a manual of the excellent man

8/12/2019 A Manual of the Excellent Man

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A Manual of the Excellent Man

Uttamapurisa Dpan

Venerable Ledi SaydawAggamahpaita, D.Litt.


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A Manual of the Excellent ManUttamapurisa Dpan

Venerable Ledi SaydawAggamahpaita, D.Litt.

Translated from the Burmese by

U Tin Oo (Myaung)

Edited by

Bhikkhu Pesala


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Table of Contents

Editors Preface .........................................................................................iiiPreface to the First Edition ........................................................................vThe Venerable Ledi Saydaws Reply .......................................................viPreamble.....................................................................................................1

Chapter OneThe Perfections Defined.............................................................................1The Perfections Explained..........................................................................8The Noblest Aspiration............................................................................13

Chapter TwoSeven Aspects of Materiality to be Perceived..........................................22Seven Aspects of Feeling to be Perceived................................................32Seven Aspects of Perception to be Perceived...........................................35

Seven Aspects of Mental Formations to be Perceived.............................36Seven Aspects of Consciousness to be Perceived.....................................39

Chapter ThreeThe Element of Deliverance.....................................................................59The True Peace of Nibbna......................................................................61

Chapter FourTwo Types of Ordinary Person.................................................................63

Chapter Five

How to be Mindful while Doing a Meritorious Deed...............................65Chapter Six

The Five Mras.........................................................................................69

Chapter SevenHow to Practise the Three Refuges..........................................................76

Chapter EightThe Four Types of Buddhists....................................................................78

Chapter NineThe Four Noble Truths Need to be Understood......................................80Dependent Origination Needs to be Understood....................................81Some Difficult Points in Dependent Origination.....................................92The Four Noble Truths Explained...........................................................99

Chapter TenAn Exhortation Regarding Great Opportunities....................................106

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Editors Preface

For Burmese Buddhists, Venerable Ledi Saydaw needs no introduction,since his fame is legendary. Many Buddhists outside Burma will also have readhis Manuals of Buddhism, or at least extracts from it such as the Maggaga Dpan

or the Bodhipakkhiya Dpan,which are both published by the Buddhist Publica-tion Society. As the name implies, a Dpan is a work that illuminates the subject,so we can call it a manual or an exposition. The Venerable Ledi Saydaw isdeservedly famous for his expositions, of which he wrote more than seventy. Allof them show his deep learning of the Pi texts and commentaries, but this workespecially urges Buddhists not to be content with mere devotion or academiclearning, but to take up insight meditation in earnest to gain penetrativeknowledge of the Noble Truths.

The Venerable Ledi Saydaw was the father of the insight meditationtradition in Burma. Before he became famous, only a few monks practised insightmeditation, and even fewer lay people. He lived during the time of the BritishRaj, when many ignorant Buddhists were converting to Christianity. At thesame time, English scholars were studying Buddhism. The Venerable LediSaydaw replied to some questions in Pi put by Mrs Caroline Rhys Davids, whowas then working on the translation of the Pi texts into English.

The origin of this edition deserves some mention since it has been so long in

coming to print. I think it was in 1991 that James Patrick Stewart-Ross, anAmerican Buddhist, visited me at the Burmese Vihra in Wembley, England andgave me a stack of computer disks, on which were more than thirty voluminousworks by various authors. Many of them were by the Venerable Ledi Saydaw.Mr Ross had spent many years collecting works by famous Burmese Saydawsand had made heroic efforts to get English translations made. While living inThailand, he made many trips into Burma, to search out able translators andtypists to help him with this colossal undertaking.

During the following years, I gradually sifted through the works I had beengiven and picked out a few that seemed most worthy of publication. Among thebest were the Uttamapurisa Dpan and the Dna Dpan,both by the VenerableLedi Saydaw. I edited these two works and printed out a few copies, but I losttouch with Mr Ross. It was not until 1997 that I met him again in Burma.Meanwhile I had had some correspondence with Bhikkhu Bodhi of the BuddhistPublication Society, and he agreed that the Uttamapurisa Dpan was worthpublishing. While in Burma, I worked through the entire book several times,

removing many Pi passages that I thought would be too intimidating for mostmodern readers, and I improved the grammar to the best of my ability. I hope the

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result will be acceptable. Reconciling the need for simplicity with that forauthenticity is difficult, but I have tried to retain the spirit of the authors work.At the same time I hope it will now be easier for the non-Buddhist or newBuddhist to appreciate the Saydaws inspiring teaching, which it should benoted, was addressed specifically to a devout and learned lay Buddhist.

Those who are familiar with the Pi Canon will have no difficulty in follow-ing the thread of the Saydaws arguments, since the sources from which hequotes are quite well known. I have therefore not tried to provide a thorough listof references as I might have done for a more scholarly work. The Saydawscentral theme is that no amount of academic learning will save one from rebirthin the lower realms, or in hell, if the pernicious wrong view of a belief in apermanent self, soul, or ego is not uprooted by the practice of insight meditation.

Several people objected to the frequent references to hell, some said it hadChristian connotations, even my computers grammar checker said it wasoffensive. However, I have resolutely retained it in most places. I think there is littledifference between Buddhism and Christianity (or other religions) on this point. Mostreligions warn of dire consequences for those who do immoral deeds due to their lackof religious faith. If the readers are apprehensive even at the mention of the word, letthem take up the practice of insight meditation to find sure release from the sufferingof hell. Let them practise the real Dhamma of the Buddha by trying to comprehendthe arising and vanishing of phenomena within their own body and mind. TheBuddhist scriptures wholeheartedly endorse the Saydaws opinions, so if you have anydoubts, please refer to the Nakhasikh Sutta, which he quotes.

The 1969 Burmese second edition, which I referred to occasionally, was fullof quotations from the Pi texts, commentaries and subcommentaries. Most othese have been removed, leaving only the English translation, to make the bookmore readable for those who are not scholars. Quotation marks are used, evenwhere the source is not given, to indicate that they are not the Saydaws ownwords. Aphorisms coined by the Syadaw are indicated by a bolder typeface.

In the initial draft, there was some inconsistency in the dates. Workingback from B.E. 1359 (1998) 1261 should have been 1900, not 1899 as stated,and the completion date (of 1262) was given as 1901. So I asked a friend toconsult a 100-year calendar. It turned out that the Saydaw received MaungThaws letter on 9th March, 1900 and completed the work on 28th April, thesame year! (The Burmese New Year begins in April). The Saydaw had indeedbeen burning the midnight oil for an early reply. I have been working on thisedition (among many other works, it must be said) for at least eight years, butthe Saydaw completed it in just seven weeks.

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Preface to the First Edition

More than two thousand years have passed since the Buddha, the Skyanprince who showed the path to nibbna, the founder of the Sagha, the mostexalted and incomparable one, attained parinibbna. The Burmese capital oMandalay has fallen, its king dethroned, and the sun has set on Burma. Thecountry is now ruled (by the British) from London in England, a European land.Now, there is in Mandalay an association founded by a group of moderneducated Burmese. They are conversant in foreign languages and devoted to thediscussion, preservation, and propagation of the Buddhas teaching.

The Honorary Secretary of the association is Maung Thaw, a clerk in theoffice of the Inspector of Schools. A tireless worker, Maung Thaw discussedreligion with various non-Buddhist religious teachers and debated some knottyproblems. He recorded several points raised on those occasions. He wanted anauthoritative decision on the problems, so he approached the VenerableMahvisuddhrma Saydaw, an eminent leader of the Sagha in Mandalay.

This Venerable Saydaw found the questions profound and subtle like theones put by Sakka, Lord of the Tvatisa realm, to the Buddha. He remarkedthat such questions deserved to be tackled by Ledi Saydaw of Monywa, who isnot only learned, but has led an exemplary religious life. He accordingly sent aletter to the Venerable Ledi Saydaw, with Maung Thaws questions, for solution.

Although it was usual for Ledi Saydaw to reply to religious questionsimmediately, on the present questions, received through the VenerableMahvisuddhrma Saydaw, he took time to answer them. He wanted to bethorough. He considered the questions in the light of various arguments,collated authorities on the points he wanted to make, and added his ownillustrations.

He did not merely answer the questions. It was his intention to give apractical course on the development of insight. This alone can root out person-ality view, the ego, the so-called self that has possessed all sentient beingsthroughout sasra. So, here we have an exposition on the Excellent Man(Uttamapurisa) leading to enlightenment along the three stages of comprehen-sion that penetrate the real nature of psychophysical phenomena.

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The Venerable Ledi Saydaws Reply

This is addressed to Maung Thaw.Maung Thaws petition, with the Venerable Mahvisuddhrma Saydaws

endorsement, reached me on the tenth waxing day of Tabaung, 1261 Burmese

Era (9th March, 1900 AD). It contains: i. matters on doctrinal aspects that need to be explained; ii. an expression of your desire to train for the development of insight; iii. a request to show how one may advance from being a blind worldling

to become a wise and virtuous person.A blind worldling (andhaputhujjana) is one who has no eye of knowledge (o

the Dhamma); a virtuous ordinary person (kalyaputhujjana) is one who has theeye of knowledge.

There are four kinds of eyes of knowledge, namely: 1. the eye of right view; 2. the eye of learning or scriptural knowledge; 3. the eye of insight acquired through mental development, which is right

view on the threshold of supramundane knowledge; 4. the eye of right view or supramundane knowledge.

Outside the Buddhas Era, when the teaching of the Buddha has fallen silent,a virtuous person who has developed concentration and has the first right view,

can be called a virtuous ordinary person. However, during the times of theBuddhas teaching (Buddhassana),neither the first nor the second kind makesa virtuous ordinary person. One can be called a virtuous ordinary person only bygaining right view through insight, having understood the elements (dhtu) andthe causative law (paccaya),thus dispelling personality view (sakkyadihi) anddoubt (vicikicch).

Such a person may develop supramundane knowledge, the fourth kind of eye,in this very life. Failing that, he or she may attain to that knowledge in the next

life as a deva.If not, he or she may become a Solitary Buddha when the Buddhasteaching has fallen silent in the world. If one has the foundation for enlighten-ment, one will very easily realize the Dhamma under the teaching of a futureBuddha as a human being or a deva. While the Buddhas teaching is extant (asat the present), only one who attains insight knowledge is called a virtuousordinary person. Meritorious deeds such as almsgiving (dna) and virtue (sla)are not sufficient to deserve that status. Nor is any amount of scriptural learning.This is not a flattering description of a virtuous ordinary person; the scriptures

say so.

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Regarding your request for some cardinal principles in the Buddhas teachingto be borne in mind that can withstand any onslaught by heretics:

If it were only for discussion among our own compatriots, a reference to agood authority would suffice; practical illustrations may not be necessary. How-ever, when it comes to the logician or the practical experimenter, espousing adifferent religion, scriptural authority will not suffice. With such people, cogentexplanations supported by verifiable evidence are necessary to silence them.That being my main consideration, coupled with the Venerable Mah-visuddhrma Saydaws endorsement on your zeal in this field, I have based myanswers to your queries on the Khandhavagga Sayutta.I have elaborated on itso that you can gain a clear grasp of the groundwork of Buddhism. To this end Ihave used plain Burmese. Profuse illustrations are given on abstruse topics forbetter comprehension.

Do not feel that it is thin on Pi quotations. Too many quotations from thetexts, I am afraid, will mar my arguments. With dependence on Pi, it would bedifficult to present a passable lecture, let alone silence the challenge of alienreligions. There is not much point in formal lectures; what is important is toacquire the eye of insight-knowledge. The style is terse because the elucidationof my theme requires direct speech. Perhaps at certain places it might prove tooterse for you. That is because I have been burning the midnight oil for an earlyreply to you.

So, I would ask you first to read it alone. Only if you have followed it, shouldyou show it to others. If you have any stumbling blocks, refer them to theVenerable Mahvisuddhrma Saydaw, and not to anyone else. When KingBimbisra of Rjagaha sent a book on the Dhamma to King Pakkusti of Taxila,he added a warning not to open it in front of others. If you have understood myanswers, wish to preach to others and would like to add quotations, you can askthe Venerable Mahvisuddhrma Saydaw, showing him where you wish toadd them. Otherwise, you may write to me. If there are any points that areunclear to you, write to me without delay.

Ledi Saydaw2nd Waxing day of Kason, 1262 BE29th April, 1900 CE

The Venerable Ledi Saydaws Reply vii


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A Manual of the Excellent ManUttamapurisa Dpan

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammsambuddhassa

Homage to the Exalted One, the Worthy One,The Supremely Enlightened Buddha

Preamble

I shall answer concisely the nine questions posed by Maung Thaw, OfficeClerk of the Inspector of Schools, Mandalay, according to the canonical textsand commentaries, giving my conclusions on doctrinal points.

Chapter OneThe petition sent from Mandalay by Maung Thaw on the tenth waxing day

of Tabaung, 1261 Burmese Era (9th March, 1900) contained nine questions.The first question was about the perfections:

i. Regarding the five aspirants: (i) a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha(sammsambuddha), (ii) a Solitary Buddha (paccekabuddha), (iii) aChief Disciple (aggasvaka), (iv) a Great Disciple (mahsvaka) and,(v) an Ordinary Disciple (pakatisvaka),how does the aspirant fulfilthe perfections (pram) to achieve his respective goal?

ii. May I know the definition, nature, and significance of the tenperfections, with particular reference to an aspirant to SupremeEnlightenment?

The Perfections Defined

In answer to the first question, regarding the definition, nature, and signifi-cance of the perfections, there are these ten perfections.

Dna slaca nekkhammaPa viriya khantcaSaccdhihna mettcaUpekkh pram dasa.

1) Giving (dna),2) morality (sla),3) renunciation (nekkhamma),4) wisdom(pa), 5) energy (viriya), 6) patience (khanti), 7) truthfulness (sacca),8) resolve (adhihna), 9) loving-kindness (mett),10) equanimity (upekkh).

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2 A Manual of the Excellent Man

The Nature of the PerfectionsThe nature of the perfections will be shown by their characteristic

(lakkhaa), function (rasa), manifestation (paccupahna), and proximate

cause (padahna). The ten perfections are mentioned in the CariyapiakaCommentary and the Slakkhandha Subcommentary.

1. Pariccgalakkhaa dna,Deyyadhamma lobhaviddhasanarasa.Ansatta paccupahna,Pariccajitabba vatthu padahna.

Dna: It has the characteristic of generosity; its function is to destroy

attachment to things by giving them away; it is manifested as non-attachmentto things given away; its proximate cause is something in hand that would serveas a gift.

2. Slanalakkhaa sla,Dusslya viddhasanarasa.Soceyya paccupahna,Hir-ottappa padahna.

Sla:It has the characteristic of keeping good bodily and verbal actions; itsfunction is to destroy unwholesome or unruly bodily or verbal actions; it ismanifested as purity of verbal actions; its proximate causes are moral shame(hir) and moral dread (ottappa).

3. Kmato bhavatoca, nikkhamanalakkhaa nekkhamma.Kmabhavdnavavibhvanarasa,Tasseva vimukhabhva paccupahna,Savega padahna.

Nekkhamma: Its characteristic is renouncing sensuality and thereby gainingrelease from becoming; its function is to purify and thus reveal the dangers osensuality and of existence; it is manifested as avoidance of sensual desires; itsproximate cause is a dread of sensuality through farsighted trepidation.

4. Yath sabhva paivedhalakkha pa,Visayobhsanaras.Asammoha paccupahn,

Samdhi padahn.


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The Perfections Defined 3

Pa: It has the characteristic of seeing things in their true nature; itsfunction is to shed light on all objects of sense; it is manifested as non-confusion;its proximate cause is concentration.

5. Usshalakkhaa viriya,Upatthambhanarasa.Asasdana paccupahna,Savega padahna.

Viriya:It has the characteristic of diligence; its function is to brace one up;it is manifested as persistence; its proximate cause is a sense of urgency arisingfrom farsighted trepidation of birth, decay, sickness, death, and all attendant ills.

6. Khamanalakkha khanti,Ihniha sahanaras.Adhivsana paccupahn,Yathbhtadassana padahn.

Khanti:It has the characteristic of tolerance; its function is not to be movedby likes or dislikes; it is manifested as forbearance in the face of the gravestprovocation; its proximate cause is seeing things as they really are.

7. Avisavdanalakkhaa sacca,Yathvavibhvanarasa.Sdhut paccupahna,Soracca padahna.

Sacca:It has the characteristic of not misleading others by ones utterance; itsfunction is to discover the truth as one sees or knows; it is manifested as sweet andagreeable speech; its proximate cause is a sympathetic tenderness towards all.

8. Bodhisambhresu avahna lakkhaa adhihna,Tesa paipakkhbhibhavana rasa.Tattha acalat paccupahna,Bodhisambhra padahna.

Adhihna:It has the characteristic of resolve in undertaking meritoriousdeeds for fulfilling the perfections; its function is to overcome all opposition andobstacles that lie in ones path; it is manifested as firmness in ones stand; itsproximate cause lies in those very meritorious deeds, such as generosity, whenone is practising for perfections.


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9. Hitkrappavatti lakkha mett,Hitpasahra ras.Sommbhva paccupahn,Sattna manpabhva dassana padahn.

Mett: It has the characteristic of promoting the welfare of others; itsfunction is being solicitous of others welfare; it is manifested as a helpfulattitude; its proximate cause is seeing only the good of others.

10. Majjhattkrappavatti lakkha upekkh,Samabhvadassana ras.Paighnunaya vpasama paccupahn,Kammassakat paccavekkha padahn.

Upekkh: It has the characteristic of equanimity in the face of praise andblame; its function is to neutralize ones emotions; it is manifested as impartiali-ty; its proximate cause is the reflective knowledge of ones own past actions.

Dependent and Non-Dependent PerfectionsThe ten perfections can be classed as either dependent or non-dependent.

Dependent perfections may be either dependent on craving or dependent on

wrong views.Something carried out with a desire for a glorious future existenceis said to be done dependent on craving. Something carried out inthe mistaken belief that purification of defilements is achievedthrough morality is said to be done dependent on wrong views.

(Visuddhimagga)

A deed of merit done with a desire for existence in a higher plane or glorious

existence is dependent on craving and is not development of perfections. Here,wishing for human existence to fulfil the perfections, as in the cases of the bodhisat-tas Campeyya and Sakhapla, the two Nga Kings, cannot be called dependent.

Some people think, The practices of charity and morality, or merely takingup the life of an ascetic, are sufficient in themselves for the removal of defile-ments; no further practice exists. They regard their view as perfect. Theysometimes acquire merit, but they totally disregard the need for insight knowl-edge leading to the path and its fruition. Their merit is dependent on wrong

views and does not count as a fulfilment of perfections. Theirs is the type of meritsought after by fakirs. These two kinds of dependent merit keep one trapped inthe cycle of rebirth. They are not called perfections.


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Two Classes of Non-Dependent Merits

There is such a thing as supramundane merit, there is alsomundane merit which serves as a seed for supramundane merit.

(Visuddhimagga)Since Maung Thaws question relates to merit that contributes to the perfec-

tions, supramundane merit need not be discussed; only non-dependent mun-dane types of merit or mundane merit as the basis for the supramundane needbe discussed here.

Only volitional activities such as giving, morality, renunciation, wisdom,energy, patience, truthfulness, resolve, loving-kindness, and equanimity, carried

out with a pure mind and not bent towards a glorious existence hereafter, norinspired by mistaken views, but aimed squarely at the yonder shore oenlightenment, as detached as the open sky, are merits that amount to fulfillingthe perfections.

These days it is quite common to hear such prayers as: May we attainnibbna; for such time as we might not have attained nibbna, for that time maywe be... and so on. Such are the prayers a donor makes at his or her offeringceremony, aspiring for ever higher and more magnificent existences and a grand

vista of worldly attainments in words every bit as pompous as those the head othe Sagha uses when he administers the prayers during the water-pouringceremony. The result is that the word nibbna is heard as a mere faint sounddrowned by a welter of mundane wishes. Furthermore, it is the mundane aspectof the prayers that seems to have the most appeal. For we have such a splendidrange of those wishing words, and what eloquence! In fact it was to discouragethat sort of cat-scratching merit that the emphatic article eva(only) is used inthe passage referred to above: tasseva = tassa + eva(that only is). Only that

kind of mundane merit is what the Buddha approves of.QWould you regard those deeds where the donor wishes for nibbna, with

other mundane attainments, as meritorious deeds?

A Yes. However, I would say that those types of merit do not help to quickenthe time to enlightenment.

Let me illustrate with a few relevant examples.In the dark ages (i.e. when the Buddhas teaching had fallen silent) before the

coming of Vipass Buddha there lived two brothers who were sugarcane planters.The younger of them was to become Jotika, the celebrated rich man. They


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offered sugarcane juice to a Solitary Buddha. The elder brother, in making hiswishes for the merit that would accrue from the gift, said, May I know theDhamma that the Solitary Buddha has known. The younger brother also saidthe same thing, and something more. He added his wishes for glorious existence two common mundane wishes. The elder brother gained enlightenment atthe earliest encounter with a Buddha, in this case Buddha Vipass. As for theyounger brother, because his desire was not nibbna specific but went off at atangent, he missed his chance for enlightenment under the teaching of VipassBuddha. He attained release from existence only under the teaching of GotamaBuddha, after having missed the teachings of six Buddhas.

The moral of the story is this: when you are doing some meritorious deed, donot let craving for future well-being enter your mind. If you allow it, your wishesare bound to become your shackles. For the greater your well-being, the strongeryour craving is likely to be, so that you find yourself dilly-dallying when theopportunity for enlightenment comes. If you aspire just for supramundane meritunencumbered by mundane wishes, then you can probably forsake worldlyglories when you hear the Dhamma. So, Maung Thaw, you should rememberthat when you aspire for human existence it should be only to fulfil the perfec-tions, which are required for enlightenment. However, dont ever let your wisheswander away to mundane attainments or well-being.

There is also the story of Pua, a householder servant of Meaka the richman, who had strong attachment to existence as his masters trusted servant. So,when he wished for the result of his offering to a Solitary Buddha, he opted forservice under his good master in his future existences! Of course his wish wasfulfilled he became his masters servant throughout their remaining exist-ences together.

When Ca Subhadd, the consort of the King of Elephants (the bodhisatta),wished for the result of offering fruits to a Solitary Buddha, she sought revenge onher husband for an imagined slight she had suffered. Her desire was fulfilled in hernext existence as a human queen when she successfully plotted the death of herhusband of the previous existence. This spiteful deed sent her down to hell.

Kusa, the bodhisatta, and his consort, Pabhvat, both made offerings to aSolitary Buddha in one of their past existences. They had to go through a seriesof mishaps together because they made discordant wishes.

These are only a few instances of the life stories of misdirected aspirationwhile doing a deed of merit. Such stories abound in the Jtakas and in historyand folklore. A lot depends on ones mentor too. In the life story of Vidhura, thewise counsellor, we find that of four rich men who offered food to four recluses


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of supernormal attainments in jhnic powers, one became a Nga and one aGaruda, one became a great king and one became Sakka (king of Tvatisaheaven). This is because the first two were given bad counsel from their respec-tive teachers. So, one must take great care in choosing a mentor; bad counselcan bring bitter consequences for ones actions quite undeservedly.

Low, Medium, and Superior Grades of MeritFor each of the ten meritorious practices such as giving, morality, renuncia-

tion, etc., there can be three grades: low, medium, or superior.

A deed undertaken out of desire for fame is low. One undertakenwith desire for the fruits of merit is moderate. One undertaken with

the clear understanding that it is the custom of the Noble Ones issuperior. (Visuddhimagga)

Of the above three grades, the first is done for vanity, all for show. Ithardly brings any merit that could result in future well-being, let alone fulfil anyperfections. The second is motivated by desire for merit. Usually it is done withdiscrimination since the donor selects the most worthy recipient wheneverpossible to gain the greatest merit. This kind of deed brings ample results in themundane spheres, but still does not amount to fulfilling a perfection. The thirdcase is where one sets ones mind on the deed alone, not on its consequences.The donor is guided by a true sense of charity. In fact, one is prepared to shareany of ones possessions with others, for one has no attachment to them. Onerightly follows the practice of the Noble Ones. One does not choose to whom togive. Let anyone come, whether good, bad, or average, one would make somekind of gift. This kind of giving is following the custom of the Noble Ones. It istruly a practice for the perfection of giving. The same spirit of considering thedeed alone, and not its rewards, governs the remaining perfections such asmorality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, etc.

Another way of classifying virtue is as follows:

Virtue observed out of craving for glorious existences and materialwell-being is inferior; virtue observed for ones own release ismoderate; virtue observed to liberate all beings, which is the per-fection of virtue, is superior. (Visuddhimagga)

Release from the cycle of birth and death, and release from the mundaneattainments of glorious existences, mean the same thing. The second grade isregarded as inferior because it falls short of being a practice for perfections.


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Observance for the sake of ones own release is the perfection practised by theSolitary Buddhas and ordinary disciples. Observance for the liberation of allbeings is the perfection practised by Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas.

The Perfections ExplainedI shall now explain the meaning of each of the ten perfections:1. Dna:Giving, making a gift or offering. Sharing ones wealth unstintingly

with virtuous disciples of the Buddha is called sharing, or the practice of commonownership. The bodhisattas practice of making gifts to anyone, virtuous, unvirtu-ous, or moderately virtuous, has already been mentioned. It means that anyonewho calls at ones door for alms receives them. Herein, virtuous disciples meansspecial people who deserve the enjoyment of ones wealth because they will sharethe knowledge of the Dhamma. With respect to such good people, sharing shouldtake the form of respectful offerings after careful preparation.

2. Sla: There are two kinds of morality; avoidance of the three bodilymisdeeds and the four verbal misdeeds (vrittasla); and cultivating virtuoushabits (crittasla).The latter means paying respect (apacyana) to the Buddha,Dhamma, and Sagha, and to parents, teachers, and those senior in age, status,or morality; or helping anyone with a meritorious deed as if it were ones ownundertaking (veyyvacca).

3. Nekkhamma: Renunciation is undertaken with a strong volition onon-greed, therefore it is a meritorious deed. Even if a householder strives todispel greed by contemplating the repulsiveness of the body or the loathsome-ness of food, it amounts to renunciation, which is meritorious. If one can domore, one may go to a solitary retreat for the same purpose. If one can go a stepfurther, one may become a recluse or, still better, a bhikkhu. Even better, onemay take up the practice of concentration and gain the first jhna. Better thanthis, one may develop insight to attain the path of non-returning. All these arethe meritorious deeds of renunciation.

4. Pa: Wisdom is of two kinds, mundane and supramundane. Learningthe Tipiaka, and teaching it to others, undertaken to fulfil the perfection owisdom, is supramundane. Teaching others the harmless sciences of astrology,incantations, recitation of verses, medicine, science; or the arts, such asmechanics, mathematics, painting, sculpture, metalwork, masonry, gold-smithery, ironmongery, etc., or honest ways of trade and agriculture and allsuch blameless vocations, are mundane. All these three categories, if impartedto others in a noble spirit as perfection directed acts, are the practice of theperfection of wisdom.


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The Perfections Explained 9

5. Viriya: Energy is supreme if it conforms to the four right efforts(sammappadna). Besides this, exerting ones utmost strength with a puremotive to help others, whether one is capable or not, also amounts to theperfection of energy.

6. Khanti:Patience is tolerating others and bearing unpleasant experiencessuch as cold and heat. The Buddha says, Bearing the severity of cold, or bearingthe severity of heat, thus one has patience. The Buddha goes on to explainpatience in various other ways. The underlying quality of patience is placidity inthe face of internal or external unpleasant experiences, coupled with fortitude.A man of patience does not allow anyone or anything to put the grit in themachine. Come wind, come foul weather, he goes about his meritoriousroutine, not with hedonistic indifference, but with an imperturbable heart,devoid of ill-will. The presence of such a tolerant frame of mind is patience.

7. Sacca:Truthfulness means avoidance of untruth and falsehood under allcircumstances.

8. Adhihna:Resolve is the firmness of ones stand after one has commit-ted oneself to something, whether expressed or not.

9. Mett: Loving-kindness means wishing others well, with a heart filledwith goodwill towards any being that one comes across.

10.Upekkh: Equanimity is the quality of being strictly impartial to bothwell-wishers and adversaries alike. One does not behave partially towards onesbenefactors. Neither does one harbour any resentment towards ones detractors.This evenness of attitude toward both the kind and the unkind is the essence oequanimity.

Here are a few similes to drive home the significance of the perfections.Patience and equanimity are the mainstay for the other perfections. Only whenone has established these two can one expect to fulfil the rest. Just as a newborninfant can only survive with the care of its parents, the remaining eight perfec-tions can only be fulfilled under the constant care of patience and equanimity.Patience may be likened to the mother and equanimity to the father.

If patience and equanimity are present, and the other good deeds are forthcom-ing under their benign influence, if there is an absence of renunciation, these gooddeeds will not properly become perfections. Lacking the guidance of renunciation,one is liable to be overcome by attachment to the merit derived from them andyearn for mundane benefits. Then the meritorious deeds merely prolong rebirthbecause they are dependent on existence. They do not then qualify as perfections.Therefore, if patience and equanimity are the parents, renunciation should becalled the family doctor who takes care of the childs health.


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To employ a different simile: all vegetation depends on soil and water for itssurvival; both must be favourable. Similarly, patience provides the favourablesoil, and equanimity the favourable water, for the remaining perfections.

Equanimity in the present context is slightly different from the equanimity othe four divine abidings (brahmavihra), which signifies impartiality to thewelfare of all beings (different from being uninterested). Equanimity as perfec-tion is evenness of mind regarding one who worships you and one who condemnsor persecutes you and, further, being able to seek the welfare of both.

How the Perfections are Practised TogetherIn one of the innumerable existences of the bodhisatta, he was born as a

monkey chieftain. A brahmin lost his way in the forest and fell into a chasm thatwas as deep as the height of a hundred men. Seeing his plight, the bodhisattatook pity on him and exerted himself to rescue him. Eventually, the brahmin wascarried up onto safe ground. The bodhisatta was, by then, quite exhausted, so hefell asleep, unsuspectingly, on the brahmins lap. The brahmin thought tohimself, Ive earned nothing today. My wife is going to be upset when I gethome. What a delightful idea if I were to bring home monkey flesh. How pleasedmy wife would be! Satisfied with his bright idea, the brahmin took up a stonelying nearby and dealt a blow to the monkeys head. It was such a vicious blowthat blood gushed out of the wound in all directions. Stupefied and covered inblood, the bodhisatta leapt up into a tree. He could not believe that such a thingcould happen! Oh, there are such people in this world. Then the thought cameto his mind how to lead the man home safely, for the forest was full of leopards,tigers, and other dangerous animals. He said to the brahmin, Now you shouldbe starting for home. I must show you the way out of this forest, but I cannottrust you. You can follow the trail of my blood as I jump from tree to tree. So,in this way the brahmin got home safely.

In this Jtaka it will be seen that loving-kindness was the first of the tenperfections that the bodhisatta practised. When he saw the plight of the brahminhe took pity on him as if he were his own son and started thinking of how to savehim. Assessing the situation and devising a plan to take the brahmin out fromthe chasm was wisdom. Executing the plan at great risk to himself, and using allhis strength, was the practice of energy. In bearing the deadly injury that hadbroken his skull, without getting angry, he exercised great patience. Without ithe would have left the ungrateful man, thereby rendering all his efforts futile.Not allowing himself to be overcome by anger for such a wicked deed was thepractice of equanimity. Had he not been firm in the practice of equanimity, he


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The Three Grades of Perfections 11

might have left off there, and the heartless brahmin would not have survivedlong. Indeed the two principal perfections of patience and equanimity sawthrough the whole undertaking.

Saving the brahmin from such a deep chasm at the risk of his life amountedto sacrifice of his life or generosity. Again, saving the brahmins life was the giftof life. Not even uttering a curse, and never raising his hand to strike back,constituted morality. In doing this noble deed the bodhisatta never thoughtabout the merit he would gain. That was renunciation, the ability to forsake allforms of existence. For attachment to a better life hereafter is generally strongenough to spoil the perfection of renunciation. By not going back on his word tosave the brahmin, the bodhisatta accomplished truthfulness not very easy tokeep under the circumstances. Lastly, fulfilling his commitment without waver-ing in spite of the brahmins shocking treatment, was resolve. This was how thebodhisatta successfully practised the ten perfections in a single undertaking.

Regarding your particular interest in the aspiration to Buddhahood, this is afairly wide subject. The detailed process of laying the foundation for the aspira-tion to, and the fulfilment of, Perfect Enlightenment is dealt with in the scrip-tures in fifteen catechisms. Only a brief account will be given here. For a widerknowledge on it, please see the Cariypiaka Commentary and the SlakkhandhaSubcommentary.

The Three Grades of Perfections

I shall now outline the ten ordinary perfections, the ten higher perfections,and the ten supreme perfections.

All external objects such as a wife and children, animate and inanimatethings, belonging to a person, are the objects through which the ten ordinaryperfections are fulfilled. Ones own limbs or head or any organs of the body arethe objects through which the ten higher perfections are fulfilled. Ones own life(being sacrificed) is the object through which the ten supreme perfections arefulfilled.

Of those three categories of objects, undertakings that forsake the firstcategory are called ordinary perfections. Undertakings that forsake the secondare called higher perfections. Those that forsake the third, i.e. ones own life, arecalled supreme perfections.

One who can fulfil only the first ten attains the enlightenment of a NobleDisciple. One who can fulfil only the first ten and the second ten attains theenlightenment of a Solitary Buddha. One who can fulfil all thirty attains Su-preme Self-Enlightenment.


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The Three Types of Disciples EnlightenmentThere are three classes of enlightenment of a Noble Disciple: (i) an Ordinary

Noble Disciples, (ii) a Great Disciples, and (iii) a Chief Disciples. By fulfilling

the first ten perfections for one aeon and a hundred thousand world cycles, onecan attain the enlightenment of a Chief Disciple. By the Chief Disciples aremeant the Buddhas two principal Noble Disciples like the Venerables Sriputtaand Moggallna for Gotama Buddha.

By fulfilling the same perfections for a hundred thousand world cycles, onecan attain the enlightenment of a Great Disciple. By the Great Disciples aremeant the distinguished Noble Ones, numbering eighty for Buddha Gotama.

There is no mention of the duration for the maturity of an ordinary Noble

Disciple. One has to infer it from such statements as are found in certaincommentaries. In a commentary on the Arahants supernormal power of recol-lecting former existences, an ordinary Noble One is said to be able to recallexistences from a hundred to a thousand world cycles. This has generally beentaken as the maturity period for an ordinary Noble Disciple.

Once, a frog was accidentally killed while listening with rapt attention to themellifluous voice of the Buddha preaching. He was reborn as a deva from themerit of listening attentively to the Dhamma (even though he did not under-

stand its meaning). Immediately, he came to pay homage to the Buddha, listenedto his discourse, and gained stream-winning. In his next existence he became anArahant. From this story we can see that there are just a few forms of existencein which a disciples enlightenment is attained.

Regarding the Chief and Great Disciples, the periods for maturity statedearlier refer only to the periods after these Noble Ones had received formalrecognition by a living Buddha. The Buddha predicts when, where, and underwhat circumstances he will attain which type of enlightenment. This is called

receiving the word (vykaraa).The scriptures are silent on the duration for fulfilling the perfections beforesuch recognition or assurance. The interval between the arising of any twoBuddhas is beyond reckoning. It may be any number of world cycles. A NobleDisciple (as the term signifies) can arise only when a Buddha arises or histeaching is extant. So it is important to remember that those durations men-tioned above refer only to those Noble Ones who encountered Gotama Buddha.

As to the Noble Disciples: in the commentary on the Suttanipta there are

three types: (i) one who depends on confidence for his enlightenment, (ii) onewho depends on diligence, and (iii) one who depends on wisdom.


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The Noblest Aspiration 13

The Three Types of Solitary EnlightenmentSimilarly, Solitary Enlightenment (paccekabodhi) is also of three types. The

commentaries say that the enlightenment of a Solitary Buddha is attained after

fulfilling the ten perfections and the ten higher perfections for two aeons and ahundred thousand world cycles.

The Three Types of Perfect EnlightenmentThe Perfect Enlightenment of a Buddha is also of these three types, which are

also called: (i) ugghtitabodhi, (ii) vipacitabodhi, and (iii) eyyabodhirespectively.

A Buddha who depends on wisdom for his enlightenment, after receiving the

assurance, has to fulfil the ten perfections, the ten higher perfections, and theten supreme perfections for four aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles.A Buddha who depends on diligence must fulfil the perfections for eight

aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles.A Buddha who depends on confidence must fulfil the perfections for sixteen

aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles.This is what has been recorded in the ancient commentaries. However, there

are differing views regarding the maturity periods for the three types of Buddhas.

They are found in later works such as the Apadna Commentary and in subcom-mentaries such as Sotattak, Tathgatuppatti, Mahvasak, etc.On this controversial subject an analogy given by the commentator on the

Suttanipta is worth noting. He says that trees and plants require a certain timebefore they can flower or bear fruit. Trees like the tamarind or the jack-fruit treewill not mature to blossom or bear fruit in one, two, or three years howevercarefully one nurtures them, even by watering a hundred times a day. Similarly,with the fulfilment of the prerequisites for Buddhahood. Let one give daily

offerings on the scale of King Vessantara1

to fulfil the perfections, one cannotattain Buddhahood any sooner.The periods for maturity necessarily vary for each of the three types o

Buddhas (see the Suttanipta Commentary).

The Noblest Aspiration

What is meant by the Noblest Aspiration (mahbhinhra) should be under-stood. The foundation (mla),condition (paccaya),and the root cause (hetu) o

the Noblest Aspiration should be understood. Mahbodhi should be understood.Its foundation, condition, and root cause should be understood.

1 See Vessantara Jtaka, Jtaka No.547.


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What is meant by the Noblest Aspiration? It is the verbal and mentalundertaking that the bodhisatta had made at some point of time aeons beforetaking up the perfections.

It was made in these terms:

As a man who knows his own strength, what use is there to get tothe yonder shore (nibbna) alone? I will attain to Supreme Knowl-edge and then convey men and devasto the yonder shore.

That was the pledge that sent the ten thousand universes reeling and echoingin applause. That was the bodhisattas earnest wish. For he intensely aspired toSupreme Self-Enlightenment thus:

Knowing the Truth, I will let others know it. Freeing myself fromthe world, I will free others. Having crossed over, I will enableothers to cross.

This fervent and most daring aspiration is called the Noblest Aspiration.

Eight Factors Needed for the Noblest AspirationFor the Noblest Aspiration to materialize, eight factors must be present:

Manussatta ligasampatti, hetu satthradassana.Pabbajj guasampatti, adhikroca chandat.Ahadhammasamodhn, abhinhro samijjhati. (A haslin; Buddhavasa.)

1. The aspirant must be a human being (manussatta). 2. He must be a man (ligasampatti). 3. His spiritual maturity must be sufficient to attain Arahantship if he chose

to (root-condition, hetu). 4. He must have met a living Buddha (satthradassana). 5. He must have taken up the life of a recluse or a monk (pabbajj). 6. He must have attained supernormal powers through concentration

(guasampatti). 7. He must have made the utmost homage (adhikro) to the Three Gems

while aspiring to Buddhahood. 8. He must have a most ardent will to become a Buddha (chandat).

If all eight factors are present the Noblest Aspiration materializes. Hereinroot-condition means the four conditions (paccaya) and the four root causes(hetu),which will be explained a little later.


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Adhikro means offerings, including his own life.Chandameans a burning desire amounting to will or resolve, a preparedness for

any eventuality. For example, suppose the entire universe was covered withsharp-pointed spikes, and suppose it was certain one could attain Buddhahoodonly by crossing it, the bodhisatta would never hesitate to cross it. Or suppose thisuniverse was filled with glowing charcoal, the bodhisatta would not have wavered.

These are the illustrations given in the commentaries. In the commentary onthe Khadiragra Jtaka, it is said that if the bodhisatta tried to cross, those steelspikes would turn into a vast stretch of rubies (in respectful recognition of hissincerity and resolve). Likewise, the burning charcoal would turn into a sea olotus flowers.

Of those eight opportune factors, the ardent wish of a Solitary Buddha isattended by three factors: (i) meeting with a living Buddha, (ii) making theutmost reverence while declaring the wish for Solitary Buddhahood, and(iii) the will to become a Solitary Buddha.

For the enlightenment of a disciple three factors are needed: (i) meeting with aSolitary Buddha or an Arahant, (ii) making the utmost reverence while making thewish for the enlightenment of a disciple, and (iii) the will to become an Arahant.

The Two Root-Conditions

Root-condition, the third factor of the eight, means a bodhisatta aspiring toBuddhahood must be spiritually mature. When aspiring for Buddhahood in thepresence of the Buddha, to receive the assurance he must have sufficientperfections to attain Solitary Buddhahood or Arahantship. He must then possesstwo further qualifications: 1. Karusampatti great compassion, 2. Upyakosallasampatti skilful means.

Only when these two are present will a bodhisatta be duly recognized by theBuddha from whom he is to receive the assurance. By great compassion is meantgreat kindness and compassion for others that takes precedence over his ownlife. Skilful means is the genius that is equal to the task whenever he under-takes to help others. Literally, it is the attainment of special aptitude instrategy. These two are the conditions for the (now specific) undertaking of theperfections that will suffice for the declaration of the Noblest Aspiration.

The Four Conditions

There are four further conditions (paccaya), also called the four stages omaturity (Buddhabhmi),necessary to qualify as a bodhisatta:


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1. ussha exceptional energy; 2. ummaga a keen intellect; 3. avahna steadfastness of purpose; 4. hitacariy compassion, loving-kindness for others, even outweighing

ones own welfare.

The Four Root Causes

There are four root causes: 1) attainment of sufficient perfections(upanissayasampatti), 2) attainment of compassion (karuajjhsayasampatti),3) attainment of fortitude (avihaasampatti), and 4) attainment of goodfriendship (kalyamittasampatti).

1. Attainment of sufficient perfections means having sufficient perfectionsto attain Arahantship or Solitary Buddhahood at the time of the assurance.

2. Attainment of compassion is the endowment with a compassionate heartor universal loving-kindness.

3. Attainment of fortitude is a natural disposition for helping others. It is theabiding disposition that never tires in fulfilling the perfections. A luxurious life inthe celestial realms is boring to a bodhisatta because it does not offer any opportu-nity to fulfil the perfections, particularly in serving others. Literally, avihameans never being vexed. It also implies spiritedness. The duration necessary forthe maturity of the perfections ranges from four aeons and a hundred thousandworld cycles to sixteen aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles, yet the spiritof a bodhisatta is such that he feels he is going to reach maturity the next day. Inother words, he is already anticipating Buddhahood that is forthcoming only at theend of such staggering periods. No duration is too long for him to wait.

4. Attainment of good friendship is care and respect in attending to the wisein all his existences, whether human or celestial.

The Natural Inclinations of a Bodhisatta

A bodhisatta is further endowed with six natural inclinations: 1. inclination to non-greed a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in

greed; 2. inclination to non-hatred a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in

hatred or anger; 3. inclination to non-delusion a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger

in delusion; 4. inclination to renunciation a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger

in sensuality;


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5. inclination to seclusion a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger insocializing;

6. inclination to escape from the cycle of rebirth a bodhisatta instinctivelysees the danger in existence.

The Significance of the Natural Inclinations

Just as the pith makes a tree durable, the six inclinations make a bodhisattadurable or steadfast. One who has these six inclinations, though living in theworld, is like a water-container made of a dried gourd, which has no mouth,immersed in deep water. A person lacking them is like an earthen water pot witha wide mouth immersed in deep water. Even among lay people there are thosein whom these six inclinations are present. They are like a water-gourd im-mersed in deep water. On the other hand, even among bhikkhus, there are thosewho lack these six inclinations. They are like a wide-mouthed water pot im-mersed in shallow water. The sensuous world of lay people is like deep water; thefavourable facilities that the bhikkhus enjoy, such as secure monasteries, well-made furniture, fine utensils, and nutritious food, etc., are like shallow water.

1. Those who have no inclination to non-greed do not like to listen to talkon dispelling greed. Even trifling possessions oppress them like a heavy moun-tain. To those having a strong inclination to non-greed, the glories of a UniversalMonarch are not worth a straw.

2. Those who have no inclination to non-hatred do not like to listen to adviceon dispelling anger. The slightest provocation will infuriate them, just like a sparkfalling on dry grass or leaves. However, those firm in their inclination to non-hatred soon dispel any anger, even if they are wronged by a gross injustice, just asa fire brand that falls on a stack of green timber does not start a fire.

3. Those who have no inclination to non-delusion do not like to listen totalk on wisdom. They never see even a glimmer of the light of the Dhamma,which has a luminosity of eighty-four thousand candlepower, so to speak. Theyare shrouded in dark delusion regarding the real nature of the five aggregates.Living in darkness, they die in the dark and let one existence after another go towaste. The darkness of their delusion is just like congenital blindness. How couldone born blind ever see light even if eighty-four thousand suns were to shineforth together?

4. Those who have no inclination to renunciation do not like to listen totalk on the advantages of renouncing worldly life. Their attachment to the fruitof their meritorious deeds such as giving, virtue, or keeping the eight precepts,prevents those deeds from becoming perfections. Attachment corrupts them just


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as fungus spoils the choicest seeds set apart for cultivation, or as viruses, locusts,and other pests render a well-planted field infertile.

5. Those who have no inclination to seclusion do not like to listen to adviceon seeking a solitary life in the forest. They are unable to tear themselves awayfrom society for a quiet moment alone. Desire for companionship always pullsthem into shallow friendships and ensures that they remain there, like a prisonerguarded by jailors.

6. Those who have no inclination to escape from the cycle of rebirth do notlike to listen to advice on the emptiness of worldly life. They are under theserfdom of attachment to existence. That attachment does not allow them toaspire after the higher practice of the Dhamma leading to path knowledge.Instead, it keeps them satisfied with their parochial interests such as throwinglavish feasts, building pagodas, or donating monasteries and rest-houses. Theyare content with keeping the precepts, or remaining as devout laity, or asrecluses or bhikkhus with virtue, or with some shallow achievement like teach-ing the Dhamma or writing books. These are only merits that hold them fast tothe world, the wholesome kamma that prolongs existence. It is like the BritishRaj, which allowed their colonial subjects to enter freely into small businessesbut would not tolerate any dealing with weapons, for fear of rebellion.

Herein, two kinds of attachment to existence should be known: yearning forsome better existence hereafter, and a fond attachment to the present existence.The present existence offers a precious chance to attain nibbna. The Tipiakaabounds in practical instructions showing the way to nibbna. It is only becauseso-called Buddhists are enamoured of the present existence, and are pamperingtheir little bodies, that they fight shy of the stringent discipline demanded to gainenlightenment. It is a pity they cannot gain even some concentration, whichrecluses of ancient times gained without the benefit of the Buddhas teaching.

The Four Special Characteristics of a Bodhisatta

I shall now deal with the four special characteristics of a bodhisatta thatdistinguish him from a future Solitary Buddha. They are glaringly obvious as ithey were garlands around his neck.

1. Indriya the five controlling faculties. Unshakable confidence (saddh),indefatigable diligence (viriya),unwavering mindfulness (sati),steadfast concen-tration (samdhi),and unerring wisdom (pa) are the first mark that distin-guishes a bodhisatta.

2. Paipatti the practice. A bodhisatta is always out to help others andplaces the welfare of others before his own. He never expects any return for the


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efforts he makes for others welfare. Nor will he care to mention them, whetherin his beneficiarys presence or not. Even if the beneficiary bites the hand thatfeeds, a bodhisatta never turns back from any good deed. This holds true evenwhen his life is in imminent danger. This is the bodhisattas sense of wishing wellfor the present. Regarding merits accruing from his noble deeds in giving or incultivating virtue, etc., a bodhisatta sets his sights higher than the solitaryattainment of nibbna. He aims only at supreme enlightenment, by which he canshow the way to nibbna. This is a bodhisattas practice for the hereafter. Thistwofold practice also distinguishes a bodhisatta.

3. Kosalla proficiency. This is manifested in sound reasoning(cintmayaa) and presence of mind (takhauppattia) that never fail him.Though the future disciples or Solitary Buddhas also have these two intellectualqualities to a high degree, they are liable to err occasionally. With the bodhi-satta, these two qualities are unerring. This is the proficiency of a bodhisatta thatmakes him unique among other aspirants to enlightenment.

4. Ajjhsaya inclination. The texts treat this subject quite comprehen-sively concerning the perfections, but I shall describe it only briefly. Regardinggiving, for example, a bodhisatta is very happy in making gifts. Whenever he hassomething to offer as a gift and a recipient is not available, he feels frustrated.Whenever he gives, he gives it with a light heart, and takes proper care in doingso. No amount of giving would satisfy his zeal for charity. Whenever anybodyasks anything of him, he does not judge him by class or creed but always compliesgladly. In doing so, he never thinks of his own needs but gives to satisfy theothers needs only. Refer to the Buddhavasa on this, particularly the passagebeginning: Yathpi kumbho sampuo... 1

In that passage, which is from the chapter on the perfection of generosity,inclination is described thus:

As when one overturns a large cooking pot filled with oil or buttermilk toempty it, not a drop or even the dregs remain, but runs out of the pot, so alsowhen a bodhisatta makes an offering... Whether the beggar is a filthy blockheadof a labourer with bovine instincts, or a drunkard, or better than them, a manwho has taken refuge in the Three Gems, or one who keeps the five precepts; orin brief, whether he is good, average, or bad, let him come for alms at any time,the bodhisatta never judges what type of fellow he is, or whether it is worth

1 See p.16, 118 of the PTS edition under Dpakarabuddhavaso, p.315 of theBurmese Chahasagtipiaka under Sumedhapatthankath,or Vol.33, p.481 of thenew Thai Dayyarahassa Sagtitepiaka. For an English translation see Sacred Books othe Buddhists,Vol.XXI, p.20, 118-120.


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giving him so much or anything at all; but never discriminating, never hesitating,[he gives freely].

Of the different classes of beggars ranging from wretched to excellent, thebodhisatta never bothers sizing up a person who calls at the door for some help oralms. The amount he gives is also not dependent on the class of beggar. This kindof completely indiscriminate offering is another characteristic of a bodhisatta.

In respect of the nine remaining perfections, this example on giving shouldbe applied with due alteration of details. Those not conversant with Pi can getthe essence of what the text says from the passage quoted above.

These days there are some who wish for Buddhahood, and wisdom-orientedBuddhahood at that, though their conduct barely qualifies them to becomeordinary disciples. What characterizes them is the bold banner of craving-de-pendent deeds, which cry out for public recognition right now and yearn forglorious results hereafter.

Who ever does something for nothing? these people are apt to protest. Toexpect good results from a good deed is only natural. But remember, a thingdone without expecting future rewards brings a greater reward than is imagined.More significantly, it amounts to the real practice of the perfections essential forenlightenment. A meritorious deed done with an ardent wish for good resultsbrings relatively limited results and does not amount to fulfilling the perfections.Remember the example of fungus in seed-grain or pests in a plantation.

Some say that gradual maturity is the likely process, for enlightenment rightnow is not possible. So why should one not store up merit for better existencesand greater prosperity? My reply is this:

Small plants thrive just during the rainy season. Only one in a thousand orten thousand among them might survive the long, dry, hot months till the nextrainy season. Such a rare plant must be extraordinarily robust and hardy to havestruck its main root deep enough. Such rare plants obviously need not fear theseverity of the climate after having passed three or four rainy seasons.

By the same analogy, to achieve budding perfections is only possible when theBuddhas teaching is still extant. Whatever little perfection one has achievedduring this opportune period has very little chance of surviving to be developedin the time of the next Buddha. Those sham deeds of merit will certainly losetheir potential once the teaching has disappeared. Very few could survive theuncertainties of the intervening dark ages. During those dark ages, right view islost to humanity and wrong views prevail. One who has acquired only shamdeeds of merit falls into wrong views, and so their little potential of merit is soongone. Imagine the fate of one who repeatedly falls into wrong view for two, three,


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or more existences. This is the unstable nature of the merits of a person who hasnot struck roots deep down, who has not attained stability. Such perishing obudding merits is the rule with most beings. Innumerable existences havealready passed in which they acquired some flimsy merits, only to be lost againby the next existence. This process of acquisition and perishing goes on inperpetuity for the overwhelming majority of beings. This is why the idea ogradual maturity does not hold. It would be a great pity if one depends on sucha mistaken idea and goes on hoping for the perfections while actually longing forthe inexorable cycle of rebirth.

The four conditions, the four root causes, and the six inclinations are thefactors for declaring the Noblest Aspiration and for taking up the higherperfections.

On declaring the Noblest Aspiration and receiving the assurance of futureBuddhahood, the bodhisatta at once becomes endowed with the five powers(bala), the four special characteristics, the two qualifications of compassion(karu) and skill in strategy (upyakosalla), the four stages of maturity(bhmi), the six inclinations (ajjhsaya), etc. However, since what I have saidso far should suffice to answer Maung Thaws question I shall not deal with anyfurther details.


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Chapter TwoMaung Thaws second question relates to the following:

1. the definition, characteristics, and significance of the five aggregates; 2. the definition, characteristics, and significance of the four truths; 3. a description of the five aggregates in terms of the four truths; 4. the definition, characteristics, and significance of the Noble Eightfold

Path, with its practical application leading to nibbna.

Seven Aspects of Materiality to be Perceived

There are two approaches to the definition, characteristics, and significance othe five aggregates, namely, the Suttanta method and the Abhidhamma method.

The Suttanta method is the Buddhas approach to the Dhamma for theordinary person. The Buddha gave succinct discourses to show ordinary peoplepractical ways to cultivate insight, and to attain the path and its fruition in thisvery life.

The Abhidhamma method, however, offers a profound and exhaustive ana-lytical treatment of all aspects of the Dhamma, with no particular reference tothe practice for insight development. The latter method is actually meant for theNoble Ones to sharpen their analytical knowledge (paisambhid-a).It is notsuitable as insight training for the ordinary person because it is too subtle. For

example, those who have small boats should only ply the river for their liveli-hood and should not venture out to the deep ocean. Only if they have ocean-going vessels should they make an ocean voyage.

These days, people take up the holy life not actually intent on gaining pathknowledge, but merely to acquire merit, purported to gradually mature as perfec-tions. Practice of insight meditation is not popular. Learning and teaching oscriptures to develop wisdom is the usual practice. So the Abhidhamma method ispopular. In this treatise, however, I shall employ the Suttanta method only.

Bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who earnestly wants to understand the true nature omateriality to eradicate the defilements, who habitually contemplates materialityfrom three approaches, who is proficient in the seven aspects of materiality is, inthis Dhamma and Discipline, called accomplished, one who has lived the life, aperfect one or an excellent man.

Bhikkhus, how is a bhikkhu proficient in the seven aspects? Bhikkhus,herein a bhikkhu discerns the true nature of materiality; he discerns the originof materiality; he discerns the cessation of materiality; he discerns the practice

leading to the cessation of materiality; he discerns the satisfaction in materiality;he discerns the danger in materiality; and he discerns the escape from materiality.

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Seven Aspects of Materiality to be Perceived 23

Bhikkhus, what is materiality? Materiality includes the four primary ele-ments: extension, cohesion, heat, and motion, and the [twenty-four] materialqualities derived from them. This is called materiality. (1)

As long as nutriment arises, materiality arises. Once nutriment is exhausted,materiality ceases. This is the origin and cessation of materiality. (2, 3)

What is the practice leading to the cessation of materiality? It is the NobleEightfold Path taught by me: right view, right thought, right speech, right action,right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Theseeight constitute the path. (4)

The pleasure and joy arising dependent on materiality constitute the satis-faction in materiality. (5)

The transience, unsatisfactoriness, and instability of materiality constitutethe danger in materiality. (6)

The abandonment of desire and lust for materiality constitute the escapefrom materiality. (7)

(Sattahna Sutta, Khandhavagga, Sayuttanikya)

The True Nature of Materiality 1. The four essential material qualities are the primary elements of exten-

sion, cohesion, heat, and motion. 2. The five sense bases are the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the

body. 3. The five sense objects are visible form, sound, smell, taste, and touch. 4. The two material qualities of sex are femininity and masculinity. 5. The material quality of vitality. 6. The material base of consciousness the heart-base. 7. The material quality of nutrition.

These are the eighteen kinds of materiality.

1. The Four Primary Elements

i. The different degrees of hardness or softness are qualities of theelement of extension, colloquially called the earth element.

ii. Liquidity and cohesion are qualities of the element of cohesion, collo-quially called the water element.

iii. Temperature, hot or cold, is the quality of the element of heat,colloquially called the fire element.

iv. Motion, swelling, inflation, pressure, and support are qualities of theelement of motion, colloquially called the wind element.


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Due to the collective concept people usually conceive the four primaryelements as a composite whole rather than in their ultimate sense, which canonly be discerned through insight knowledge. When insight arises, one sees thatnot the tiniest atom remains that is compact or solid.

The three elements of extension, motion, and heat can be felt by touch. Evenchildren know whether a thing is soft or hard. However, they are not able todiscern the ultimate sense of what they only superficially recognize as the earthelement. They know whether a thing is cold or hot, but they cannot discern theultimate sense of what they only recognize as the fire element. Similarly theyknow that something moves, or supports, or is pressed, or swells. However, theydo not discern the element of motion there. If one can penetrate conceptionsabout the four primary elements and realize their ultimate nature, then one issaid to be proficient in materiality, the first aspect of discernment.

2. The Five Sense Bases

The eye, ear, nose, and tongue are the sense bases through which therespective kinds of sense-consciousness arises. Body-sensitivity has for its basisthe whole body externally and internally. These are the kamma-conditionedmaterial qualities or internal sense bases.

3. The Five Sense Objects

The five sense objects should need no explanation. Only that of touch maybe commented on as that pertaining to the primary elements of extension, heat,and motion.1 These three primary elements are the tangible sense objects.

4. The Material Qualities of Sex

i. The material quality of femininity, which governs a persons whole body,distinguishing her as a woman or imparting the condition of being female.

ii. The material quality of masculinity, which governs a persons whole body,distinguishing him as a man or imparting the condition of being male.

5. Vitality

The vitality that gives a being its life, or the vitality of the kamma-originatedmateriality, that pervades the whole body.

1 The element of cohesion cannot be touched. If you put your hand in water, you can

know it is hot or cold, and you can feel its pressure. If you pick up a handful you can feelits weight. If you hit the surface of water with your hand, you can feel its hardness.However, you cannot feel its cohesion (ed.)


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6. The Material Base of Consciousness

The material base of consciousness or the mind is called the heart-base. It isthe source from which kind thoughts or unkind thoughts flow.

7. The Material Quality of Nutrition

The material quality that nourishes the whole body, which may be called thesustenance of the four primary elements, is the element of nutrition. The principleunderlying this element is the need of all beings born in the sensual realm to eat.It is just like an oil-lamp that needs constant replenishment to be kept alight.1

Of the eighteen material qualities mentioned above, the four primary ele-ments are like the roots, the trunk, the boughs, and the branches of a tree; theremaining fourteen are like the leaves, flowers, and fruits. When the imperma-nence of the four primary elements is perceived, the delusion of personalitydisappears. Derived materiality does not then obstruct perception. That, itshould be noted, is why the Buddha speaks of the four great primaries but doesnot define them. These four primary elements are self-evident.

All materiality, whether animate or inanimate, can be reduced to atoms. Onfurther analysis, they are included in one of the eighteen species of materialqualities. Contemplate your own body to gain insight. If the ultimate materialityin the four primary elements is perceived clearly, the infinite materiality of theuniverse will be seen in the same light. Therefore, contemplate hard on the fourprimary elements.

Derived material phenomena are not so evident, for they are interrelated andsubtle. Examine what is already evident; do not try to see what is imperceptible.It will only be a waste of effort. Focus your attention on only one of the fourprimary elements. Once any one of them is perceived clearly, the remainingthree will also become clear.

This body is a composite of ultimate realities, i.e. of things having theirindividual essence. Just as a person with weak eyesight has to use glasses to read,use the Buddhas teaching as an aid to see the ultimate truth that is clearlyvisible inside your body. Try to see the arising and vanishing that is constantlytaking place within you. With sufficient zeal and concentration you can probablycomprehend things quite vividly. I am impressing it on you in various waysbecause it is elusive.

This first aspect needs to be properly perceived whereby the primary elementsbecome clear in their ultimate sense, without confusing them with the collective

1 Pi phraseology makes heavy reading and usually fails to communicate, so I shall useeveryday Burmese to explain abstract matters. [Authors Note]


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concept. One cannot stress this too strongly because the remaining aspects willnot be discerned unless you have the first one well and truly within your grasp.So spare no pains to perceive it.

The Origin and Cessation of MaterialityThese are the second and third aspects to be perceived. Constant arising is

called samudaya.Cessation or vanishing, is called nirodha. Samudayais usedin two senses: first to refer to the constant arising of phenomena throughout agiven existence; and second to refer to the arising of another existence when thepresent one ends.

Nirodha is also used in two senses: the constant cessation of phenomenathroughout a given existence, and the final cessation of all phenomena whenone attains parinibbna,where there is no more fresh existence and one escapesfrom the cycle of rebirth. This is also called nibbna nirodha.

Nutriment (hra) is the sustenance of existence. It is of two kinds: physicalnutriment and mental nutriment. Physical nutriment is the material quality onutrition. Mental nutriment means contact, volition, and consciousness.

The past kamma that accompanies one throughout the cycle ofrebirth is comparable to a field, rebirth-consciousness is like the

seed-grain, the craving that accompanies kamma is like the fertilityof the soil Kamma khetta via bja tah sineho.

In the above quotation, kamma is the mental nutriment of volition,rebirth-consciousness is the nutriment of consciousness, which provides the seedfor a new existence at rebirth, leading to a new material aggregate, i.e. the body.

In lighting a candle, the light appears simultaneously with the flame. Similar-ly, at rebirth, materiality appears the instant that rebirth-consciousness arises.The earliest appearance of materiality is like the germination of the seed. Ourfull-grown bodies are the natural development from rebirth-consciousness likethe seed that has germinated and grown into a tree. It should be understood thatgermination can occur only where there is rebirth-consciousness. If the rebirth-consciousness does not arise when a person dies with the exhaustion of the pastkamma, there is no germination. That is what is meant by the Buddhas words:

When nutrition arises, materiality arises.When nutrition is exhausted, materiality ceases.

This is the explanation of the second meaning of samudaya, the incessantrebirth of new aggregates of materiality. Similarly with nirodha,the cessation o


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rebirth, the total release from the cycle of rebirths. This second sense of arisingand cessation is obvious. This is not vital for the development of insight. Whatis relevant here is to know the constant arising and cessation taking place everymoment throughout ones life.

Here is a simile:Let us say a man-size flame is set alight and is meant to last a hundred years.

Imagine how much fuel must be supplied every day and night. The life of the flamedepends on the fuel. The flame can remain the size of a man only when the lampis full. It becomes smaller as the fuel level falls. When the oil is used up, the flamegoes out. Imagine how much fuel is consumed by the lamp each day from the firstday it is lit. Visualize the daily refuelling. Then consider how the flame getsrenewed because the fuel is replenished. See how the flame exhausts itself due tothe exhaustion of the fuel that has kept it alight. Try to distinguish the rejuvenatedflame, after refuelling, from the flame that has exhausted itself, having consumedall the fuel. Suppose that the new fuel is coloured, and that the flame takes on thesame colour as the fuel. For a while, white fuel will produce a white flame. Thenas the white fuel is used up, and red fuel is fed into the lamp, the colour of theflame will turn from white to red. Again, with yellow fuel, the flame turns yellow,and so on. Thus, compare the old and the new in the same flame.

Preconceived notions about what the eye sees obstruct perception. Expelthese preconceptions with insight. Even in an ordinary flame (not distinguishedby colour) constant change is observable if one looks closely. Every motionrepresents change change from the old to the new. As the new arises, the oldvanishes. The arising of the new must be understood as samudaya thevanishing of the old is nirodha.

The temperature-originated materiality that is the body, which will remainwhen a person dies, is just like the lamp and the wick in our simile. Thekamma-originated materiality, the consciousness-originated materiality, and thenutriment-originated materiality, which combine to give the illusion of a person,are like the man-size flame. The daily food intake is like the daily refuelling.

Our body gets the calories it needs from the food that we take. As the foodgets assimilated, the fine materiality in our body gets reduced. When food intakeis discontinued and nutrition is exhausted, the fine materiality and the kamma-originated materiality that constitute the body cease to function. All the differ-ent physical phenomena that constitute the body are totally dependent onnutrition. The exhaustion of nutrition from the previous meal and the cessationof the older materiality go together, just as they had arisen together. The arisingof nutrition from a later meal and the arising of the new materiality also coincide.


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If you contemplate the enormous struggle of all living beings to obtain food,you will realize the startling rate at which materiality changes in all living things.Then the manner in which one sustains oneself from the moment of birth, seekingto extend ones life with food, will become evident. As one can visualize thechanging colours of the flame after refuelling with different fuel, try to visualize theexhaustion of a fresh meals nutriment with the consequent changes in materiality.Focus on the changes that take place from moment to moment. The arising ofresh materiality as you eat, and the feeling of well-being experienced, like thegathering of clouds, is the appearance of a new lease of life, called samudaya.Thegradual dwindling away of vigour after five or six hours, when the nutriment hasbeen consumed, is called nirodha.So the Buddha said, When nutrition arises,materiality arises; when nutrition ceases, materiality ceases.

The Practice Leading to the Cessation of MaterialityThe knowledge that has perceived the first, second, and third aspects o

materiality is called mundane right view, which develops into supramundaneright view or path knowledge after application.

Right thought, the indispensable associate of right view, is also of two types:mundane right thought and right thought as path knowledge. In our exampleabove, the visualization of the process of change in the flame is the function oright view. What brings forth this visualization is right thought. Only when rightthought prevails can right view occur. The meditators insight into the incessantarising and vanishing of materiality is due to the presence of right view. Bringingright view into focus is the function of right thought.

How Does Right Thought Function?

It focuses ones attention on the unsatisfactoriness of life. The immensityof the need for food in all living things, the need for a regular food intake, notless than twice a day; how one feels when one is full, when one begins to feelhungry, and when one starves. It lets one imagine the hypothetical conse-quences of a great famine in this continent of Asia how soon this wholecontinent would be turned into a vast graveyard. These kinds of reflections arecalled right thought.

If one contemplates the constant changes taking place in ones body, evenduring a single sitting one may discern the arising and vanishing of physicalphenomena. At the start of a sitting, nothing in particular is felt, for the body isat ease. After a while, slight heat is often felt either in the legs or another part othe body, then you may feel the heat intensify; then you might feel numb; then


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a tingling sensation, then discomfort in the legs, etc. Such changes, which arebound to occur, can readily be observed.

By closely observing the phenomena within oneself, the continuous arising onew materiality is perceived, like the gathering of clouds. Then at once, thedisappearance of those same phenomena is perceived, like clouds being waftedaway by the wind. This is the function of right view. The focusing of attentionon directly observable phenomena is the function of right thought. It is only withthe appropriate application of right thought that right view can clearly discernthe true nature of phenomena. In fact, such perception can occur in any posturefor, whether you notice it or not, phenomena arise and vanish all the time.

Once right view and right thought are established as supramundane insight,three factors mature that can remove all bodily and verbal misconduct, for whichthe latent tendency has accumulated. These three factors are right speech, rightaction, and right livelihood. Then, right effort means zeal in ones undertaking. Italso goes by the name tappa, which means that which harasses the defile-ments. Another name for right effort is sammappadhna. It has three aspects:rambha, nikkama,and parakkama. rambha is promptitude and exertion. Nikkamis alertness that does not tolerate sloth, torpor, and indolence. Parakkamais vigourthat never allows one to slacken in ones right efforts. It is due to the lack of thiskind of effort that people do not attain to jhna and path knowledge.

Right mindfulness means the constant awareness that does not allow themind to stray from the object of contemplation even for a fraction of a second.

Right concentration is steadiness of the mind that does not slip off its objectof contemplation.

These latter six constituents of the path are also each of two types, mundaneand supramundane. Here, we are concerned only with the supramundane factors.

These eight factors are the Truth of the Path. Of these eight, right speech,right action, and right livelihood appear automatically once a meditator hasachieved insight. The aim of insight meditation is to perceive the real nature oones body in the ultimate sense, which dispels delusion. To develop insight, oneneeds right mindfulness, right effort, right concentration, and right thought.With these four factors as the locomotive, right view is ready for the inwardjourney. The right track for the journey is just a fathom in length: the height oan average human. This journey is the close observation of phenomena takingplace within ones body, from head to foot. Then, concept will gradually yield toperception. By doggedly pursuing this perception, one can, with sufficient dili-gence, knock at the door of nibbna in seven days time. If not in seven days, itmight take one month, or one year, or two, three, or up to seven years. This is


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explicitly mentioned at various places in the texts. Remember nirodha in itssecond meaning, i.e. the total cessation of the five aggregates and rebirth isnirodha,which is nibbna. This is the supramundane nirodha.

The Satisfaction in MaterialityThe pleasure and joy arising dependent on materiality constitute the satis-

faction (assda) in materiality.In the fifth aspect requiring proficiency in materiality, by the term assda

the text means the pleasure one can enjoy in the favourable planes of existence:wealthy human existence, the six celestial realms, or the brahm realms. It meansthe physical well-being, pleasure, and joy that can be experienced in thoseexistences. Here, we shall confine the explanation to human existence.

When a pleasing visual object,

a manual of the excellent man

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