobots, The Archaeological Institute of America,Abstracts vol. 14 (1990) 43.

Diving Into Our Past, World Ocean Floors: AtlanticOcean, National Geographic Magazine (January 1990)n.p.

Technology Then and Now, Newsday (Newspaper)Long Island, New York, Feb. 12, 1989.

The Roman Port of Cosa, Scientific American, 256.3(March 1988) 1029.

The Portus Cosanus: A Center of Trade in the LateRepublic, Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum Acta, 2526 (1987) 2170.

The Roman Port and Fishery of Cosa: A Center ofTrade in the Late Roman Republic, British Archaeo-logical Reports International Series 257 (1985) 11556.

Portus Cosanus: Il Primo Porto Romano e la Peschiera

di Cosa, VI Congreso Internacional de ArquelogiaSubmarina, Cartagena 1982 (Ministero de Cultura,Madrid 1985) 295301.

Gisela Maria Augusta Richter (18821972): Scholarof Classical Art and Museum Archaeologist, withI.E.M. Edlund and C.R. Sherman, in Women asInterpreters of the Visual Arts, 18201979, edited byC.R. Sherman (Westport, Connecticut, 1981) 275300.

Beyond the Classical in Third Century Portraiture,in Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt, 12. 2(Berlin 1981), 62345.

Campagna di Scavo Italo-Americana nelle Acque diPorto Baratti (Populonia), with N. Lamboglia, FormaMaris Antiqui 10, 1973/74 (Bordighera 1980) 5661.

Campagna di Richerche Sottomarine Italo-Americanasul Porto Etrusco di Pirgi (Santa Severa), with N.Lamboglia, Forma-Maris Antiqui 10, 19731974(Bordighera 1980) 617.

The Harbor and Fishery Remains at Cosa, Italy,Journal of Field Archaeology 6 (1979) 391411.

Statue of Trebonianus Gallus, Head of Gallienus,Head of Diocletian (?), in The Age of Spirituality(Exhib. Cat.), edited by K. Weitzmann (Princeton1979) 811.

Two Fragments of Sarcophagi in the MetropolitanMuseum of Art Illustrating the Indian Triumph ofDionysius, The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery 36(1977) 12336.

The Reliefs from the Palazzo della Cancelleria: AHadrianic Document, in Abstracts of the 79thannual meetings of Archaeological Institute ofAmerican, Atlanta, Georgia (December 2830, 1977)189.

Necrology: Professor Nino Lamboglia, Journal ofField Archaeology 4 (1977) 2645.

Underwater Excavations at the Etruscan Port ofPopulonia, Journal of Field Archaeology 4 (1977) 27596.

Excavations at the Etruscan Port of Populonia,American Journal of Archaeology 79 (1975) 149.

Underwater Archaeologist, Rye Country Day School,Alumni Bulletin (December 1975) n.p.

Aerial Views for Probes under the Sea, The Etruscans(Time-Life Books) (New York 1975), 14753 (incollaboration with the editors).

Underwater Excavations at the Etruscan Ports ofPopulonia and Pyrgi, with J. Oleson, Journal of FieldArchaeology 1 (1974) 398402.

Italian-American Cooperation in UnderwaterArchaeology, American Academy in Rome, Newsletter(Fall 1974) n.p.

The Greek Ideal, Wellesley After-Images (WellesleyCollege Club of Los, 1974) 1635.

xxi

Double-Headed Jupiter, Echoes from Olympus(Exhib.Cat.) (University Art Museum, Berkeley(1974) 45 (supplement).

Excavations at the Roman Port of Cosa, 1972,International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 2 (1973)199200.

Excavations at the Roman Port of Cosa, 1971(abstract), American Journal of Archaeology 77 (1973)220.

Underwater Excavations at Populonia, 1970, Inter-national Journal of Nautical Archaeology 1 (1972) 398402.

Underwater Archaeologist with R. Abrams,Wellesley Alumnae Magazine (Spring 1972) 267.

Maria SS. di Altomare. A Fourth Century B.C.Shipwreck Near Taranto, Archaeology 25 (1972) 1807.

A Re-Dating of the Reliefs from the Palazzo dellaCancelleria, Rmische Mitteilungen 79 (1971) 24976.

Underwater Survey of the Etruscan Port ofPopulonia, Muse, Museum of Art, University ofMissouri 5 (1971) 202.

The Fourth International Underwater ArchaeologyCongress in Nice, October, 1970, Archaeology 24(1971) 2734.

The Ancient Port of Cosa, Archaeology 23 (1970) 200

11.Excavations at the Roman Port of Cosa, 1968

(abstract), American Journal of Archaeology 73 (1969)241.

The Underwater Archaeology Conference in Miami,Archaeology 20 (1967) 3023.

Maria SS. di Altomare. An Early Hellenistic Ship-wreck Near Taranto (abstract), American Journal ofArchaeology 70 (1966), 192.

Reviews:

The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies inArchaeology and History, Memoirs of the AmericanAcademy in Rome 36 (1980), edited by J. H. DArmsand E.C. Kopff, in American Journal of Archaeology 87(1983), 925, with E. L. Will.

Die Portrts des Septimius Severus by Dirk Soechting, inAmerican Journal of Archaeology 78 (1974), 2068.

Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck by G. Bass,Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57.8(1967), in American Journal of Archaeology 74 (1970)1056.

Archaeology Underwater by G. Bass, in Archaeology 21(1968) 723.

The Antikythera Shipwreck Reconsidered by G. Weinberget al., in American Journal of Archaeology 71 (1967) 106.

xxii

Abbreviations

Abbreviations of journals and standard reference works are those followed in the American Journal of Archaeology,with the following additions:

AAA Atlas archologique de lAlgrie

CLE Carmina Latina Epigraphica

Consp. Conspectus Formarum Terrae Sigillatae Italico Modo Confectae

CVArr Corpus Vasorum Arretinorum

Fittschen-Zanker I K. Fittschen and P. Zanker, Katalog der rmischen Portrts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom I (1985)

Fittschen-Zanker III K. Fittschen and P. Zanker, Katalog der rmischen Portrts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom III (1983)

ILA Inscriptions latines de lAlgrie

ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectas

OED Oxford English Dictionary

RCRF Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum

Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade 61

Chapter 6

Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator ofOpenness to Trade

Archer Martin

Introduction

The value of pottery studies has long been recognizedas a source of dating for archaeological contexts. Morerecently much has been done with quantitative studiesof the various classes traded interregionally toelucidate patterns of commerce. Less work has beencarried out on whole pottery assemblages and whatthey can say about the nature of the contexts in whichthey were deposited and generally about the siteswhere they were found.

The focus of this paper is precisely on variation inpottery assemblages. There are various factors of anarchaeological nature according to which they couldvary: how they were deposited, when they date, wherethey are located. In this study I want to compareassemblages of a similar nature (fills) and date (c. AD400450) but of dissimilar location. Another factoraffecting reported data derives from differences incompetence and methods of classifying and quanti-fying pottery from one project to another. However, asI am responsible, wholly in three cases and to a largeextent in the other, for the finds processing on whichthis study is based, the risk of the last factor beingimportant is minimized.1

I have chosen three sites along the navigable stretchof the Tiber and one above a tributary valley to seewhat differences one can observe in the compositionof the assemblages as one proceeds away from thenetwork of sea-borne trade up the Tiber and thenleaves it altogether. The sites examined are: Ostia, theport at the mouth of the Tiber; Rome, the destinationof enormous flows of goods both from overseas andfrom upriver; Lugnano in Teverina, a site on the slopesof the Tiber valley about 100 km upstream from Romewhere river ports of the Roman period are known;Chianciano Terme, in the hill country of southernTuscany, above the Chiana valley, which is quite aninland area in Italian terms. Ostia with its facilities in

the river mouth and its two artificial harbors north ofthere was, of course, one of the major ports of theRoman world.2 Rome had harbor facilities along thebanks of the Tiber to receive goods coming upriverfrom Ostia and Portus and down from the upper Tibervalley.3 The Tiber above Rome was navigable inantiquity and later, with river ports identified aboveand below Lugnano at Castiglione in Teverina and atSeripola near Orte.4 Chianciano Terme, known for itscurative waters even in antiquity, lies on a hillside 7or 8 km above the Chiana, then a tributary of theTiber, which appears to have had limited navigation:5

Pliny (HN 3.5.53) indicates that boats could use theChiana when water collected in sluices for nine dayswas released, an operation more relevant to down-stream traffic than upstream. These assemblages, fromsites whose positions with regard to the overseas tradenetwork are clear, thus constitute a test case. They canprovide the beginning of a sample against which tocompare other assemblages to determine the positionof sites where it is not clear.

First, I consider the functional groups that make upthe assemblages. Are there differences in the relativepercentages of functional groups that reflect theassemblages position along the line up the Tiber andinto the hills? A few words are necessary on thedefinition of the functional groups. Amphorae areclearly defined: jars used for transporting liquid orsemi-liquid agricultural produce (in particular wineand oil but also sauces and preserves). In their primaryuse they are of interest merely as containers for thegoods they held, although they could then be recycledin the domestic setting as vessels in their own right forstoring and carrying. Lamps are also easily dis-tinguished as instruments for illumination by meansof a wick and oil. Cooking wares require fabrics capableof resisting thermal shock because of their inclusions.Problems of distinction can arise when such fabrics areused for other purposes. Fine wares are considered to

Archer Martin62

be vessels used at the table whose production needsmore than average equipment (e.g., molds or kilns forindirect firing): typically black-gloss pottery, sigillataand red-slip ware appearing in standardized shapes.There can be some uncertainty about where to drawthe line at the lower end of the spectrum: thus I haveincluded the occasional lead-glazed vessel butexcluded color-coated wares and thin-walled pottery,the former because they normally appear in the samefabrics as the local common wares and the latterbecause of the risk of creating artificial divisionsbetween vessels of similar forms in imported fabricsand local common ware ones. Common wares consistof the vast range of vessels used in the household foruses other than cooking, illumination or the upperrange of service at the table: they are thus mostlyvessels for storing and preparing food and otherproducts, with the possible difficulties in recognitionand definition already mentioned for either end of therange.6

Second, I am interested in the provenience of thewares that make up the functional groups. From wheredid the assemblages receive the products that makeup the various functional groups? Once again, are theredifferences that reflect geographical location withregard to trade networks? Particularly, is there anarrowing of the supply area from the seaport to theinland site?

Ostia

In 1989 excavations were carried out under the floorof the Casone del Sale at Ostia, the Renaissancebuilding that houses the site museum. Under thelayers and structures associated with the early modernperiod, layers from two ancient phases came to light:a fill layer in which a series of dolia was embedded andanother that covered the area after the dolia wereremoved. The first provided a sample of 1585 frag-ments of pottery belonging to a maximum of 1581vessels.7 It can be dated no earlier than the fifth centurybecause of the presence of 22 sherds of Carthage LateRoman Amphora 5 and of one example each of theAfrican red-slip ware vessels Hayes 91B, now datedfrom 400/420, and Hayes 61.26, also probably notproduced before the beginning of the fifth century.8

Although there is some decidedly residual material,most of the datable pottery has beginning dates in thethird or fourth century and final dates in the fourth orfifth or possibly later.

Amphorae constitute by far the largest group in thesample, with nearly two-thirds of the total: figure 6.1.Common wares, with less than one quarter, make upthe next most important group. Cooking wares follow,at more than 7%. Fine wares, at just above 2%, aredecidedly less significant. Lamps are a minimalpercentage of the sample.

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Fig. 6.1 Ostia Casone del Sale.

Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade 63

The fine wares are represented by 37 African red-slip pieces from a maximum of 35 vessels and by oneItalian sigillata fragment. The Italian sigillata isresidual, as are the ten African red-slip A pieces froma maximum of nine vessels and at least part of thesixteen African red-slip C sherds.

Common wares amount to rather less than aquarter of the sample. Unslipped pieces (298) of asingle fabric, undoubtedly of local origin, make upmore than three-quarters of them. Sixty-five unslippedsherds (17.02%) belong to another local fabric. Justover 3% of the common wares is accounted for byeleven slipped fragments in the same fabric as themain unslipped one. Two slipped sherds in anotherfabric are probably also local or regional. The onlyundoubted imports are six residual fragments ofAegean thin-walled pottery.

Cooking wares, with 117 sherds of a maximum of116 vessels, account for just over 7% of the sample.They are of various origins: regional to the area aroundRome, Campanian, African and Aegean. The Cam-panian group certainly, and the Aegean in all like-lihood, are to be considered residual. The first (comingto over 8%) consists mostly of internal red-slip frag-ments. The Aegean pieces (nearly 10%) are all un-identifiable. Thus, the market at Ostia in the fifthcentury was divided between African and regionalproducts. There are two regional fabrics, making upsomewhat more than 40% of the cooking wares.African vessels make up a nearly equal percentage.The vessels attested could almost all be contemporarywith the formation of the context in that the dates oftheir production reach the fifth century.

The four lamp fragments are all of central Italianorigin. They are unidentifiable typologically andtherefore impossible to date.

Amphorae are attested by 1044 sherds (a maximumof 1043 vessels) of Italian, Iberian, African, Aegeanand unknown origin. Italy is of some importance, with116 fragments or 11.11 % of the amphorae from centralItaly and 29 or 2.78% from Calabria and Sicily. Thelatter should, however, be considered overseas importsin that they arrived by ship, while the former areresidual pieces. Iberia is almost equally well rep-resented, with 107 sherds (just over 10%), which are,however, all residual. The two largest groups comefrom the Aegean (247 fragments or 23.8%) and Africa(470 fragments or 44.3%). The first group is accountedfor largely by fragments of Kapitn I or II (199), withsome belonging to Carthage Late Amphorae 3, 4 and 5,all amphorae in production until ca. 400 or later. Mostof the African sherds are undiagnostic. The identifiablepieces are a mixture of some residual types (Schne-Mau XXXV, Tripolitana I and II) and a rather larger

number of ones potentially contemporary with theformation of the deposit (Africana II, Keay XXV andXXXII). There are 41 fragments of unknown origin or3.93% of the amphorae.

There is good reason to think that the sample isgenerally typical of Ostia at this time. Excavations atthe suburban church of Pianabella have given a similarspectrum.9 Between 1998 and 2001 a joint project ofthe American Academy in Rome and the DeutschesArchologisches Institut Rom carried out sondages invarious parts of the unexcavated areas of the city,discovering, among others, several small fifth centurycontexts that give similar percentages.10 Differencesconcern wares of minor importance. On the one hand,the occasional piece of central Tiber red-slip ware isfound alongside the imported fine wares, and on theother, products from both the Aegean and North Africacomplemented the local or regional common wares atleast up to the fifth century (trilobate jugs in the firstcase and mortaria and pitchers in the second).11 Lampswere also imported to Ostia from North Africa at thetime,12 although none appears in this sample.

Roma (S. Stefano Rotondo)

A fill layer underneath the chapel of St. Primus andSt. Felicianus in the church of S. Stefano Rotondo waspartially excavated in 1987, giving rise to a sample of1980 sherds belonging to a maximum of 1961 vessels.13

It could be dated to the early years of the fifth centuryon the basis of the decorative stamp on an Africanred-slip D base sherd, as well as two fragments ofCarthage Late Roman 1 amphorae. Various otheramphora and African red-slip fragments that firstappear during the fourth century were found. Thereis some clearly residual material, but the majority ofthe datable pieces was in production until the fourthor fifth centuries. In further work carried out invarious seasons during the 1990s on the south side ofthe church two great fill layers were distinguished,with ephemeral structures on the surface of the lowercovered by the upper. The fill discovered in 1987appears to be equivalent to the lower one on the southside, where further raising of the level must have beenneeded because of the natural slope of the Caelian.14

Amphorae make up by far the most importantgroup at S. Stefano, with 1450 sherds of a maximumof 1444 vessels (nearly three-quarters of the total): fig.6.2. Next most important is the cooking ware, whichaccounts for 248 sherds from no more than 242 vessels(ca. one-eighth of the sample). Common wares areslightly less significant in the sample: 195 fragmentsfrom a maximum of 191 vessels (just under 10%). Finewares are attested by 67 sherds from no more than 64

Archer Martin64

vessels (somewhat more than 3%). The least importantgroup consists of 20 fragments of as many lamps,which amounts to just over 1%.

The fine wares are of Italian, Eastern, North Africanand unknown origin. The few pieces of Italian sigillataand Eastern Sigillata A and the better representedAfrican red-slip ware A and A/D sherds are allresidual, as is a piece of lead-glazed ware from centralItaly. Much of the African red-slip ware C could becontemporary with the formation of the context oronly slightly earlier. The African red-slip ware Dfragment has, of course, been mentioned for itsimportance in determining the date of the deposit.One fragment each of two miscellaneous wares is ofuncertain origin, in one case perhaps imported fromthe Aegean.

The common wares are all of regional production.They consist of unslipped vessels (mostly in a singlefabric of clearly local origin), color-coated vessels (inthe same fabric as most of the unslipped specimens)and two residual fragments of thin-walled pottery.

There are cooking wares from six origins. The mostimportant is made up of sherds of two local fabrics,accounting for 142 pieces from a maximum of 137vessels or ca. 57% of the total cooking ware. Fourmore pieces (together somewhat less than 2%) are

attributed to Italian origins: three residual Pompeian-red ware sherds from Campania and another fragmentof unknown Italian provenance. African cooking wareis the most important one from outside Italy: 91fragments from no more than 90 vessels or ca. 37% ofthe total. Ten fragments of Aegean origin make upjust over 4%. There is finally a sherd of unknownorigin.

Lamps are represented in the sample by 19 frag-ments of more or less local origin (two possibleimitations of African types and 17 probably attribut-able to Loeschcke VIII) and one unidentifiable Africanspecimen. They are thus all contemporary with theformation of the context or slightly earlier.

The sample contains amphorae of Italian, Iberian,Gaulish, African, Eastern and unknown origin. Withjust over 70% of the sample (1028 sherds from amaximum of 1023 vessels), African amphorae are farmore important than all the others put together.Iberian and Eastern amphorae make up somethingless than 5% each (72 and 66 sherds respectively),although the Iberian sherds are to a large extentresidual and the Eastern ones mostly contemporarywith the context or even significant in dating it. Italianamphorae account for little of the sample, with lessthan 1.5% (22 sherds of a maximum of 21 vessels),

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Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade 65

although some more could be hidden among the 261(18%) of unknown origin. Most of the Italian sherdsare from Calabria and Sicily: seven specimens of KeayLII and nine undiagnostic body sherds that probablycome from the same type. Spello amphora sherdsaccount for the others.

This context has already been seen to fit into thepicture offered by other Roman contexts of slightlyearlier and somewhat later dates.15 It is also useful toconsider a more recent publication of a very largecontext dating to about a century earlier, as it paysparticular attention to fabrics and proveniences andgives some attestations of pottery not found at S.Stefano Rotondo.16 Among fine wares it shows thepresence of a Central Tiber red-slip ware alongsidethe African red-slip wares.17 There are also importedcommon wares from southern Italy or northernTunisia18 and from northern or central Tunisia.19

Lugnano in Teverina (Poggio Gramignano)

The Period V loci, which constituted the fill of themain rooms of the villa in which an infant cemeterywas installed,20 contained 10,543 fragments of potterythat belong to a maximum of 9553 vessels.21 The mostrecent finds: African red-slip D types Hayes 76 and

82A,22 amphora type Keay LVIIC23 and lamp typeBailey S, group I,24 indicate that the fill was depositedin the mid-fifth century, although there is a con-siderable amount of earlier material.

The most important of the five functional groups inPeriod V loci at Poggio Gramignano is cooking vessels,with nearly half of the sherd count and rather overthat of the maximum number of vessels (fig. 6.3).25

Amphorae are in second place, with just over one-thirdof the sample. Next come the plain wares at ca. one-tenth. Fine wares diverge in importance by sherd countand maximum vessel count because of the largenumber of joins, but they are in fourth place eitherway. Last are the lamps, with a fraction of a percentage.

The fine wares attested are: black-gloss ware, Italiansigillata, African red-slip ware and central Tiber red-slip ware (sigillata chiara italica). Regional productionis very important. Central Tiber red-slip ware accountsfor ca. two-thirds of the fine ware. The first two classes,many centuries older than the context, are representedby small quantities. It is uncertain whether they shouldbe considered regional products or ones brought fromelsewhere in central Italy, as the black-gloss ware hasparallels in that part of central Italy and Italiansigillatas production area includes the Tiber valleynorth of Rome. Overseas supply of fine wares at

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Archer Martin66

Lugnano was more than episodic but far fromdominant, at somewhat less than one-fifth of themaximum number of fine ware vessels. African red-slip ware A, A/D and to a large extent C are residual,while the African red-slip ware D is contemporarywith the formation of the context or only slightly older.

The common wares are represented mainly bycolor-coated and painted vessels, with only a relativelysmall quantity of unslipped vessels and some thin-walled pottery. The examples of color-coated andpainted pottery all belong to a fabric group consideredlocal or regional. The unslipped fragments areattributed to four fabrics, the most important of whichis local, while the others come from the wider region(the area of the Central Apennines-Latium and thearea between the right bank of the Tiber and the sea).No opinion is expressed about the origin of the thin-walled fabric, although its description corresponds ingeneral to the local and regional wares.

The cooking wares are also divided into variousfabrics, all of which can be referred to the area of theCentral Apennines-Latium or to the area between theright bank of the Tiber and the sea. They are thereforealso all local or regional in the wider sense.

The lamps are almost all of generically centralItalian origin. These may not be strictly local orregional but cannot have been brought from far away.The exceptions are of unidentified, possibly importedorigin: a Firmalampe (not northern Italian) and aBailey S(iv) lamp.

The amphorae came from five areas of theMediterranean: Italy, the Iberian peninsula, Gaul,North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, with afew of unknown origin. The most important group,with two-thirds of the estimated number of amphorae,is from Africa. It consists mostly of unidentifiable bodysherds. The identifiable pieces date in a few cases tothe early and mid-Roman periods but largely to thelate Roman or even Vandal periods. The next mostimportant group, which should be examined in itssubdivisions, is made up of Italian amphorae. Spelloand Empoli amphorae, made between the Tibervalley and the Tyrrhenian coast up to about 300 in thefirst case and into the fifth century in the second,make up almost one-fifth of the amphorae. Importsfrom Calabria and Sicily (Keay LII amphorae andsherds in the same fabric), which were produced fromthe early fourth to the late fifth century and beyond,are of little importance at Lugnano, with less than 1%.Classic amphorae of central Tyrrhenian Italy, (Dressel1, Dressel 24 and unidentified amphorae sherds withthe relevant fabrics), which are residual pieces ofcenturies earlier, come to nearly 7%. Iberianamphorae, mostly residual but in a few cases con-

temporary with the deposit, which are of variousproveniences within the peninsula, account for justover 3%. Eastern amphorae, which are interestingbecause most of them could be contemporary withthe formation of the context, come to somewhat under2%. The Gaulish sherds are both residual and of littleimportance (under 1%).

There is scarce comparative material for thisassemblage. Earlier archaeological excavations on thesame site were carried out following clandestinedigging.26 Various layers were found, some of whichwere compromised by the unauthorized activity. Thelimited quantities of pottery from these layers,published together, show a similar range of material:Italian sigillata, African red-slip ware A, C and D andItalian red-slip ware; local common and cookingwares; a lamp fragment; amphorae mostly from Africawith some from Iberia and from the region (Spellotype). From a villa site at Alviano a few km. north ofLugnano an assemblage has been published thatderives from trenches dug to plant grapevines, mostlycutting through the fill layers overlying the villa, aswell as some construction phases of the building.27

Although most of it is not stratified, the materialcollected gives some idea of the wares that arrivedthere: fine wares in some quantity (black-gloss ware,Italian sigillata, African red-slip ware A, C and D),common wares, cooking wares (including two frag-ments of African cooking ware), amphorae (from Italy,Spain and Africa) and several lamp fragments. ThePeriod V assemblage at Poggio Gramignano is thusprobably a representative sample.

Chianciano Terme (Mezzomiglio)

At the site of Mezzomiglio at Chianciano Terme, apool, first part of a spa complex and then a wateringhole, was gradually abandoned and filled in throughthe discarding of material beside the central section ofthe pool kept open as a source of water (Period 6).28

The context yielded 1597 sherds from a maximum of1103 vessels. The best evidence for its dating is itsstratigraphic position above the Period 5 contexts,which date to no earlier than the second half of the 4thcentury because of the presence of Hayes 67 amongthe African red-slip D ware.29 Among the Period 6material two Hayes 50A/Lamboglia 40 vessels and aHayes 50A/Lamboglia 40 bis vessel in African red-slip ware C are slightly older than that.30 The spatheia/Keay XXVI spikes among the African amphorae mustalso date from the fourth century or later.31 There aresome clearly residual pieces, although most are noteasily datable.

Common wares are by far the most important group

Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade 67

at Mezzomiglio, with more than two-thirds of thesherds and more than four-fifths of the estimatedvessels (fig. 6.4). Amphorae are the next mostimportant group, with approximately one-sixth of thesherds, although less than half that by estimatedvessels. The cooking wares constitute the only othergroup significant by both sherd count and estimatedvessel count, although they make up well under 10%.The relatively good showing of the fine wares by sherdcount is negated by the estimated vessel count, whilelamps amount to little either way.

There are only six examples of fine ware in thesample at Mezzomiglio, aside from an intrusive post-mediaeval glazed piece. Three are residual: a black-gloss fragment in a micaceous, local or regional fabricand two Italian sigillata sherds. The other three are theAfrican red-slip C vessels already mentioned, re-composed of many fragments. These vessels accountfor somewhat more than half a percent. If, unlikeelsewhere, one classifies the color-coated and bur-nished wares at Chianciano as fine wares, the grouprises to 3.17%, i.e., to a value within the range for finewares in the other three samples, suggesting that thesemore refined common wares substitute for fine wareshere.

Well over 90% of the estimated common ware

vessels present an unslipped, micaceous fabric. Thesame fabric appears in color-coated and burnishedversions. If the surfaces of many vessels were lesscorroded, there might be more of these wares: how-ever, as fragments with the slightest trace of slip orburnish were counted here, only those that haveentirely lost their surface treatment could have beenerroneously attributed to unslipped common ware.The slips range from a light wash that tends todisappear, which is more frequent, to a solid coatingrecalling black-gloss or red-slip ware. There were alsoseveral vessels in a micaceous opus-doliare fabricequivalent to the main common ware fabric. Only twovessels (vasetti ovoidi e piriformi) had a non-micaceousfabric presumably derived from somewhere else incentral Italy.

The cooking vessels all present the same micaceousfabric. It obviously corresponds to the main commonware fabric but with more inclusions.

Lamps are represented by two fragments. They arein a non-micaceous, presumably central Italian fabric.

Most of the amphorae are of local or regional origin.More than 90% of them consist of Spello andEmpoli amphorae in a micaceous fabric similar tothat of the main common ware fabric, while an un-identified fragment is in the same fabric and another

Fig. 6.4 Chianciano Period 6.

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unidentified piece in the opus-doliare fabric. Non-localcentral Italian amphorae are two unidentifiable pieces.Africa accounts for the rest: three spatheia/Keay XXVI,an Africana II/Keay IVVII , Tripolitana I and two un-identifiable sherds. The first type is contemporary withthe formation of the context, as we have seen, and theend of the seconds production range reaches up to it,while the third is residual.32

There is no very useful material to which to comparethis context. At Mezzomiglio itself the other latecontexts gave a similar range of material to Period 6.The material from the early contexts is too scanty toallow much to be said, while some imported earlyRoman finds from unstratified contexts hint that asomewhat wider range of fine wares and amphoraemay have arrived then. Little Roman pottery has beenpublished from the vicinity of Chianciano, none lateRoman in date.33 The material in the fill of a cistern atChiusi, a selection of which is presented, ranges in datefrom the sixth century BC to the end of the first centuryAD, with black-gloss ware, Italian sigillata, lamps,common wares, cooking wares and amphorae fromItaly, Spain and Africa.34 There is also mention of Italiansigillata fragments from Chiusi, for the most partdecontexualized pieces with potters stamps.35 Italiansigillata is considered a massive presence at an

excavation site at Montepulciano, where once again aselection has been presented.36 Pottery production sitesof late Republican and early Imperial date have beenfound in the area: for black-gloss ware near Chiusi37

and for Italian sigillata near Torrita di Siena north ofChianciano.38 Excavations and survey work inconnection with the latter brought to light not onlysigillata produced at the kilns but also amphorae,lamps, color-coated wares, common wares andcooking wares. The picture of almost total local self-sufficiency drawn from the Period 6 material atChianciano could be a function of its later date, as theremay have been more goods circulating in the area inearlier times than there were in the fifth century. It isalso possible that sites closer to the water courses mayhave received more imported goods than hill sites.

Discussion

Functional Groups

Observation of the trends traceable in these fourassemblages suggests that the composition of assem-blages by functional group does reflect the geo-graphical location of the sites (fig. 6.5). Ostia and Romepresent relatively similar patterns. Lugnanos diverges

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Fig. 6.5 Functional groups at all four sites (estimated vessels).

Variation in Ceramic Assemblages as an Indicator of Openness to Trade 69

significantly from them, and Chiancianos is com-pletely different.

Logically, amphorae, as containers for trade goods,are the most indicative among the functional groupsof how well a site was tied into the trade network. Wesee that they account for well over two-thirds of thetotal at Ostia and Rome. They drop to about one-thirdat Lugnano and to not quite 8% at Chianciano.

Fine wares show some sensitivity to change fromone site to another. They remain fairly steady fromOstia to Rome and then to Lugnano, between some-thing over 2% and just above 4%, but fall off to wellunder 1% at Chianciano. The figures for the first threesites suggest that where existing regional and inter-regional trade patterns gave access to fine wares theywill be represented in similar proportions, which areprobably linked to the function they fulfill. The greatdrop in the percentage of fine wares at Chiancianoargues that where such trade connections did not existfor other reasons the demand for fine wares was notsufficient to call them into being: other products,undoubtedly to a large extent those at the more refinedend of the common ware spectrum, filled the need.The rise in percentage at Rome with respect to Ostiaand Lugnano is suggestive, but it would be unwise tomake any further considerations on such a slight

statistical basis as this.The variation in the common wares (falling from

nearly 23% at Ostia to under 10% at Rome andLugnano but rising again nearly 90% at Chianciano)and the cooking wares (rising from somewhat over7% at Ostia to over 12% at Rome and then steeply toalmost 53% at Lugnano but falling back to less than7% at Chianciano) is not readily explicable. It maysimply be the result of chance in the choice of thesamples. It could also well be that vessels in cooking-ware fabrics at Lugnano served some of the purposescovered by common wares at Rome and Ostia. It istherefore probably more instructive to trace the rise ofthe combined percentages of common and cookingwares from about 30% and 22% at Ostia and Rome tojust above 63% at Lugnano and more than 91% atChianciano. Their combined percentages at Lugnanoand especially at Chianciano rise undoubtedly becauseof the lesser number of amphorae arriving there. Therise in these wares at Chianciano is mostly caused bytheir taking over functions covered elsewhere by finewares. It is also possible that common wares atChianciano were being used for domestic purposes instoring and carrying that were fulfilled elsewhere byrecycled amphorae. The discovery of amphoraealongside domestic wares in the pool area, which had

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Archer Martin70

been transformed into a watering hole, suggests thatsuch amphorae as arrived at Chianciano were thenused as water carriers.

The least significant group statistically, lamps, isonly slightly responsive to the geographic variable.They range from a fraction of a percent or to littlemore than 1% at most. This groups frequency isprobably determined mostly by the need for itsfunction. Once again, as in the case of the fine wares,the peak at Rome is interesting but requires con-firmation from further cases before one can draw anyconclusions.

After seeing that the assemblages at all four sitesvary particularly with regard to amphorae, it isinstructive to compare the assemblages excludingamphorae from the calculation of the percentages (fig.6.6). In this case the patterns at all four sites are muchmore similar, suggesting that basic household needsfor pottery are relatively constant regardless oflocation. Common and cooking wares then have muchless variation, from more than 92% at Ostia, to a lowof just under 84% at Rome, back up to close to 94% atLugnano and to above 99% at Chianciano. Lampsremain of little importance: still well under 1% atOstia, Lugnano and Chianciano, although they cometo somewhat under 4% at Rome. The greatest variationis in fine wares, which go from nearly 7% at Ostia toover 12% at Rome and back to somewhat above 6% atLugnano and then down to 0.64% at Chianciano.

Proveniences

Narrowing the focus from the functional groupswithout internal differentiation to consider theprovenience of the wares that make up the groups atthe various sites, one sees other evidence of reactionto the openness toward trade.

For amphorae one sees a decrease in overseascontainers and an