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A-Level Sociology Question and Answers 2013

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Table of Contents Conjugal Relationships (Questions) ................................................................................................... 3

Conjugal Relationships (Answers) ...................................................................................................... 4

Divorce (Questions) .............................................................................................................................. 7

Divorce (Answers) ................................................................................................................................ 8

Domestic Violence (Questions) ......................................................................................................... 13

Domestic Violence (Answers) ........................................................................................................... 14

Family Ideology (Questions) ............................................................................................................. 17

Family Ideology (Questions) ............................................................................................................. 21

Family Ideology (Answers) ................................................................................................................ 22

Functionalism (Questions) ................................................................................................................. 24

Functionalism (Answers) ................................................................................................................... 25

History (Questions)............................................................................................................................. 28

History (Answers) ............................................................................................................................... 29

Introduction (Questions) ................................................................................................................... 32

Introduction (Answers) ...................................................................................................................... 33

Methods (Questions) .......................................................................................................................... 36

Methods (Answers) ............................................................................................................................. 37

Science (Questions) ............................................................................................................................ 41

Science (Answers) .............................................................................................................................. 42

Secularisation (Questions) ................................................................................................................. 43

Secularisation (Answers) ................................................................................................................... 44

The Role of Religion (Questions) ..................................................................................................... 47

The Role of Religion (Answers) ........................................................................................................ 48

Theoretical Standpoints (Questions) ............................................................................................... 51

Theoretical Standpoints (Answers) .................................................................................................. 52

Wealth (Questions) ............................................................................................................................. 54

Wealth (Answers) ............................................................................................................................... 55

Welfare (Questions) ........................................................................................................................... 57

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Conjugal Relationships (Questions)

1. Item

The term 'the family' seeks to refer us to a norm. This norm pictures the family in terms of a typical life cycle.

It progresses from unattached young heterosexual people, to couples to marriage, the birth of children, raising

children, the return to 'coupledom' then 'singledom' with the death of a partner.

Clearly, this norm hides the considerable diversity that exists in family life. People might be homosexual, they

might not get married, they might not have children, children might remain in the family home... Many of us will

have more than one family through divorce and remarriage. Alternatives to the traditional nuclear family are

increasingly socially acceptable and people are able to exercise choice over the sort of family they want to live in.

Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations for the diversity in family forms

found in Britain today.

(Marks available: 20)

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Conjugal Relationships (Answers)

Answer outline and marking scheme for question: 1

Make sure you use material from the item and from elsewhere.

You need to explain.

You need to assess the explanations.

You are not being asked to simply list different types of family.

What's in the item?

Nature (types):

Heterosexual/homosexual; married/unmarried; children/childless.

Explanations:

Social acceptance - (this is a bit vague, but you should be able to support this from your own knowledge). The

idea of a norm - has this norm changed?

Overall, the item is of limited use here. All you get is the idea of social acceptance and the

possibility of developing the idea of a norm.

Elsewhere?

Explanations with examples:

More Choice - our behaviour is not determined by society.

Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy (1992). We form families because we want to.

For example: organizational diversity concerning the domestic division of labour. Contraception means we can

choose to not have children, or when to have them and how many to have.

Chance/risk

Beck (1995) - we live in a risk society. Things just happen to us. Divorce, death, remarriage, unwanted

childlessness, etc.

Demography

We live longer so we are more likely to divorce, remarry etc.

For example: Regional variations Eversley & Bonnerjea (1982) 'sun belt' families of the affluent south east,

elderly retired live, in 'geriatric wards'. Inner city areas tend to have more lone parents, and ethnic minority

households.

Discourse

Our own biographies will have an effect on the families we form. We are affected by our own pasts.

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Life course rather than life cycle

The traditional approach considers the family as the unit of analysis. The life course approach takes the

individual as the unit of analysis. It is clear than many individuals have differing family arrangements because of

the circumstances of their personal lives.

Technology

Macionis & Plummer (1997). Reproductive technology enables new family relationships. Communications

technology enables families to live in different parts of the world.

Immigration/multiculturalism

Mass immigration into the UK in the 1950's - mainly West Indians, 1960's mainly South Asians.

For example: South Asians least likely to form single parent families. Black people most likely. Modood et al

(1997).

R. Oakley (1982) in a study of Cypriot families in Britain, found strong extended family ties.

Material factors

Increased economic independence of women. Consequences; more single women, more dual career households,

more divorce, etc.

Social Policy

The existence of the Welfare State provides economic support for those in need. This makes possible the

existence of many single parent households.

For example: Class inequalities have widened since 1979 as a direct result of governmental taxation policy.

Mark scheme:

This is only a rough guide. Clearly, if you included everything mentioned in the QuickLearn you would score over

20 marks!

Give yourself 2 marks for each explanation that is supported by an example.

The assessment needs to consider which explanations are most important. For example:

A statement or claim:

Silva & Smart (1999) argue that there was drift towards more varied forms of family organization, based they

argue on more freedom of 'personal choice'.

Assessment:

Certainly the decline of religion, and the increasing emphasis on individuality suggests that many more people

feel free to choose the family lifestyle they would prefer.

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Give yourself 1 mark every time you use an evaluative phrase such as, it would seem that/on the

other hand/as against this however/overall/provided you have linked it to a sociological claim

regarding diversity.


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Divorce (Questions)

1. Item











2. Item

The passing of the 1969 Divorce Law Reform Act in 1971 made the only grounds for divorce 'the

irretrievable breakdown of marriage' thus guilt or innocence were no longer necessary considerations in divorce

proceedings. Almost immediately there was a significant increase in the divorce rate.

The rate increased again during 1984 following after an Act was passed that allowed couples to divorce after the

first anniversary of marriage. In 1991, nearly 10% of all UK divorces granted occurred within the first two years

of marriage. At 171,000 divorces, the 1991 figure was the highest recorded up to that date. A notable feature of

recent divorce petitions is the number that is sought by women. Increasingly it is women who make the first

move towards the divorce court.

Using information from the Item and elsewhere, evaluate the assumption that there is a causal

relationship between the increase in the divorce rate since the Second World War and changes in

the law concerning divorce.


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Divorce (Answers)






What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

Discourse

9






Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






Assessment:

10








General

Make sure you use information from the item and elsewhere.

You must be clear about what a causal relationship is.

You must consider other explanations for the rise in divorce.

You must have an evaluation.

What's in the item?

The 1969 Divorce Reform Act.

Irretrievable breakdown.

1984 increased again - following an Act.

1991 10% of divorces occur within 2 years of marriage.

Increase in divorces sought by women.

There seem to be two examples of a change in law being followed by an increase in divorce. This seems to

support the assumption of a causal connection.

However, why are women seeking more divorces? And can you provide examples of an increase in

divorce preceding changes in divorce law?

Elsewhere?

You can provide further examples of how the law might or might not be related to changes in the

divorce rate:

a. The increases in divorce have not occurred at a steady rate. For example there was a marked peak around1945.

This was an effect of the ending of world war two.

b. The 1950s were relatively stable. In the 60s divorce began to increase although there were no changes in the

law. Since 1980 the number of divorces has only increased slowly.

c. Removal of legal and financial barriers. Prior to 1857, divorce could only be obtained by Act of

Parliament.

d. In 1949, the Legal Aid and Advice Act provided financial help to those unable to meet the cost of divorce.

e. The 1985, Matrimonial and Family Proceedings Act reduced the time limit on divorce from a minimum of

three years of marriage to one.

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f. Legislation cannot be seen as a cause of higher divorce rates, it has simply made divorce easier to obtain if

couples want it. Clearly some couples are simply taking advantage of more liberal divorce laws.

g. Changes in the law often reflect prior changes in public opinion. For example, steadily rising levels of

divorce in the 1960s, prior to the Divorce Reform Act.

You can provide other explanations for the rise in divorce.

Changing expectations:

Some researchers place the cause of increased divorce on higher expectations (Fletcher, 1966).

Changes in women's social position:

Better rights under divorce law, increased job opportunities and the provision of state financial support can all be

seen as contributing to enhancing the bargaining position of women in conjugal relationships.

Changing social values:

There is now considerably less social stigma and blame attached to divorce. Wilson (1966) argues that this

reduction in stigma is a result of secularization - Demographic change.

Anderson (l983) has pointed out that lifelong marriage in the past often lasted a relatively short time. Marriage

was often late and life expectancy was short. The growing number of divorces after 10 years of marriage tends

to support this view.

The highest risk groups for divorce are; teenage brides, couples who had children early, couples with 4 or more

children, local authority tenants and couples with relatively low income. The underlying focus is clearly the

Financial condition of the marriage (Gibson, 1994).

Mark scheme:

Give yourself 1

mark

For each one of the 5 points from the item that you mention, provided that you have made it

clear that the information came from the item.

Give yourself 1

mark For any other evidence of a change in law that might increase the rate of divorce.

Give yourself 2

mark For any examples of a change in the divorce rate preceding an increase in the divorce rate.

Give yourself 2

mark For each alternative explanation you offer for an increase in the divorce rate.

Give yourself 4 points for an evaluation that:

Concedes that clearly easier divorce can enable more people to divorce - thus the divorce rate increases.

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Argues that however easy divorce law becomes people will only divorce if they want to, not just because

they are able to.

Suggests that marriage is much less stable now because of changes in society rather than changes in the law.


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Domestic Violence (Questions)

1. Item











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Domestic Violence (Answers)






What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

15

Discourse






Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






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Assessment:







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Family Ideology (Questions)

1. Item











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Family Ideology (Answers)






What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

Discourse


19





Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






Assessment:



20





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Family Ideology (Questions)

1. Item











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Family Ideology (Answers)

What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

Discourse






23

Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






Assessment:







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Functionalism (Questions)

1. Item











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Functionalism (Answers)






What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

26

Discourse






Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






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Assessment:







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History (Questions)

1. Item











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History (Answers)






What's in the item?

Nature (types):


Explanations:





Elsewhere?






Chance/risk


childlessness, etc.

Demography




households.

30

Discourse






Technology






(1997).


Material factors


more divorce, etc.

Social Policy




Mark scheme:


20 marks!






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Assessment:







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Introduction (Questions)

1. Item

It hardly needs emphasising how much the success of the participant observer's approach depends on his or her

skill and personality.

If these command the respect and friendship of those being observed, and if they are combined with an ability to

interpret and describe what is seen, the method enables the presentation of a picture of social reality at once

more vivid, complete and authentic than is possible with other methods. But any defects in his or her approach

and ability can easily arouse suspicion, and so undermine the study.

Participant observation is a highly individual technique.

With reference to the Item and other sources evaluate the claim that in participant observation

studies, what is gained in terms of validity is lost in reliability.


2. Evaluate the view that participant observation is both unscientific and unethical.


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Introduction (Answers)


General Points

You must refer to the item.

You must provide information from your own knowledge.

You must explain the terms validity and reliability.


What's in the item?

The emphasis on skill and personality.

The possibility of a more complete and authentic picture.

A highly individual technique.

The item provides some reasons for thinking that participant observation will produce valid

research. However, there are also suggestions as to why reliability is unlikely - for example, that

the technique is highly individual.

Elsewhere?

a. What makes reliability possible-clear instructions and agreed technique?

b. Why is reliability not possible in participant observation - individualistic technique no agreed approach?

c. Participant observation allows for empathy/subjective understanding.

d. Reliability demands objectivity.

e. Taking the role of the other.

f. No clear method guide.

g. In participant observation, personality of researcher is important.

h. A gain in validity is far more important than reliability.

Mark scheme:

Give yourself 2 marks For a definitions of validity.

Give yourself 2 marks For a definition of reliability.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of skill.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of personality.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of authenticity.

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Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of individuality.

Give yourself 4 marks For explaining why each of the above attributes hinder reliability.

Give yourself 4 marks For explaining why the same attributes can improve validity.

Give yourself 4 marks for an evaluation that:

Basically agrees with the claim in the question and that explains why this is unavoidable because of the nature of

PO which needs to be flexible and individualistic and that this works against reliability which it needs a consistent

approach to a research problem

Finally an extra 2 marks if you explain why validity is more important than reliability because validity is about

meaning while reliability is only about consistent measurement.



Introduction

You need to explain what participant observation is. The theoretical tradition it comes from -

interpretivism and the sort of data it is interested in collecting - qualitative.

You could explain that there are difficulties defining science but that certainly as regards the traditional view of

science thee are some difficulties with P.O.

You can explain what ethics are.

Main

The traditional view of science argues that it has certain qualities not possessed by P.O. Science controls the

variables to be measured and is sure of what those variables are. Scientific findings can be replicated and the

method is reliable. The findings can be generalised.

Clearly the nature of P.O. means that these qualities cannot be claimed by P.O. But then they are not sought by

P.O. either. Methods must make sense in relation to the sort of data being sought. P.O. seeks qualitative data

that is the result of insight and interpretation it is not founded on empirical evidence.

More widely, it could be argued that science is about careful data collection, systematic observation and the

establishment of understanding all these are sought by P.O. Also, crucially P.O. seeks validity, to accurately

record and measure what it claims to measure and in this the most important of all scientific criteria it could

claim some success.

As regards ethics... Some P.O. may well be unethical particularly covert P.O., but it is hard to see why overt P.O.

is unethical. Additionally, ethics are difficult ideas - they can vary from person to person. It cannot be assumed

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that science is ethical and clearly there are many examples of scientists or their findings being used in unethical

ways.

Conclusion

About as useful as comparing a fish to a bicycle. There are no bad methods only inappropriate use of a given

method. Clearly the question concerning ethics can be answered, overall it is only covert P.O. that has ethical

problems. As regards science, the question can be answered but should perhaps instead be re-formulated in

terms of whether P.O. can produce worthwhile, informative data - which it clearly can.


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Methods (Questions)

1. Item

Sociologists use the social survey as a way of systematically collecting identical data from fairly large numbers

of people. Usually the survey will be built around the investigation of a number of significant variables.

The participants will usually all be asked exactly the same questions. Nearly all surveys are based on a sample of

the population that are being investigated. The term 'population' simply means all the people in the group under

investigation. A sample is the selection of a group within that population. Researchers usually try to select a

sample that is representative of the population.

With reference to the Item and other sources, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the

social survey as a quantitative method.


2. Item

The laboratory method is almost never used in sociology for both ethical and practical reasons. Sociologists do,

however, use experimental techniques in broader, if less controlled contexts than the laboratory. The

sociologist's laboratory can be viewed as society itself. Sociologists want to observe how people behave in

'natural' contexts rather than record the behaviour produced in a laboratory.

Using the Item and other sources assess the extent to which the comparative method (the

comparing of societies or of groups with a society) can be considered as the sociological alternative

to the laboratory method?


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Methods (Answers)


General


You must use other sources.

You must have both advantages and disadvantages.

Note that it refers to the qualities of the survey as a quantitative method.

What's in the Item?

Systematically collecting identical data.

Large numbers of people.

Significant variables.

Participants asked the same questions.

Samples usually aim to be representative.

There are a number of important points here. Generally, the information in the Item indicates the

advantages of surveys. However, as with all methods, it's the skill with which people use them that

is important. For example, using large numbers of people makes a sample more likely to be

representative, but not if the sample is poorly selected. So size is not as important as selection.

Elsewhere?

There are a number of points/concepts you should try to use in virtually any question concerning the advantages

and disadvantages of particular methods.

Methods are tools.

There is no such thing as a good or bad method only appropriate or inappropriate use.

Use the major concepts: reliability, validity, generalisation, operationalisation.

Remember, if appropriate, to include practical, ethical and theoretical concerns.

Specifically:

Explain what quantitative means.

Link to 'scientific' approach and 'positivism'.

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Consider: patterns, correlations, probabilities, prediction, planning.

The claim to be reliable - explain.

The claim to representativeness - explain.

Cost.

The skill needed by researchers.

The 'imposition' problem.

Researcher 'pollution'.

The problem of validity - explain.

Limitations on questions - for example, short, simple, unambiguous.

Make it clear in what sort of research this method can be useful and where it is problematic.

Mark scheme:

Give

yourself 2

marks

For explaining the term 'quantitative'.

Give

yourself 2

marks

For briefly linking the survey to the 'scientific' approach, quantification and objectivity, or at least

placing the technique within the positivist framework.

Give

yourself 2

marks

For each advantage provided it is explained. For example: pre-coding enables rapid quantification.

Question consistency in word use and order enables reliability. Large samples promote more

accurate representation.

Give

yourself 2

marks

For each disadvantage provided it is explained. For example: Imposition - question and answer

selection by researcher can create lack of validity. Postal questionnaires, who fills them in? Problems

of 'meaning', do al respondents understand questions in the same way?

Give

yourself 4

marks

For a conclusion that emphasises that the survey is essentially a quantitative technique, that there

are not really any other options in the social sciences, and that it is particularly suited to specific

types of information collection. For example: statistics on unproblematic concepts such as marriage,

divorce, death but not suited to investigating more contested concepts such as religiousness,

integration, suicide where 'meaning' is problematic.


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General Points



The must compare the experiment and the comparative method.

What's in the item?

There are ethical and practical reasons that prevent sociologists using laboratories.

Sociologists use other techniques but these have less control.

Sociologists want to study 'natural' behaviour.

Sociologists regard laboratory behaviour as problematic.

These are all useful points because they indicate at least some of the reasons that sociologists avoid laboratory

based research.

Elsewhere?

Consider the advantages of the laboratory method:

a. Control of variables.

b. Replication.

c. Generalisation.

d. Establish causal relationships.

e. Empirical.

Consider the problems of the laboratory experiment for sociology:

a. Examples of ethical problems?

b. Examples of practical problems?

c. Examples of theoretical problems?

How can the comparative method be compared?

a. Can establish significant variables.

b. Can move beyond description.

c. Can propose causal relationships.

d. Generalization is possible in some cases.

e. Classic examples - Durkheim (suicide), Weber (Calvinism).

Markscheme:

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Give yourself

4 marks For a outline of the advantages of the laboratory method.

Give yourself

4 marks For an indication of why the laboratory is unsuitable for Sociology.

Give yourself

2 marks

For explaining that not all science can use a laboratory (horses for courses) - for example,

Oceanography.

Give yourself

4 marks For explaining how the comparative method adapts the laboratory method.

Give yourself

2 marks For explaining about Durkheim (suicide).

Give yourself

2 marks For explaining about Weber (Calvinism).

Give yourself

4 marks

For a conclusion that argues that the comparative method does possess some of the

advantages of the laboratory method, but ultimately has to sacrifice control for authenticity.


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Science (Questions)

1. Evaluate the ways in which scientific thinking and methods have influenced sociological research.


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Science (Answers)


Introduction

You need to briefly relate scientific thinking to the enlightenment and modernity - the idea of showing something

to be true rather than simply claiming something is true.

Sociology as a discipline is associated with explaining modern society and to a certain extent originally based

upon the ideas of the natural sciences.

Main

a. Origins of Sociology are closely associated with the ideas of natural science.

b. Comte considered Sociology the science of society. Positivists argue that Sociology could and should use the

methods of the natural sciences.

c. The scientific method has been very powerful in terms of understanding the natural world. Key concepts

are:reliability, replication, objectivity, causation and control. This was a strong influence because of its

effectiveness in the natural sciences.

d. The quantitative research tradition in Sociology adapts the traditional scientific techniques and applies them to

social research. This is plain in research methods such as the survey and techniques such as structured

questionnaires.

e. However, Sociologists have also considered that traditional scientific techniques are totally unsuited to the study

of human social behaviour and to that extent scientific thinking and methods have been rejected by many

sociologists who prefer qualitative research methods.

f. People are too different from the subjects of natural scientific research. So many of the advantages of the

scientific method are not applicable to the traditional scientific approach - for example, replication and control.

Conclusion

Generally, the methods of traditional science have either been radically adapted by sociologists so that they can

still be used - the comparative method, structured questionnaires, or totally rejected - interpretive

Sociology.

Scientific research has been important in generating debate in Sociology as to how data can be collected.

As already stated, Sociology emerged as a critique of modern society and as a way of studying such societies.

Consequently, the scientific method was the method that Sociology originally sought to emulate. So one way

another - either in acceptance or rejection - the method of the natural sciences has had a profound affect on

Sociology.

In a wider sense of the term 'science', systematic, methodological data collection and the search for causal

relationships and showing rather than claiming things to be 'true', Sociology is clearly a scientific discipline.


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Secularisation (Questions)

1. "Whether the function of religion in society is the promotion of social harmony or social conflict is, as yet, an

unresolved debate."

Explain and evaluate this statement with reference to sociological theories and studies.


2. "In modern society, religious beliefs and religious behaviour are changing rather than declining."

Assess the arguments and evidence for and against this view.


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Secularisation (Answers)


Religion is found in all societies. Consequently, sociologists have believed that religion must serve some social

purpose. Whether that purpose is to preserve and legitimate existing societies, or to agitate for social

improvements and a change in society, has been the focus of a long-running debate.

Main

Both Marx and Durkheim argued that religion served to maintain the existing ''status quo'' in any given society.

Both argue that religion provides an explanation of why society is arranged the way that it is and thus religion

serves to justify exiting social conditions.

For Durkheim, religion performs the necessary function of providing social cohesion and for him the most

important attribute of religion is what it does. Consequently, Durkheim would also allow nationalism or indeed

Marxism as a religion. So, to an extent, Durkheim allowed that religion itself could change so as to better achieve

its function of justifying existing social relationships - for example, Marxism could replace Christianity as an

ideology that explained and legitimated existing society.

Marx had a different conception of what a religion is. For him, a religion had to be based on the belief in a deity,

and he believed this was an absurd story that hid the truth from people. Religion was 'opium' it dulled pain and

promised relief. However, not all Marxists claim that religion is conservative - for

example, Gramsci and Maduro.

Weber argued that religion could drive social change, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber

argued that there was an affinity between the ideas of Calvinism and the development of capitalism in Western

Europe. Weber was not saying that religion always causes change, but that it could bring about change. This

leads to the most tenable position, which is best described as the ''it depends'' approach.

The ''it depends'' approach considers factors that can affect what impact religion has within a given society at a

particular time - for instance, charismatic leaders, the beliefs and practices, whether there are alternative

avenues to change, etc.

There will be differences in affect between societies and within a society at different periods of time. So religion

can be conservative (the Roman Catholic church in Europe), it can be revolutionary (the Roman Catholic

church in South America) and it can be reactionary (Islamic and Christian fundamentalism).

Conclusion

This is not really an unresolved debate. What is clear is that we don't have to accept that religion either

promotes harmony or conflict. Evidence shows that religion can both promote harmony and encourage social

conflict. We need to pay attention to the particular circumstances in which religion acts in one way or the other.


45


Introduction

Clearly the essay requires a consideration of the secularisation debate. Essentially this argument cannot be

resolved because of the lack of clarity or agreement as to how secularisation can be defined or measured,

consequently it is difficult to assess whether belief is declining.

What can be done is to outline the basis for some of the disagreements. Nevertheless, it is clear to some extent

that religious behaviour has changed, in some societies, during the second part of the last century.

Main

The essay assumes that the term 'modern society' refers to societies that are based upon the concept of

modernity - that is societies governed on principles of rationalism, objectivity and science.

Belief:

The belief that religious belief has declined in modern societies is based on a number of

assumptions...

That modern societies were more religious in the past.

That religion and science are incompatible.

That the process of secularisation is irreversible.

These assumptions are not really tested because it is assumed that they are true.

There are problems in trying to measure secularisation:

There are different types of measurement-individual, institutional and societal.

The same evidence/observation can be used to both prove and disprove secularisation.

Even the concept 'religion' is problematic. Are we interested in what religion does or what people believe?

There is a problem with validity. Are researchers measuring religiosity or something else?

Overall, examining belief is always going to be difficult because it is not an empirical phenomena.

Behaviour:

At least behaviour can be observed and some things seem obvious but we need to be clear that it is difficult

make inferences about belief from behaviour.

Fewer people attend churches in Britain and other European societies. But the USA has high levels of attendance

and even in Britain some religions have witnessed growth in membership - for example, Moslems. However, as

Davie points out people can believe but not belong and they could also belong but not believe.

Worldwide there has been a growth in fundamentalism, which can be seen as a reaction against modernity, and

a return to basic beliefs and an acceptance that Holy books really are the word of God. More generally many

people are sceptical about the values of science.

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Conclusion

The only conclusion that this is a debate that cannot be resolved until there is a basic agreement as to what the

term 'secularisation' means and agreement as to how it can be measured.

At present, all we can say is that religion seems far more resilient than was at first thought by sociologists such

as Weber and Marx and that several sociologists argue that religion is ever-present in human society.


47

The Role of Religion (Questions)

1. "Whether the function of religion in society is the promotion of social harmony or social conflict is, as yet, an

unresolved debate."

Explain and evaluate this statement with reference to sociological theories and studies.


2. "In modern society, religious beliefs and religious behaviour are changing rather than declining."

Assess the arguments and evidence for and against this view.


48

The Role of Religion (Answers)


Introduction

Religion is found in all societies. Consequently, sociologists have believed that religion must serve some social

purpose. Whether that purpose is to preserve and legitimate existing societies, or to agitate for social

improvements and a change in society, has been the focus of a long-running debate.

Main

Both Marx and Durkheim argued that religion served to maintain the existing 'status quo' in any given society.

Both argue that religion provides an explanation of why society is arranged the way that it is and thus religion

serves to justify exiting social conditions.

For Durkheim, religion performs the necessary function of providing social cohesion and for him the most

important attribute of religion is what it does. Consequently, Durkheim would also allow nationalism or indeed

Marxism as a religion. So, to an extent, Durkheim allowed that religion itself could change so as to better achieve

its function of justifying existing social relationships - for example, Marxism could replace Christianity as an

ideology that explained and legitimated existing society.

Marx had a different conception of what a religion is. For him, a religion had to be based on the belief in a deity,

and he believed this was an absurd story that hid the truth from people. Religion was 'opium' it dulled pain and

promised relief. However, not all Marxists claim that religion is conservative - for

example, Gramsci and Maduro.

Weber argued that religion could drive social change, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber

argued that there was an affinity between the ideas of Calvinism and the development of capitalism in Western

Europe. Weber was not saying that religion always causes change, but that it could bring about change. This

leads to the most tenable position, which is best described as the 'it depends' approach.

The 'it depends' approach considers factors that can affect what impact religion has within a given society at a

particular time - for instance, charismatic leaders, the beliefs and practices, whether there are alternative

avenues to change, etc.

There will be differences in affect between societies and within a society at different periods of time. So religion

can be conservative (the Roman Catholic church in Europe), it can be revolutionary (the Roman Catholic

church in South America) and it can be reactionary (Islamic and Christian fundamentalism).

Conclusion

This is not really an unresolved debate. What is clear is that we don't have to accept that religion either

promotes harmony or conflict. Evidence shows that religion can both promote harmony and encourage social

conflict. We need to pay attention to the particular circumstances in which religion acts in one way or the other.


49


Introduction

Clearly the essay requires a consideration of the secularisation debate. Essentially this argument cannot be

resolved because of the lack of clarity or agreement as to how secularisation can be defined or measured,

consequently it is difficult to assess whether belief is declining.

What can be done is to outline the basis for some of the disagreements. Nevertheless, it is clear to some extent

that religious behaviour has changed, in some societies, during the second part of the last century.

Main

The essay assumes that the term 'modern society' refers to societies that are based upon the concept of

modernity - that is societies governed on principles of rationalism, objectivity and science.

Belief:

The belief that religious belief has declined in modern societies is based on a number of

assumptions...

That modern societies were more religious in the past.

That religion and science are incompatible.

That the process of secularisation is irreversible.

These assumptions are not really tested because it is assumed that they are true.

There are problems in trying to measure secularisation:

There are different types of measurement-individual, institutional and societal.

The same evidence/observation can be used to both prove and disprove secularisation.

Even the concept 'religion' is problematic. Are we interested in what religion does or what people believe?

There is a problem with validity. Are researchers measuring religiosity or something else?

Overall, examining belief is always going to be difficult because it is not an empirical phenomena.

Behaviour:

At least behaviour can be observed and some things seem obvious but we need to be clear that it is difficult

make inferences about belief from behaviour.

Fewer people attend churches in Britain and other European societies. But the USA has high levels of attendance

and even in Britain some religions have witnessed growth in membership - for example, Moslems. However, as

Davie points out people can believe but not belong and they could also belong but not believe.

Worldwide there has been a growth in fundamentalism, which can be seen as a reaction against modernity, and

a return to basic beliefs and an acceptance that Holy books really are the word of God. More generally many

people are sceptical about the values of science.

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Conclusion

The only conclusion that this is a debate that cannot be resolved until there is a basic agreement as to what the

term 'secularisation' means and agreement as to how it can be measured.

At present, all we can say is that religion seems far more resilient than was at first thought by sociologists such

as Weber and Marx and that several sociologists argue that religion is ever-present in human society.


51

Theoretical Standpoints (Questions)

1. Item

It hardly needs emphasising how much the success of the participant observer's approach depends on his or her

skill and personality.

If these command the respect and friendship of those being observed, and if they are combined with an ability to

interpret and describe what is seen, the method enables the presentation of a picture of social reality at once

more vivid, complete and authentic than is possible with other methods. But any defects in his or her approach

and ability can easily arouse suspicion, and so undermine the study.

Participant observation is a highly individual technique.

With reference to the Item and other sources evaluate the claim that in participant observation

studies, what is gained in terms of validity is lost in reliability.


52

Theoretical Standpoints (Answers)


General Points



You must explain the terms validity and reliability.


What's in the item?

The emphasis on skill and personality.

The possibility of a more complete and authentic picture.

A highly individual technique.

The item provides some reasons for thinking that participant observation will produce valid

research. However, there are also suggestions as to why reliability is unlikely - for example, that

the technique is highly individual.

Elsewhere?

a. What makes reliability possible-clear instructions and agreed technique?

b. Why is reliability not possible in participant observation - individualistic technique no agreed approach?

c. Participant observation allows for empathy/subjective understanding.

d. Reliability demands objectivity.

e. Taking the role of the other.

f. No clear method guide.

g. In participant observation, personality of researcher is important.

h. A gain in validity is far more important than reliability.

Mark scheme:

Give yourself 2 marks For a definitions of validity.

Give yourself 2 marks For a definition of reliability.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of skill.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of personality.

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of authenticity.

53

Give yourself 2 marks For explaining the importance of individuality.

Give yourself 4 marks For explaining why each of the above attributes hinder reliability.

Give yourself 4 marks For explaining why the same attributes can improve validity

Give yourself 4 marks for an evaluation that:

Basically agrees with the claim in the question and that explains why this is unavoidable because of the nature of

PO which needs to be flexible and individualistic and that this works against reliability which it needs a consistent

approach to a research problem

Finally an extra 2 marks if you explain why validity is more important than reliability because validity is about

meaning while reliability is only about consistent measurement.


54

Wealth (Questions)

1."Some have argued that the major reasons for the continuation of poverty are the behaviour and attitudes of

the poor."

Critically discuss the sociological arguments and evidence in support of this view.


55

Wealth (Answers)


Answer on Behaviour

Introduction

Consider which definition of poverty seems to be being used here.

The 'some' tend to be on the 'new right'.

This is a behavioural approach, which is opposed by structural approaches.

So you need to consider whether some behaviours lead to poverty and whether some behaviours are a response

to poverty.

Then you need to consider alternative reasons for the persistence of poverty.

Main

Historical distinction between 'deserving' and 'underserving' poor.

Rowntree's distinction between primary and secondary poverty. There is then a historical precedent for current

concern with the behaviour of the poor.

Lewis: culture of poverty.

Joseph: cycle of poverty.

Murray: 'new rabble'.

Marsland: poor misled by over generous welfare state.

However, look at who the poor are: children, the elderly, single parents, those in low wage employment. The

behaviour and attitudes approach can only apply to those who can do something about their situation.

Consider economic restructuring and regional patterns of unemployment - some jobs have disappeared, some

areas - for example, Cornwall have very few job opportunities.

The behaviour of the government - the switch from progressive direct taxation to regressive indirect taxation has

widened gap between rich and poor.

The behaviour of the rich?

Are the attitudes of the poor different? Some researchers would say no, but rather that the poor have no

opportunity to make choices the rest of us take for granted.

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Conclusion

Don't sit on the fence with this one. The evidence seems fairly clear. Of course some people do take advantage

of benefits and don't want to work. But evidence consistently shows that people want to work and that people

don't like being poor and unemployed.

Added to this is the straightforward evidence that many of those in poverty are there as a result of consequence,

not behaviour - the young, the old, the disabled, those who live in the 'wrong' areas. The argument about

behaviour is a moral rather than a sociological argument.


57

Welfare (Questions)


Introduction

Consider which definition of poverty seems to be being used here.

The 'some' tend to be on the 'new right'.

This is a behavioural approach, which is opposed by structural approaches.

So you need to consider whether some behaviours lead to poverty and whether some behaviours are a response

to poverty.

Then you need to consider alternative reasons for the persistence of poverty.

Main

Historical distinction between 'deserving' and 'underserving' poor.

Rowntree's distinction between primary and secondary poverty. There is then a historical precedent for current

concern with the behaviour of the poor.

Lewis: culture of poverty.

Joseph: cycle of poverty.

Murray: 'new rabble'.

Marsland: poor misled by over generous welfare state.

However, look at who the poor are: children, the elderly, single parents, those in low wage employment. The

behaviour and attitudes approach can only apply to those who can do something about their situation.

Consider economic restructuring and regional patterns of unemployment - some jobs have disappeared, some

areas - for example, Cornwall have very few job opportunities.

The behaviour of the government - the switch from progressive direct taxation to regressive indirect taxation has

widened gap between rich and poor.

The behaviour of the rich?

Are the attitudes of the poor different? Some researchers would say no, but rather that the poor have no

opportunity to make choices the rest of us take for granted.

58

Conclusion

Don't sit on the fence with this one. The evidence seems fairly clear. Of course some people do take advantage

of benefits and don't want to work. But evidence consistently shows that people want to work and that people

don't like being poor and unemployed.

Added to this is the straightforward evidence that many of those in poverty are there as a result of consequence,

not behaviour - the young, the old, the disabled, those who live in the 'wrong' areas. The argument about

behaviour is a moral rather than a sociological argument.


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